BODY WAVES 29

Cross-references usually looks just like it did before the wave, and, is in
Electrical Properties of Rocks the same location as before the wave. When stress builds
Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation up in the Earth to such a level that rapid slip occurs on
Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques a fracture (i.e., an earthquake takes place) or when an
Geomagnetic Field, Theory explosion or mechanical device is used to initiate
Geophysical Well Logging a seismic disturbance artificially, a complex field of seis-
Magnetic Anomalies, Interpretation
Magnetic Methods, Principles mic waves is generated. This wave field propagates much
Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals like the waves that travel away from the point at which
Remanent Magnetism a stone is thrown into a pond. Waves that travel through
Seismic Properties of Rocks the interior of the Earth are called body waves. Body waves
Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation travel through the interior of the Earth. They follow ray
paths bent by the varying density and modulus (stiffness)
of the Earth’s interior. The density and modulus, in turn,
vary according to temperature, composition, and phase.
BODY WAVES These waves are usually observed at higher frequency.

Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh

Department of Nature and Applied Sciences, Al-Aflaj
Community College, AL-Kharj University, Al-Aflaj,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Synonyms
Energy waves generated by an earthquake or an artificial
explosion
Definition
Waves consist of a disturbance in materials (media) that
carries energy and propagates. However, the material that
the wave propagates in generally does not move with the
wave. The movement of the material is generally confined
to small motions, called particle motion, of the material as
the wave passes. After the wave has passed, the material
Types of body waves
There are two main kinds of body waves: P-waves and
S-waves, so-named because they are the primary and sec-
ondary waves detected by a seismograph (Figure 1). The
P-wave is always the first wave to arrive at a seismometer,
closely followed by its reflection from the surface and
S-waves arrive next. P-waves, or compressional waves,
are longitudinal waves (wave motion in the direction the
wave is traveling). S-waves are transverse waves or shear
waves, involving a back-and-forth shearing motion at
right angles to the direction the wave is traveling
(Figure 2). Body waves are reflected and transmitted at
interfaces where the seismic velocity and/or density
changes, obeying Snell’s Law. At such an interface, or dis-
continuity, some of the energy of an incident body wave
is reflected as a P-wave, some as an S-wave, some is

0.2 Horizontal
(East/West)

−0.2
S-wave Horizontal
Velocity (mm/s)

0.2
(North/South)

−0.2

P-wave
0.2 Vertical

−0.2 10 s

Body Waves, Figure 1 P- and S-wave recorded in a three-component seismograph. P- and S-waves are shown.
30 BODY WAVES

P-wave
Compressions
Undisturbed medium

Dilatations

S-wave

Double ampllitude
Wavelength

Body Waves, Figure 2 P- and S-waves motion. The arrow shows the direction that the wave is moving.

transmitted as a P-wave and some as an S-wave. The nota- PKIKP

tion for the various seismic ray paths within the Earth are
as follows: PKiKP PKP
When an earthquake occurs, seismic waves are emitted
from the focus (hypocenter); there are several paths that it PcP
can take through the Earth before emerging again at the
surface. These paths (refer to Figure 3) are symbolized
by the letters: p = P-wave arrival from a path that traveled
upward from the focus (hypocenter); pP = P-wave arrival
from a path that traveled upward from the focus, reflected Focus
off the surface of the Earth, then arrived back at the sur-
face; P = P-wave arrival from a path that traveled down-
PPP
ward from the focus (hypocenter); PP = P-wave reflected
off the surface once; PPP = P-wave reflected off the sur-
face twice; c = a reflection off the outside of the outer sur-
pP
face of the outer core – note that this is the principle cause
of multiple arrivals of P- and S-waves right at the epicen-
PKKP
ter; K = a travel path (refraction) through the outer core; P
KK = one reflection on the inside outer surface of the outer PP
core; KKK = two reflections off the inside outer surface of
the outer core; i = a reflection off the outside of the outer Body Waves, Figure 3 P- and S-wave paths in the Earth‘s
surface of the inner core; I = a travel path (refraction) interior.
through the inner core. These letters can be used to indi-
cate the path of a seismic wave through the Earth
(Figure 3). For example PKiKP indicates that the wave mantle to arrive at the surface. SKiKS is the same path, but
traveled downward from the focus, refracted through the an S-wave. Because liquids have no resistance to shear
outer core, reflected off the surface of the inner core, trav- and cannot sustain a shear wave, S-waves cannot travel
eled through the outer core, and then traveled through the through liquid material. The Earth’s outer core is believed
 BODY WAVES
to be liquid because S-waves disappear at the mantle–core
boundary, while P-waves do not.
Wave propagation
Seismic body waves propagate through the Earth’s inte-
rior. Because of the elastic properties of the Earth’s mate-
rials (rocks) and the presence of the Earth’s surface, four
main types of seismic waves propagate within the Earth.
Compressional (P) and Shear (S) waves propagate through
the Earth’s interior.
Waves on a seismogram
If we look at a seismogram, we expect to see the first wave
to arrive to be a P-wave (the fastest), then the S-wave, and
finally, the Love and Rayleigh (the slowest) waves. As
you might expect, the difference in wave speed has
a profound influence on the nature of seismograms. Since
the travel time of a wave is equal to the distance the wave
has traveled divided by the average speed the wave moved
during the transit, we expect that the fastest waves arrive at
a seismometer first. The fact that the waves travel at
speeds that depend on the material properties (elastic mod-
uli and density) allows us to use seismic-wave observa-
tions to investigate the interior structure of the planet.
We can look at the travel times, or the travel times and
the amplitudes of waves to infer the existence of features
within the planet, and this is an active area of seismologi-
cal research. To understand how we “see” into Earth using
vibrations, we must study how waves interact with the
rocks that make up Earth. Several types of interaction
between waves and the subsurface geology (i.e., the rocks)
are commonly observable on seismograms. We will exam-
ine the two simplest types of interaction refraction and
reflection.
Refraction
As a wave travels through Earth, the path it takes depends
on the velocity. Perhaps you recall from high school
a principle called Snell’s law, which is the mathematical
expression that allows us to determine the path a wave
takes as it is transmitted from one rock layer into another.
Snell’s law describes the relationship between the angles
and the velocities of the waves. Snell’s law equates the
ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the
sines of incident (y1) and refracted (y2) angles, as shown
in the following equation:
sin y1 sin y2
¼ (1)
VL1 VL2
where VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1
and VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
Note that in Figure 4, there is a reflected longitudinal
wave (VL10 ) shown. This wave is reflected at the same
angle as the incident wave because the two waves are trav-
eling in the same material, and hence have the same veloc-
ities. This reflected wave is unimportant in our
explanation of Snell’s law, but it should be remembered
31
that some of the wave energy is reflected at the interface.
When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to
a faster material, there is an incident angle that makes
the angle of refraction for the wave 90" . This is known
as the first critical angle. The change in direction depends
on the ratio of the wave velocities of the two different
rocks. When waves reach a boundary between different
rock types, part of the energy is transmitted across the
boundary. The actual interaction between a seismic wave
and a contrast in rock properties is more complicated
because an incident P-wave generates transmitted and
reflected P- and S-waves and also an incident S-wave gen-
erates transmitted and reflected P- and S-waves, so five
waves are involved. The transmitted wave travels in
a different direction, which depends on the ratio of veloc-
ities of the two rock types (Figures 5 and 6). Part of the
energy is also reflected backwards into the region with
rock type 1, but we have not shown that on these figures.
Refraction has an important effect on waves that travel
through Earth. In general, the seismic velocity in Earth
increases with depth (there are some important exceptions
to this trend) and refraction of waves causes the path
followed by body waves to curve upward (Figure 7).
VL1 VL1′
θ1
θ1
θ2 VL2
Body Waves, Figure 4 Reflected (VL10 ) and refracted (VL2 )
longitudinal waves.
Rock
Type 1
Rock
Type 2
Body Waves, Figure 5 Velocity in rock type 2 is greater than
velocity in rock type 1.
32 BODY WAVES

Reflected
Rock Rock wave
Type 1 Type 1

Rock Rock
Type 2 Type 2

Body Waves, Figure 6 Velocity in rock type 2 is less than Body Waves, Figure 8 When a wave encounters a change in
velocity in rock type 1. material properties (seismic velocities and or density), its energy
is split into reflected and refracted waves.

Seismometer Seismometer
on t
efr
av cula
r
W endi t3
Perp
e
angl
Earthquake Earthquake t2
Ray
Constant-Velocity Earth path t1
Sphere
t0
Compressional
Body Waves, Figure 7 The overall increase in seismic-wave Source (P) motion
speed with depth into Earth produces an upward curvature to
rays that pass through the mantle. A notable exception is
caused by the decrease in velocity from the mantle to the core.
This speed decrease bends waves backwards and creates
a “P-wave shadow zone” between about 100" and 140" distance
(1" = 111.19 km).
Shear (S)
motion
Reflection
The second wave interaction with variations in rock type
Body Waves, Figure 9 Wave fronts and ray paths in seismic-
is reflection. I am sure you are familiar with reflected wave propagation.
sound waves: we call them echoes. And your reflection
in a mirror or pool of water is composed of reflected light
waves. In seismology, reflections are used to prospect for P-wave generates transmitted and reflected P- and
petroleum and investigate Earth’s internal structure. In S-waves and so five waves are involved. Likewise, when
some instances, reflections from the boundary between an S-wave interacts with a boundary in rock properties,
the mantle and crust may induce strong shaking that it too generates reflected and refracted P- and S-waves.
causes damage about 100 km from an earthquake (we call Because major boundaries between different rock types
that boundary the “Moho” in honor of Mohorovicic, the within the Earth are normally approximately parallel to
scientist who discovered it). A seismic reflection occurs the Earth’s surface, S-wave particle motion is commonly
when a wave impinges on a change in rock type (which in the SV (perpendicular to the ray path and vertical) and
usually is accompanied by a change in seismic-wave SH (perpendicular to the ray path and horizontal) direc-
speed). A part of the energy carried by the incident wave tions. P-waves travel faster than S-waves, so there will
is transmitted through the material (that is the refracted be separate wave front representations for the P- and
wave described above), and a part is reflected back into S-waves (Figure 9). If the physical properties of the mate-
the medium that contained the incident wave (Figure 8). rial through which the waves are propagating are constant,
The amplitude of the reflection depends strongly on the the wave fronts will be circular (or spherical in three
angle that the incident wave makes with the boundary dimensions). If the physical properties vary in the model,
and the contrast in material properties across the boundary. the wave fronts will be more complex shapes. In the trans-
For some angles, all the energy can be returned into verse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle
the medium containing the incident wave. An incident or transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves
 BODY WAVES
require an acoustically solid material for effective propa-
gation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in
materials such as liquids or gases. Shear waves are rela-
tively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact,
shear waves are usually generated in materials using some
of the energy from longitudinal waves.
Velocity
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic
solid materials are wavelength, frequency, and velocity.
The wavelength (l) is directly proportional to the velocity
of the wave (C) and inversely proportional to the fre-
quency ( f ) of the wave. The phase velocity of a seismic
wave can be written as:
C ¼ o=k; (2)
where o ¼ 2pf is the angular frequency and k ¼ l=2p is
wave number.
Velocity of P- and S-waves
Seismic waves travel fast, of the order of kilometers per
second (km/s). The precise speed that a seismic wave
travels depends on several factors, the most important of
which is the composition of the rock. We are fortunate that
the speed depends on the rock type because it allows us to
use observations recorded on seismograms to infer the
composition or a range of compositions of the planet.
But the process is not always simple, because sometimes
different rock types have the same seismic-wave velocity,
and other factors also affect the speed, particularly
temperature and pressure. Temperature tends to lower
the speed of seismic waves and pressure tends to
increase the speed. Pressure increases with depth in Earth
because the weight of the rocks above increases with
increasing depth. Usually, the effect of pressure is larger
and in regions of uniform composition, the velocity gener-
ally increases with depth, despite the fact that the increase
of temperature with depth works to lower the wave veloc-
ity. When the different seismic-wave types are described
below, I will quote ranges of speed to indicate the range
of values we observe in common terrestrial rocks. But
you should keep in mind that the specific speed through-
out Earth will depend on composition, temperature, and
pressure.
P-waves
P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a complete record
of ground shaking because they travel the fastest (their
name derives from this fact –P is an abbreviation for pri-
mary, first wave to arrive). They typically travel at speeds
between #1 and #14 km/s. The slower values corre-
sponds to a P-wave traveling in water, the higher number
represents the P-wave speed near the base of Earth’s man-
tle. The velocity of a wave depends on the elastic proper-
ties and density of a material. If we let k represent the bulk
modulus of a material, m the shear modulus, and r the
33
density, then the P-wave velocity, which we represent by
CP, is defined by:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l þ 2m
CP ¼ (3)
r
A modulus is a measure of how easy or difficult it is to
deform a material. For example, the bulk modulus is
a measure of how a material changes volume when pres-
sure is applied and is a characteristic of a material. For
example, foam rubber has a lower bulk modulus than
steel. P-waves are sound waves, it is just that in seismol-
ogy we are interested in frequencies that are lower than
humans’ range of hearing (the speed of sound in air is
about 0.3 km/s). The vibration caused by P-waves is
a volume change, alternating from compression to expan-
sion in the direction that the wave is traveling. P-waves
travel through all types of media – solid, liquid, or gas.
S-waves
Secondary, or S-waves, travel slower than P-waves
and are also called “shear” waves because they do not
change the volume of the material through which they
propagate – they shear it. S-waves are transverse waves
because they vibrate the ground in a direction “trans-
verse,” or perpendicular, to the direction that the wave is
traveling.
The S-wave speed, call it CS, depends on the shear
modulus and the density
rffiffiffi
m
CS ¼ (4)
r
Even though they are slower than P-waves, the S-waves
move quickly. Typical S-wave propagation speeds are of
the order of 1–8 km/s. The lower value corresponds to
the wave speed in loose, unconsolidated sediment, the
higher value is near the base of Earth’s mantle. An impor-
tant distinguishing characteristic of an S-wave is its inabil-
ity to propagate through a fluid or a gas because fluids and
gases cannot transmit a shear stress and S-waves are
waves that shear the material. The velocity of seismic
waves depends on the elastic properties and density of
a material in which the wave is traveling. P-waves are
sound waves, it is just that in seismology we are interested
in frequencies that are lower than humans’ range of hear-
ing (the speed of sound in air is about 0.3 km/s). The vibra-
tion caused by P-waves is a volume change, alternating
from compression to expansion in the direction that the
wave is traveling. In general, earthquakes generate larger
shear waves than compressional waves and much of the
damage close to an earthquake is the result of strong shak-
ing caused by shear waves.
Attenuation
Near the source of a strong disturbance, such as a large
explosion or earthquake, the wave-generated deformation
34 BODY WAVES
can be large enough to cause permanent deformation,
which will be visible as cracks, fault offsets, and displace-
ments of the ground after the disturbance has passed.
A source of energy creates the initial disturbance and the
resulting waves propagate (travel) out from the distur-
bance. Because there is finite energy in a confined or
short-duration disturbance, the waves generated by such
a source will spread out during propagation and become
smaller (attenuate) with distance away from the source
or with time after the initial source, and thus, will eventu-
ally die out (Figure 10). Knowledge of attenuation can be
very useful in seismic data processing, as its removal
increases resolution.
Attenuation often serves as a measurement tool that
leads to the formation of theories to explain physical or
chemical phenomenon that decreases the body wave’s
intensity. The amplitude change of a decaying plane wave
can be expressed as:
A ¼ A0 e%az (5)
In this expression A0 is the unattenuated amplitude of
the propagating wave at some location. The amplitude A
is the reduced amplitude after the wave has traveled
a distance z from the source. The quantity a is the attenu-
ation coefficient of the wave traveling in the z-direction.
The more common unit of the attenuation value is Deci-
bels. Attenuation is generally proportional to the square
of the frequency. Quoted values of attenuation are often
given for a single frequency, or an attenuation value aver-
aged over many frequencies may be given. The quoted
values of attenuation only give a rough indication of the
attenuation and should not be automatically trusted. Gen-
erally, a reliable value of attenuation can only be obtained
by determining the attenuation experimentally for the par-
ticular material being used.
Summary: results of regional and global studies
The study of seismic body waves permits us to derive
important knowledge about the internal constitution of
the Earth. The problems related to propagation of elastic
Attenuation of frequencies
1
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 techniques of analysis (Hancock and Skinner, 2000).
0 50 100 150 200
Frequency
Body Waves, Figure 10 Amplitude spectrum in red is for signal
after attenuation.
seismic body waves has been discussed in a number
of books and in numerous papers (e.g., Bromwich,
1898; Sezawa, 1927; Haskell, 1953; Ewing et al., 1957;
Brekhovskikh, 1960; Bullen, 1963; Bath, 1968;
Achenbach, 1975 and others). Attenuations of seismic
waves have been investigated by many authors (e.g.,
McDonald et al., 1958; Knopoff and Macdonald, 1958;
Kolsky, 1963; White, 1965; Kuster and Toksoz, 1974;
Shoenberger and Levin, 1974; Kennett, 1983; Hong and
Kennett, 2003 and others). The asymptotic theory of
body-wave propagation in anisotropic media is also
well developed (e.g., Crampin, 1984; Thomsen, 1986;
Tsvankin, 1997; Cerveny, 2001; Chapman, 2004).
The effect of initial stresses present in the medium is not
considered in the above studies. Recently, Dey and Dutta
(1998) have been studying the problem of propagation
and attenuation of seismic waves, taking the effect of ini-
tial stresses present in the medium into account. Biot incre-
mental deformation theory has been used (Biot, 1965) in
their study. Selim and Ahmed (2006) have studied the
velocities of propagation, damping, and attenuations of
seismic body waves in compressible and dissipative
medium under the effect of both initial and couple stresses.
Body-wave modeling
Seismological methods for determining Earth structure are
often classified as being either active or passive in nature.
Passive methods involve waiting for an earthquake to
occur and provide the seismic source for recording. In
contrast, controlled-source seismology refers to active
methods where the experimenter provides the source by
an explosion or a mechanical device such as a hammer,
a weight that is dropped, or a vibrator. Active methods
can, in turn, be divided into two basic classifications.
The first is seismic reflection profiling, which is a clearly
defined approach in which the goal is to produce an image
of the subsurface in which structures can be seen directly,
in the way that an X-ray image reveals features inside an
object. Other active seismic methods infer seismic veloci-
ties and the presence of discontinuities in velocity and
structure (such as faults) using a variety of approaches that
analyze the arrival times and sometimes the shape of seis-
mic waves traveling along different paths through the
Earth. As a consequence of advances in seismic instru-
mentation and national programs increasing the number
of instruments available, there have been many recent
developments in these techniques that do not directly
image the Earth. A convenient aspect of the theoretical
basis for virtually all active-source techniques is that they
are largely independent of scale. Thus, detailed studies to
address environmental problems and regional studies to
determine deep Earth structure employ the same basic
Recently, several efforts have been made to complete our
knowledge of the structure of the Earth’s upper mantle
by detailed observation of seismic body waves, especially
by their amplitude–distance curves.
 BODY WAVES
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Cross-references
Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling
Earth’s Structure, Global
Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation
Earthquakes, Energy
Earthquakes, Source Theory
Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals
Seismic Phase Names: IASPEI Standard
Seismic Signals in Well Observations: Pre, Co, Post
Seismic Tomography
Seismic Velocity-Density Relationships
Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media: Numerical Modeling
Approaches
Seismic Waves, Scattering
Seismic, Ray Theory
Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation
Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography
Seismology, Global Earthquake Model
Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-Source Seismic Data