World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering

Vol:1, No:3, 2007

Comparison of the DC/DC-Converters for Fuel

Cell Applications
Oleksandr Krykunov

Abstract—The source voltage of high-power fuel cell shows

strong load dependence at comparatively low voltage levels. In order 30...60V DC +375V DC
to provide the voltage of 750V on the DC-link for feeding electrical +
energy into the mains via a three phase inverter a step-up converter FC
with a large step-up ratio is required. The output voltage of this Grid
DC/DC-converter must be stabile during variations of the load
-
current and the voltage of the fuel cell. This paper presents the
methods and results of the calculation of the efficiency and the
expense for the realization for the circuits of the DC/DC-converter
that meet these requirements.
International Science Index, Energy and Power Engineering Vol:1, No:3, 2007 waset.org/Publication/11554

Keywords—DC/DC-converter, calculation, efficiency, fuel cell. -375V DC

Fig. 2 The structure of the electrical fuel cell system for the
DC/DC-converter without galvanic isolation.
I. INTRODUCTION
The result is a total loss for two DC/DC-converters.
T HIS paper presents the methods and results of the
comparison of circuits of the DC/DC-converter for the
output power of 5 kW and the output voltage of 750V. In the
III MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CIRCUITS OF DC/DC-
CONVERTERS FOR THE FUEL CELL SYSTEM
Section II the used structures of the 5kW-fuel cell systems are
A. Choice of the investigated circuits
shown. Section III provides the mathematical analysis of the
chosen circuits of the DC/DC-converter, design of these The DC/DC-converter for fuel cell applications must be fit
into the requirements:
circuits. In Section IV the methods and results of comparison
of the DC/DC-converters are presented. • high step-up conversion ratio
• high stability of the output voltage during the
II. STRUCTURES OF THE ELECTRICAL FUEL CELL SYSTEM variations of the output current and the input voltage
In [1] the typical structures of the electrical fuel cell • high efficiency
system are presented. For the reasons of the controllability, • low cost
reliability and the low cost the structure, which is shown in The first requirement excludes all circuits without a
Fig.1 is chosen. The DC/DC-converter with galvanic isolation transformer. High step-up conversion ratio is in these circuits
provides the isolation of the fuel cell potential from the grid. provided only at extreme high duty cycles, which are not
30...60V DC 750V DC Grid acceptable [3]. The second requirement excludes all circuits
for which a controller cannot be designed for a stable output
voltage [4]. A transferred power of 5kW is another key value
FC for choosing the circuits for the investigation. In some circuits
the design of the transformer for this power results in a large
Fig. 1 The structure of the electrical fuel cell system for the DC/DC- size of the transformer, another circuits have problems with
converter with galvanic isolation. the saturation of the transformer [5]. These circuits will not be
In the case of the DC/DC-converter without galvanic investigated. The following factors can result in high
isolation the structure, that is shown in Fig. 2, should be used. efficiency and low cost of the converter [6]:
The configuration shown in the Fig. 2 is in [2] described. The • low current or voltage stresses of the semiconductors
power that flows through each DC/DC-converter is a half of
• utilization of the of the B-H-characteristic of the
the input power. For DC/DC-converter without galvanic
transformer in all quadrants
isolation, the losses in the one of the DC/DC-converters must
be calculated for the output power of 2.5kW and must be • low input current ripple
doubled. • low number of components
Manuscript received April 10, 2007. The author thanks Prof. Dr.-Ing. A. • simple design of the transformer
Lindemann from the for the Otto-von-Guericke-University for help in the All the circuits, that combine some of these benefits, will be
work.
O. Krykunov is with the Otto-von-Guericke-University, Magdeburg MD
investigated and are shown in the Fig.3. The circuits were
39106, Germany (corresponding author to provide phone: 004917620979117; investigated for the ideal transformer. The leakage
e-mail: oleksandr.krykunov@e-technik.uni-magdeburg.de). inductances of the transformer were not considered.

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering
Vol:1, No:3, 2007

Boost Extended ii D1 iD1 Lo

converter
ii
L1 L2 D i
1 D1
forward iD2
with tapped converter (2) L1 L2
D2
Co VCo
iT1 vD1
inductor (1) Vi T1 C2 Vo Vi Vo
vT1 T1
D3 iD3 C c VCc
iT1
Current-fed ii L3 Voltage-fed ii L3
T2 iD1 iD1
full-bridge T1 full-bridge VT1
vD1 D1 D2 T1 vD1 D1 D2
converter (3) iT1 converter (5) iT1
T2
Vi C1 Vo Vi C1 Vo
iT3 L1 L2 L1 L2 C2
iT3
T4
T3 vT3
D3 D4 T3 T4 D3 D4

Current-fed Asymmet-rical ii

push-pull bridge double T1 vT1

D5 vD1
iT1 iD1 L3
converter (4) forward
iD2
iD1 converter (6) Vi C1 D1 D2 vD2 C2 Vo
vD1 D1 D2 D6
T2 L1 L2
International Science Index, Energy and Power Engineering Vol:1, No:3, 2007 waset.org/Publication/11554

ii L3 L1/2 L2
iT1 L1/2 C1 Vo
Vi T1 T2 iT2
vT1 D3 D4 T3
D7 D3
iT3

D4 T4 L1 L2

Fig. 3 Investigated step-up DC/DC-converter circuits

The parameter of each circuit (turns ratio of the transformer, With T- switching period, and for the turns ratio of the tapped
duty cycle) has a great influence on the efficiency of each inductor ü = W2 / W1 = 4 can be calculated [6]:
circuit. The following values change with the variation of the V o / Vi − 1 12,5 − 1
duty cycle: D= = ≈ 0,73 (2)
Vo / Vi + W 2 / W1 12,5 + 4
• rms and average values of the switch and diode
currents It was shown in [7] that the losses in the clamping-circuit are at
this duty cycle minimum. The simulated waveforms of the
• blocking voltage of the switches and diodes boost converter with tapped inductor for these parameters are
• size of the transformer shown in the Fig. 4. The rms values of the switch current,
Hence the optimal duty cycle for each circuit exists, at which diode current and the input current can be calculated regarding
the efficiency of the circuit is maximum. For this duty cycle to the functions iT 1 (t ), i D1 (t ) in [6]:
the above-named values must be calculated. For some circuits
2 2
the estimation of this duty cycle is quite complex. This paper 3 Vi D 3T 2 3Vi D TI 1,min
I T 1, RMS = + + 3DI1,min 2 (3)
provides some criteria for the choosing of the optimal duty 3 L12 L1
cycle. With the help of these criteria the duty cycle for each
circuit will be determined.
I D1, RMS =
⎛ 2
1 ⎜ 1 I 2, max L1(1 + ü )
2
−
( 3⎞
L1I 2, max (1 + ü ) 2 + (1 − D)T (Vi − Vo ) ⎟ )
⎜ ⎟
A. Boost converter wit tapped inductor T ⎜3 Vo − Vi 3L12 (Vo − Vi )(1 + ü ) 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The boost converter with tapped inductor provides no galvanic (4)
isolation an hence should be connected to the fuel cell as
shown in the Fig. 2. Each of the boost converter must provide
I i, RMS =
⎛ 2
1 ⎜ 1 I 2, max L1 (1 + ü )
2
−
(
L1I 2, max (1 + ü ) 2 + (1 − D)T (Vi − Vo )
⎞
⎟
+ B1 ⎟
)
3

⎜
3L1 (Vo − Vi )(1 + ü )
a maximum step-up ratio of 12,5 for variation of the input T ⎜3 Vo − Vi 2 2
⎟
voltage Vi = 30…60V. The maximum input current occurs at ⎝ ⎠
the minimum input voltage and hence the efficiency of the (5)
converter is minimum at the minimum input voltage. This with
efficiency will be calculated. The maximum duty cycle is DT
determined as (Fig.4): B1 = (Vi 2 D 2T 2 + 3Vi DTI1, min L1 + 3I1, min 2 L12 )
3L12
t −t
D= 1 o (1) I1, min = iT1 (t0 ) - minimum switch current,
T

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering
Vol:1, No:3, 2007

I 2, max = iD1 (t1) - maximum diode current. Vi

Vo = VCo + VCc = Vi üD + (12)
The average value of the input current and the diode current 1− D
can be calculated regarding to the functions iT 1 (t ), iD1 (t ) in The blocking voltages of the diodes D1, D2, D3 and the
[6]: blocking voltage of the switch can be calculated as in [7]:
⎛ V ⎞
VD1 = ⎜ i − Vi ⎟ü (13)
⎝ 1 − D ⎠
VD 2 = Vi ü (14)
The voltage VCc is the blocking voltage of the switch. It can be
i

Fig. 4 Simulated waveforms of the boost converter with tapped
inductor
( )
I D1, avg = 0.5(1 − D) 2 TL1−1 Vi − Vo (1 + ü ) −2 + (1 − D ) I 2, max (6)
International Science Index, Energy and Power Engineering Vol:1, No:3, 2007 waset.org/Publication/11554
seen from (12) that this voltage strong increases with the
increase of the duty cycle. To minimize the blocking voltage
of the switch the possibly minimum duty cycle must be
chosen. From (13), (14) it can be shown that the design of the
circuit for the duty cycles lower than 55% results in the use of
high-blocking voltage diodes (>1,2 kV).For these reasons the
turns ratio of the transformer ü = 18 at the maximum duty
cycle of 0,57 at the input voltage of 30V was determined. The
simulated waveforms of the extended forward converter for

these parameters are shown in the Fig. 5.

I i , avg = 0,5TL1−1B2 + (1 − D ) I 2, max + I1, min D (7)

With B 2 = Vi (1 − D) 2 − Vo (1 − D) 2 (1 + ü ) −2 + Vi D 2 (8)
The blocking voltages of the switch and the diode were
calculated in [6] as follows:
VT 1 = (Vo − Vi ) / (W1 + W2 ) + Vi (9)
VD1 = (Vo − Vi ) / (W1 + W2 )(W2 / W1 − 1) + Vo − Vi (10)
It can be seen from the Fig. 4 that the switch and the diode are
turned on and turned off at their full blocking voltage. At the
time t2 the diode D1 is switched off and the switch T1 is
switched on. The current of the diode D1 falls to zero and the
current of the switch T1 rises. This commutation phase occurs
in consideration of the leakage inductances of the tapped Fig. 5 Simulated waveforms of the extended forward converter
inductor and results in the hard turn on of the switch T1. The The average and rms values of the diode currents, switch
reverse-recovery current of the diode D1 at turn off results in current and the input current can be calculated:
the over current at the switching on of the switch T1. This over
current can be calculated: I D1,avg = I 2,min D + (Vi − ViüD )D 2TLo −1 (15)
ΔiT 1,on = I RM , D1(1 + W2 / W1 ) (11)
T ( D 2 − 1)Vi üD + 2Vi üDT (1 − D)
I D 2,avg = + I 2,min (1 − D) (16)
B. Extended forward converter 2 Lo

( )
The extended forward converter was proposed and
V 1 − D 2 T − Vi (1 − D )T
mathematically analysed in [2]. This converter provides no
galvanic isolation an hence should be connected to the fuel
(
I D3,avg = (1 − D) I 1,min − I 2,min ü + i) 2 L1
(17)
cell as shown in the Fig. 2. Each of the boost converter must
V 1− D
provide a maximum step-up ratio of 12,5 for variation of the I i , avg = I1, min − I 2, minü (1 − D ) + DT i + D 2TViü 2 (18)
input voltage Vi = 30…60V. It was shown in [2] that the L1 Lo
output voltage in steady-state if the voltage ripple of the
capacitors is low can be calculated as follows:

(V ü 2
) ⎛
− Vi ü 2 D ⎜⎜ D 2T 2 I1, min +
2 Vi 3 3 ⎞
D T ⎟⎟
( )
2 3 3
1 ⎛⎜ I1., min 1 2 3 T 3 ⎞
i
IT 1, RMS = I1, min 2 DT + Vi D 2T 2 + Vi D ⎟+ ⎝ 3 L1 ⎠ + 1 ü D T V 2ü 2 − 2 DV 2 ü 2 + V 2ü 2 D 2 (19)
i
T ⎜⎝ L12 ⎟⎠
i i
L1 3 Lo 3 Lo 2

1 ⎛1 2 2 2 3 3 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞
I D1, RMS = ⎜⎜ Vi ü D D T + DT ⎜ Vi 2 D 2T 2 ü 2 + Vi üDTLo I 2, min + I 2, min 2 Lo 2 ⎟ + Vi üD 3T 2 ⎜ − Vi üDT − I 2, min Lo ⎟ ⎟⎟ (20)
TLo 2
⎝ 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠

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International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering
Vol:1, No:3, 2007

⎛⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛⎛ ⎞
Lo + L1ü 2 − L1Dü 2 ⎞⎟
3
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎞
⎜ ⎜ I1, min + Vi DT ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ (
− I1, min 3 ⎟ L1Lo ⎜ ⎜ I1, min − I 2, min ü + Vi DT ⎟ − I1, min − I 2, min ü )3 ⎟⎟ L1(1 − D)
⎜⎝ L1Lo ⎠ ⎟ ⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠
L1
I i, RMS ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
( ) + (21)
3ViT Lo + L1ü − L1Dü
2 2 3Vi DT

⎛⎛ 3 ⎞ To reduce the blocking voltage of the transistor the maximum

⎞
⎜⎜ I Vi
⎟ (
⎜⎜ ⎜ 1,min − I 2,min ü + L DT ⎟ − I 1,min − I 2,min ü )3 ⎟⎟ L1 (1 − D) turns ratio of the transformer is needed. The solution of (27)
⎟
⎝⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎠ for the turns ratio is:
I D3, RMS =
3Vi DT ü max = 2V o (1 − D min ) / V i ,max = 2 ⋅ 750V ⋅ (1 − 0,5) / 60V ≈ 12 (31)
(22) The simulation results for these parameters are shown in the
⎛ 2 ⎞
3 Fig. 6.
⎜ I 2, min + ViüDT − ViüD T ⎟ Lo3 − ViüDT + I 2,min Lo − ViüDT
( )
⎜ ⎟

( )
⎝ Lo ⎠
I D 2, RMS =
3TLo 2ViüD
(23)

( )
With I1,min = i1 (t 0 ) - minimum switch current,
I2,max = i2 (t1) - minimum diode current.

v ( )
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The blocking voltage of the switch can be calculated:

Vi
VT 1 = VCc = (24)
1− D v ( )
The switch and the diode are turned on and turned off at their
full blocking voltage. It is important for the calculation of the
switching losses of the switch and the diode. The choice of ( )
semiconductors for the switch must be done recording to the
maximum blocking voltage of the switch: Fig. 6 Simulated waveforms of the current-fed full-bridge converter
Vi , max
VT 1, mac = (25)
1− D It can be seen from Fig. 6 that the switch T3 is switched off at
It can be seen from the Fig. 5 that the same commutation phase the time t0 at the full blocking voltage. At the time t1 the
as for the boost converter with tapped inductor at turn on of the switch T3 is switched on. The current of the switch T3 rises
switch T1 occurs. The over current at turn on of the switch T1
can be calculated: and the current of the switch T1 falls until the input current
distributes equally between these switches. This commutation
ΔiT 1,on = I RM , D1 (26)
phase results in the hard turn on of the switch. At the time t1
C. Current- fed full-bridge converter the diode D1 is switched off. The reverse-recovery current of
the diode D1 results in the over current at the switching on of
The current-fed full-bridge converter was mathematically the switch T3. This over current can be calculated:
analysed in [8]. This converter provides a galvanic isolation
ΔiT 1, on = 0,5 I RM , D1ü (32)
and hence should be connected to the fuel cell as shown in the
Fig. 1. The step-up conversion ratio can be, as shown in [8], with IRM,D1 – reverse-recovery current of the diode D1
calculated: The time period, where the switches T1, T4 or T2, T3 are on, is
Vo defined as follows:
ü
= (27) t1 − t0 = t3 − t2 = T (1 − D)
Vi (1 − 2tov / T )
(33)
Considering (28), (33), the rms values of the switch current,
with tov = t2 − t1 = t4 − t3 = T ( D − 0,5) , D>0,5 (28)
diode current and the input current can be calculated[see (34),
-time period, where all transistors are on, T = t4 − t0 -switching (35) at the bottom of the page]:
period.The blocking voltages of the transistor and the
secondary diodes can be, as shown in [8], calculated:
VT 1 = Vo / ü (29)
V D1 = Vo (30)
⎛ ⎛I (V ü − Vo )(1 − D )T ⎞⎟ − I 3L ü ⎞⎟
⎜ 4⎜ 1, min + (Viü − Vo )(1 − D )T + Vi ( D − 0,5)T ⎞⎟ L − 4⎛⎜ I1, min + (Viü − Vo )(1 − D )T ⎞⎟ L
3 3 3
⎛
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ 3 ⎜ ⎟ 3 L3ü ⎜⎜ I1, min + i ⎟ 1, min 3 ⎟
1 ⎝ 2 2 L3ü 2 L3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 L3ü ⎠ ⎝ L3ü ⎠ (34)
IT 1, RMS = ⎜ + ⎟
T⎜ 3Vi 3(Viü − Vo ) ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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⎛ ⎛ ⎞
3 ⎞
⎜ ⎜ ⎛ Viü − Vo Vo ⎞⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎜ − (1 − D )T + I 2,min ⎟
⎟
⎟
1 ⎜ 1 ⎝ ⎝ L3ü
2
L1ü 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠ −1 I 2,min 3 ⎟ (35)
I D1, RMS =
T ⎜⎜ 3 Viü − Vo
− o2
V 3 Viü − Vo − Vo ⎟
⎟
2
⎜ L3ü L1ü L3ü 2 L1ü 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ V L +L ⎞ transistor and the secondary diodes can be, as shown in [9],
I D1, avg = I 2, min (1 − D ) + (1 − D ) 2 T ⎜ i − 1 23 Vo ⎟ (36) calculated:
2 ⎜ L3ü L L ü ⎟
⎝ 1 3 ⎠ VT 1 = Vi (43)
From the Fig. 6 it can be seen that the switch is turned off at
the full blocking voltage. During time periods t1…t2 and t3…t4 VD1,max = Vo (44)
all switches conduct, the energy is not transferred to the It can be seen from (43) that the blocking voltage of the
output. All secondary diodes don’t conduct. The diodes D1, D3 switch does not depend on duty cycle and turns ratio of the
and D2,D4 are connected serial to the output voltage. The transformer. The conclusion of these thoughts is that the
blocking voltage of all diodes at turn off during time periods efficiency will be lower with the decreasing of maximum duty
t1…t2 and t3…t4 can be hence calculated: cycle. The duty cycle of 50% is practically unrealizable.
VD1, off = Vo / 2 (37) Hence a little bit smaller duty cycle of 45% was determined.
The simulation results for these parameters are shown in the
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D. Current-fed push-pull converter Fig. 7.

The current-fed full-bridge converter was mathematically
analysed in [8]. This converter provides a galvanic isolation
an hence should be connected to the fuel cell as shown in the
Fig. 1. The step-up conversion ratio can be, as shown in [8],
calculated:
Vo ü
= (38)
Vi (1 − 2tov / T )
The blocking voltages of the transistor and the secondary
diodes can be, as shown in [7], calculated:
VT 1 = 2Vo / ü (39)
V D1,mqx = Vo (40)
To reduce the blocking voltage of the transistor the maximum Fig. 7 Simulated waveforms of the voltage-fed full-bridge converter
turns ratio of the transformer is needed. The solution of (38)
for the turns ratio is: During time periods t1…t2 and t3…t4 all switches are turned
ümax = Vo (1 − Dmin ) / Vi , max = 750V ⋅ (1 − 0,5) / 60V ≈ 24 (41) off, the energy is not transferred to the output. The switches
The waveforms of this converter are identical with the T1, T4 and T2,T3 are connected serial to the input voltage. The
current-fed full-bridge converter. The blocking voltage of the blocking voltage of all switches during time periods t1…t2 and
switch is twice as high as in full-bridge converter. The t3…t4 can be hence calculated:
equations (34)-(36) are valid for the current-fed push-pull V
VT 1,off = VT 1,on = i (45)
converter with ü = W2 / 2W1 . 2
It was considered during the calculation of the switching loss
E. Voltage-fed full bridge converter that all switches are turned on and off at the half of the input
The voltage-fed full bridge converter was mathematically voltage. The diodes are turned off at the voltage, which is
analysed in [3]. This converter provides a galvanic isolation equal to the output voltage. The time equations of the
an hence should be connected to the fuel cell as shown in the waveforms in [2] for the time periods t0…t1 and t2…t3 are the
Fig. 1. The minimum turns ratio of the transformer [3]: same as for the extended forward converter for the time period
Vo 750V t0…t1. Considering (42), the rms, average values of the switch
ü min = = ≈ 28 (42)
2Vi ,min D max 2 ⋅ 30V ⋅ 0,5 current, diode current and the input current can be calculated
The maximum duty cycle cannot be increased above 50%. [see (47), (48)at the bottom of the page]:

Vi ü (1 − 2 D )D 2T
Decreasing of the duty cycle results in increasing of the turns
ratio of the transformer and increasing of rms and maximum I D1,avg = I 2,min D + (46)
value of the switch current. The blocking voltages of the 2 Lo

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⎛
( ( )
1 ⎜ 1 Vi DT Lo + L1ü − 2 L1 Dü + I1,min L1Lo
2 2 3
1 )
I1,min 3 L1 Lo
⎞
⎟
I T 1, RMS = ⎜
T ⎜3
⎝
2 2
(
Vi L1 Lo Lo + L1ü − 2 L1Dü
2 2
−
3) 2 ⎟
Vi L o +Vi L1ü (1 − 2 D ) ⎟
⎠
(47)

1
⎛
( ( )
⎜ 2 Vi DT Lo + L1ü − 2 L1 Dü + I 1,min L1 Lo
2 2 3
2 )
I 1,min 3 L1 Lo
⎞
⎟
( )
I i, RMS = ⎜ − ⎟ (48)
T ⎜ 3 2 2
Vi L1 Lo Lo + L1ü − 2 L1 Dü
2 2 3 Vi L o +Vi L1ü (1 − 2 D ) ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠

V ü (1 − 2 D )DT ⎞
3
⎛
⎜⎜ I 2,min + i ⎟⎟ Lo − I 2,min 3 Lo
1⎝ Lo ⎠
I D1, RMS = (49)
T 3Vi ü (1 − 2 D )

(
V D 2T Lo + L1ü 2 (1 − 2 D )
I i ,avg = 2 I1,min D + i
) (50)
L1 Lo
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E. Asymmetrical bridge double forward converter

The asymmetrical full bridge converter was mathematically
analysed in [3]. This converter provides a galvanic isolation
an hence should be connected to the fuel cell as shown in the
Fig. 1. The maximum duty cycle can be determined at same
way as for voltage-fed full-bridge converter. The minimum
turns ratio of each transformer can be, as shown in [3],
calculated:
Vo 750V
ü min = = ≈ 28 (51)
2Vi ,min Dmax 2 ⋅ 30V ⋅ 0,5
The simulation results for these parameters are shown in the
Fig. 8. The blocking voltages of the transistor and the
secondary diodes can be, as shown in [2], calculated:
VT 1 = Vi (52)
The transformer of the forward converter with a switch T1 is
magnetized during the time period t0…t1. The demagnetization
of the transformer occurs during the time period t2…t3. During
the time period t3…t4 the primary voltage of the transformer is
null. Hence the switches T1 and T2 are connected serial to the
input voltage. The switching off voltage of the switch T1 is
VT 1,off = 0,5Vi (53)
During the time period t2…t3 the forward converter with a
switch T3 transfers the energy to the output. In this operational
state the sum of secondary voltage of two transformers is a
blocking voltage of diode D5:
VD5 = 2Viü (54)
During the time periods t1…t2, t3…t4 all two forward converters
don’t transfer the energy to the output. The secondary voltage
of each transformer is a blocking voltage of diode D1 and D3.
The voltage of the diodes at their turn off can be hence
calculated:
VD1, off = VD3, off = 2Vi ü (55)
The free-wheeling-Diode D2 doesn’t conduct during the time
periods:
t1 − t0 = t3 − t2 = DT (56)
Fig. 8 Simulated waveforms of the asymmetrical bridge double
forward converter
The secondary voltage of the transformer is the blocking
voltage of the free-wheeling diode. This voltage can be thus
calculated:
VD 2 = Vi ü (57)
The free-wheeling diode is turned off at the full blocking
voltage. The switches are, as in the case of full-bridge
converter, turned on at the time, where no current flows. The
switch on current is not equal null, but the current rises very
slowly at the time, where the blocking voltage is null. The
switching on loss can be then neglected.
IV. METHODS AND RESULTS OF COMPARISON OF DC/DC-
CONVERTERS
A. Calculation of the efficiency
For the calculation of the efficiency the semiconductors for
the switches and diodes of the circuits must be defined. This
definition was done regarding to the calculated maximum
voltage stress at the input voltage Vi=60V and maximum
current stress at the input voltage Vi=30V. For the diodes of
all circuits was the diode of type DSEP 9-06CR used. To
simplify the calculation, MOSFET of the same type for the
switches of all DC/DC-converter was chosen. The on-
resistance of the MOSFET was for each circuit calculated
recording to the formula [3]:
R DS ,on ~ VT ,max 2,6 (58)
The conduction losses of the switch can be calculated [3]:
I T , RMS 2
PV ,cond (T ) = R DS ,on ⋅ (59)
NT

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With IT,RMS – rms value of the switch current, NT – number of The fall time of reverse-recovery-current can be calculated:
parallel connected MOSFET for one switch. t f = trr − t s (63)
The switching losses of the MOSFET could be calculated
After the calculation of all losses in the circuit the junction
regarding to the measured switching losses, Fig. 9. The
temperatures of all semiconductors must be calculated. It was
measured switching losses can be converted into the values
considered that all semiconductors are placed on the same heat
for certain values of the over current and switching on and off
sink. The junction temperature of on the transistor T1 and the
voltages. To simplify the calculation, it was considered that
diode D1 can be calculated:
50% of the on switching loss is direct proportional to the over
⎛ Rth( jc),T Rth(ck ) ⎞
n n
(64)
∑ ∑
D T

current and another 50% ⎜

T j (T1 ) = Ta + PV (T1 ) ⎜ ⎟ 1
+ + Rth(ka) ⎟ + PV ( Dk ) Rth( ka) + PV (Tk ) Rth(ka)
⎝ NT NT ⎠ k =1 k =2

⎛ Rth( jc ), D1 Rth(ck ) ⎞
nD nT
(65)
T j ( D1 ) = Ta + PV ( D1 ) ⎜⎜
⎝ N D
+
N D
+ Rth( ka) ⎟⎟ +∑
⎠ k =1
PV (Tk ) Rth( ka) + ∑ PV ( Dk ) Rth( ka)
k =2

With Rth( jc),Tk – junction to case thermal resistance of the

VT,on
MOSFET (can be taken from the datasheet),
Δ
Rth ( ck ) = 1,5K / W – case to heat sink thermal resistance,
Rth(ka ) – heat sink to ambient thermal resistance, nD – total
number of diodes in the circuit, nT – total number of switches
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in the circuit, PV (Tk ) – total loss for one switch, PV ( Dk ) – total

Fig. 9 Measured on and off switching losses at hard turn on and turn
off as a function of on and off switching current for the MOSFET loss for one diode, Ta – ambient temperature, NT – number of
IXTH88N30P parallel connected semiconductors for one switch, ND –
number of parallel connected semiconductors for one diode.
is direct proportional to the switching on voltage. The After calculation of the junction temperature the new
switching off loss is direct proportional to the switching off parameter of the semiconductors for this temperature can be
voltage. The conduction loss of the diode can be calculated calculated. The loss for this parameter must be then
[3]: calculated. The loss for the new parameter and the loss for the
PV ,cond ( D ) = rd ⋅ I D, RMS 2 / N D + VT 0 I D,avg (60) old parameter are compared. The iteration will continue until
this difference has a minimum value. The goal of the
With rd – differential resistance, VT0 – threshold voltage, ND – calculation is to determine the number of transistors for each
number of parallel connected diodes. circuit that are needed to keep the junction temperature of the
The switching loss of the diodes was calculated regarding MOSFETs at the definite value Tj =92°C. This value is
to the approximated waveforms, which are shown in Fig. 10. identical for all circuits. Hence the expense for the
semiconductors for each circuit can be seen. The results of the
i(t)
i IF UD,off
V R calculation are presents in the Table I.
ts tf
B. Calculation of the expense for filter and for transformer
v(t)
u The minimum core-cross section of the transformer that is
sufficient to provide that the transformer will not saturate can
be regarding to [3] calculated:
IRM
V DT + L1I 0
trr AK ,min = L1 (66)
N1ΔBmax
With VL1– primary voltage of the transformer, L1–
Fig. 10 Used for the calculation approximated waveforms of magnetizing inductance, N1– number of turns at the primary
voltage and current of the diodes at turn off side, I0– constant component in the magnetization of the
transformer, ΔBmax – maximum magnetic flux swing.
The switching loss of the diode can be then calculated: The maximum magnetic flux swing was determined in
PREC =´0,5VD,off I RM t f f (61) consideration that the transformer will not saturate. For the
With tf – fall time of the reverse-recovery-current, IRM – circuits with the utilization of the B-H-characteristic of the
maximum value of reverse-recovery-current, f – switching transformer in all quadrants the magnetic flux can change
frequency. from negative value to positive. The flux swing can be then
The maximum value of reverse-recovery-current can be taken double. The size of the transformer of DC/DC-converters is
from the datasheet. The rise time of reverse-recovery-current compared at the same utilization of the transformer for each
can be calculated: circuit.
I RM The length of magnetic path that corresponds to the
ts = (62) calculated core-cross-section can be then determined with the
diF / dt

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help of the datasheets of ferrite cores. The copper loss in the With jmax = 4A/mm2 – maximum current density in the
primary or secondary winding in the transformer [3]: winding.
(67) The magnetization losses of the transformer PV,fe1 at the
PV , CU 1( 2) = ρlm N1(2) I L1( L 2), RMS 2 / ACU 1( 2)
defined magnetic induction B1 and defined frequency f1 can be
With lm –length of magnetic path, N1(2) –number of turns of determined from the datasheet of the core. The magnetization
the primary or secondary winding, ACU1(2) –copper area for the losses at the another magnetic induction B2 and another
primary or secondary winding, IL1(L2),RMS –rms value of current frequency f2 are [3]:
in the primary or secondary winding, ρ = 1,724 ⋅ 10 -6 Ω ⋅ cm – Pfe 2 = PV , fe1 ⋅ (B2 / B1 )γ ⋅ ( f 2 / f1 )β (69)
resistance per unit length for copper. With γ=1,45, β=2,7 for ferrite materials [3].
The copper area for the primary or secondary winding can be The calculated losses are shown in the Fig. 10. The
calculated [3]: efficiency, calculated in the Table I, considers the total
I L1( L 2), RMS (68)
A = CU 1( 2)
semiconductor loss and total transformer loss.
jmax

TABLE I
CALCULATED CURRENT AND VOLTAGE STRESSES, EFFICIENCY OF THE DC/DC-CONVERTERS
(Tj=92°C, Rth(KA)=0,1K/W, Vi=30V, Vo=750V, f=60kHz, Vo=750V, Po=5kW, N1=9, ΔBmax =0,3T; * – Vo=375V, Po=2,5kW; **–ΔBmax =0,6T)

Value IT1,RMS ID1,RMS ID1,avg Ii,RMS Ii,avg Δii ID1,RM trr(D1) VD1,off VT1,on ΔiT,on VT1,max RDS(on)T1, VD1,max η Si- AK,min
(A) ID2,RMS ID2,avg (A) (A) (/) ID2,RM trr(D2) VD2,off VT1,off (A) (Vi=60V) (Tj=25°C) VD2,max (%) area (mm2)
International Science Index, Energy and Power Engineering Vol:1, No:3, 2007 waset.org/Publication/11554

ID3,RMS ID3,avg ID3,RM trr(D3) VD3,off (V) (V) (mΩ) VD3,max for
(A) (A) (A) (ns) (V) (V) tran-
sistors
Nr. (%)
of
circuit
1 94,3* 12,3* 6,7* 95,5* 85,5* 0,5* 15* 37* 500* 100* 75* 125* 27,5* 625* 90,6 276 308
(D=0,7) 100*
2 109* 5,4* 3,8* 109* 84,2* 0,8* 13* 34* 653* 73* 8,5* 80* 8,5* 1080* 94,3 100 166
(D=0,57) 4,6* 3* 12* 30* 540* 73* 1171*
10,5* 6,7* 8,5* 42* 75* 100*
3 98 6,5 3,2 166,7 166,7 0 15 37 375 62,5 90 62,5 5,3 750 90,3 366,7 100,5
(D=0,76) 62,5 **
4 102,2 6,8 3,3 166,7 166,7 0 15 37 375 125 90 125 27,5 750 91,3 300 201
(D=0,76) 125 **
5 143 5,2 3,8 182 172 0,35 12 31 750 15 336 60 4,3 750 93,6 138 41,6
(D=0,45) 15 **
6 141,1 4,5 3,5 182 172 0,35 12 31 840 30 150 60 4,3 1680 92,4 161 83,5
(D=0,45) 2,1 0,6 12 31 1680 15 1680

I i , RMS 2 (70)
Δii = −1
I i , avg 2

The higher current ripple causes the larger input filter. The
calculated values for the current ripple are shown in the Table
I. It can be seen that the current-fed circuits have minimum
input current ripple. The extended forward converter has the
highest current ripple because of not to high duty cycle. The
criterion for the determination of the duty cycle was possible
highest efficiency. The required core cross section of the
transformer is minimum for the voltage-fed full-bridge
converter. The DC/DC-converter with a quite high duty cycle
(boost converter with tapped inductor, extended forward
converter) requires a larger transformer.

Fig. 11 Calculated losses of the DC/DC-converters
The relative input current ripple can due to [6] be defined as:
V. CONCLUSIONS
Six circuits of the DC/DC-converter for the input voltage
Vi=30V, output voltage Vi=750V, the output power Po=5 kW
and the switching frequency f=60kHz were mathematically
analyzed. The results of the analysis are the rms, average
values of the switch and diode currents, the maximum voltage

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering
Vol:1, No:3, 2007

stresses of the switches and diodes, the switch and diode

voltages at turn on and turn off. These values were used for
the calculation of the efficiency, relative input current ripple
and the minimum size of the transformer. The extended
forward converter has the highest efficiency of 94,3% and the
boost converter with tapped inductor has the lowest efficiency
of 90,3%. For the extended forward converter the lowest
number of transistors is needed.

REFERENCES
[1] E. Santi, D. Franzoni, D. Monti, A. Patterson, F. Ponsi, F. Barry “A fuel
cell based uninterruptable power supply” IEEE Applied Power
Electronics Specialist Conference, 2002, Proceedings on CD-ROM
[2] O. Krykunov, „Analysis of the Extended Forward Converter for Fuel
Cell Applications”, ISIE, 2007
[3] Robert W. Erickson, Fundamentals of Power Electro (Book style),
University of Colorado, 1997
[4] T. A. Nergaard, J. F. Ferrell, L. G. Leslie, and J. S. Lai, “Design
considerations for a 48V fuel cell to split single phase inverter system
with ultra capacitor energy storage”, IEEE Applied Power Electronics
International Science Index, Energy and Power Engineering Vol:1, No:3, 2007 waset.org/Publication/11554

Specialist Conference, 2002

[5] T. Meyer, “DC/DC-Wandler mit kleiner Eingangsspannung für
photovoltaische, elektrochemische und thermoelektrische Zellen“,
Fortschr.-Ber. VDI, R. 21, Nr. 288, Düsseldorf, VDI-Verlag, 2000
[6] H. Solmecke, “Optimierter Stromrichter für Brennstoffzellenanlagen“
Dissertation, Hagen, 1998
[7] I. Merfert, O. Krykunov, A. Lindemann, “High-power tapped-inductor
boost conevrter fot Fuel Cell Applications”, PCIM, 2005
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