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Experiment - 1
Basics of Structures
Bending
P
P
Axial Compression Axial Tension P Torsion
H
M
Hinged / Pinned support Roller support
V
Fixed Support
v) Degree of freedom
A structure may be capable of movements (displacement and rotations) at its
joints and supports after the load are applied. The total numbers of such
possible movements in a structure is known as degree of kinematic
indeterminacy or degrees of freedom.
The pinned support is allows rotation about the defined axes but at the same
time it cannot allow the translation along all the axes.
The roller support is allowed rotation about all the axes and translation along
one define axis whereas other translation are restricted.
The fixed support is not allowed any translation and rotation along and about
the axis respectively.
Resolution of forces
If a force F acts at an angle β with axis of reference
Fx = F cosβ and Fy = Fsinβ
Fy = Fsinβ
F
β
Fx = F cosβ
Resultant force
It is that single force, which produce same effect on the body as the number
of forces are producing on it while acting simultaneously, it is also called as
equivalent force. Resultant of forces can be found out by graphical method
or analytical method
Compatibility of deformation
In addition to the equilibrium conditions, some the mathematical conditions
are to be included for to solve the unknown quantities of the structure such
additional conditions are called as compatibility of deformation or
compatibility conditions.
For e.g. For a fixed support ∆H=0, ∆V=0 and Ө=0.
In general structures are of following two types
1. Statically determinate structures
2. Statically indeterminate structures
Statically determinate structures Statically indeterminate
structures
Conditions of equilibrium are Conditions of equilibrium are
sufficient to fully analyze the not sufficient.
structure
B.M at a section and the force They are not independent
in any member is independent
of material of the components
of structure.
No stress are caused due to Stress are generated due to
temporary changes temporary changes.
On the basis of alignment of forces, support and members structures are
classified as
Plane frame: in which all members and forces are in the same plane.
Space frames: in which at least one member is out of plane.
On the basis of the type of support, structure are classified as pin jointed and
rigid jointed.
Statically indeterminacy:
It is stated in terms of external indeterminacy and internal indeterminacy.
External indeterminacy.
When the three equations of equilibrium are insufficient to determine all the
reactions at the supports. It is given by number of unknown reactions at
support minus number of known equations of equilibrium.
Internal indeterminacy.
A structure is said to be statically indeterminate if it is a closed structure. So
the minimum cuts are required to open all close loops gives the internal
indeterminacy.
For a space frame, pin jointed structure is said to be determinate one if,
M = 3j – 6
The excess no. of members adds to the degree of redundancy.
i) The given structure in plane frame pin joined
No. of unknown reactions = 3
No. of known equations of equilibrium = 3
Hence, external indeterminacy = 3-3=0
Structure is statically externally determinate.
For internal indeterminacy:
No. of joints = 6
No. of members = 9
No. of members for frame to be determinate internally
M = 2 (6) – 3 = 9
Hence, structure is internally determinate.
No. of joints = 8
Total no. of deformation = 8 x 3 = 24
No. of known deformations = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
( deformations for fixed support are zero in all dimensions)
i.e. ∆H = 0 , ∆V = 0, ӨA = 0
Kinematic indeterminacy = 24 – 12 = 12
Total indeterminacy = 9 + 5 + 12 = 36
Conclusion(s) :
Aim : To determine the shear force and bending moment diagrams for different
structures manually and verifying it using SAP2000 NL software
Theory : The term beam refers to a slender bar that carries transverse loading; that
is, the applied forces are perpendicular to the bar. In a beam, the internal
force system consists of a shear force and bending moment acting on the
cross section of the bar. The internal forces give rise to two kinds of
stresses on a transverse section of a beam: 1) Normal stress that is caused
by the bending moment and 2) shear stress due to the shear force.
The determination of the internal force system acting at a given section
of a beam is straightforward: We draw a free-body diagram that exposes
these forces and then compute the forces using equilibrium equations.
However the goal of beam analysis is to determine the shear force V and
the bending moment M at every cross section of the beam. To
accomplish this task, we must derive the expressions for V and M in
terms of the distance x measured along the beam. By plotting these
expressions to scale, we obtain the shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the beam. The shear force and bending moment diagrams
are convenient visual references to the internal forces in a beam; in
particular, they identify the maximum values of V and M.
When loads are not at right angle to the beam, they also produce axial
forces in the beam.
The transverse loading of a beam consists of concentrated loads,
distributed loads, uniformly distributed loads or a combination of all.
Depending upon the type of support, the reactions at support can be force
or moment. These reactions can be determined by the equations of
equilibrium in case of determinate structures. The bending couple creates
normal stresses while the shear force creates shearing stresses.
Bending moment diagram
The value of bending moment is determined at various points of beam
and plotted against the distance x measured from one end of the beam.
This plotting is known as bending moment diagram.
Sign conventions
Sagging BM is considered +ve
Hogging BM is considered –ve
1.5 m 2.5 m
Calculate the reactions at supports
M@A=0 + ve
25 * 1.5 + 5*2.5*2.75 – RB * 4 = 0
RB = 17.97 kN
Fy = 0 + ve
RA + RB = 25 + 5*2.5
RA = 37.5 – 17.97
RA = 19.53 kN.
Step # 2: Sign Conventions
Shear Force:
From Left to Right From Right to left From Left to Right From Right to left
+ ve - ve - ve + ve
OR
- ve + ve + ve - ve
Bending Moment :
Sagging Moment + ve
Hogging Moment - ve
+
A B
C
Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)
Likewise we can also find out the values of SF and BM from left
towards right side by adopting the different sign convention as mention
in the step # 2.
Step # 5: Verify the Problem in SAP 2000 NL Software.
Problems :
1. 5 kN
15 kN
2m 2m 2m
2. 10 kN
5 kNm
2.5 m 2.5 m 2m
10 kN
3.
10 kN/m
1m 1m 1m 1m
10 kN
4.
6 kN
2m 2m
10 kN
5. 15 kNm
3m 3m 3m
Calculations : Sample Problem No. _____
Conclusion(s) :
Now let us consider that the both forces P act simultaneously on the beam.
The deflection corresponding to the load P acting at A is aa and ab, and
the deflection corresponding to the load P acting at B is ba and bb.
Knowing these deflections, we can easily calculate the work done by the
two loads P as they are slowly and simultaneously applied to the beam. This
work equal to the total strain energy U of the beam, is
U = ½ P( aa + ab) + ½ P( ba + bb) ---------------------------------(a)
A B
ba
aa
A B
ab bb
P P
A B
aa + ab ba + bb
The total strain energy of the beam subjected to two loads does not depend
upon the order in which the loads are applied. Because the beam behaves
linearly, the strain energy must be the same when the loads are applied
simultaneously and when one load is applied before the other load. The
final state of the beam is the same in both cases. Let us assume that load A
is applied first, followed by the load at B. Then the strain energy of the
beam during the application of the first load is
½P aa ----------------------------------------(b)
Because this load causes the deflection aa. When the second load is applied,
an additional deflection result at B equal to bb; Hence, the second load
does work equal to
½P bb ----------------------------------------(c)
And an equal amount of strain energy is developed in the beam. However,
we must not overlook the fact that, when the load at B is being applied, the
load P acting at A undergoes an additional deflection ab. The
corresponding amount of work done by the load is
P ab ----------------------------------------(d)
Thus, this additional strain energy is produced. Equation (d) does not
contain the factor ½ because the force P remains constant during the time
that the additional deflection ab occurs. Summing equations (b), (c) and
(d), we get the total strain energy for the case when one load is applied
before the other:
U=½P aa +½P bb + P ab -----------------------------------------(e)
This amount of strain energy must be equal to the strain energy produced
when the two loads are applied simultaneously (Equation (a)). Equating the
two expressions for strain energy leads to the following result:
ab = ba
Procedure : i) Place the metal beam on simple supports and measure the spans.
ii) Place the load hooks at any point say “C” whose distance is measured
from left support, say “A”.
iii) Mark another point, say “D”, on the beam and measure deflection using
dial gauge.
iv) Add load at point “C” and measure corresponding deflection at point
“D”. Take readings for at least three different weights.
v) Repeat similar procedure by adding weights at point “D” and measuring
deflections at point “C”.
vi) Compare the readings of deformations at points “C” and “D”.
Observation : Least count of dial gauge = 0.01 mm.
Table
Calculations :
Conclusion(s) :
Reference : Maxwell, J. C., “On the calculation of the equilibrium and stiffness of
frames,” Philosophical Magazine & Dairies 4, vol. 27, 1864, pp. 294-299.
E= =
Macaulay’s Method:
We know the basic differential equation for the deflection curve:
EI
= - - - - - -
On Integrating
For symmetrically loaded beam,
At =0
At
Procedure :
Take a simply supported beam and mark point equidistant from the opposite side.
Dial gauge was placed at the centre of the beam to find the deflection.
For different set of symmetric loadings find the deflection.
The observation were made and requisite calculation were performed
Observations :
Span length =
Least count of dial gauge =
SR. NO LOAD DISTANCE DIAL GAUGE FLEXURAL
READING RIGIDITY
(gm) (N) a (cm) b (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Calculations :
EI =
Result :
The flexural rigidity of simply supported beam is found to be____________________
Reference :
Macaulay, W. H., “Note on the deflection of beams,” The Messenger of Mathematics,
vol. XLVII, May 1918-April 1919, Cambridge, 1919, pp. 129-130.
Experiment No –
Three Moment Theorem (Clapeyron’s Theorem)
Aim : Verification of three moment theorem by using standard structural analysis
package.
Theory :
This theorem, developed by Clapeyron in 1857, provides a simple method to
analyze continuous beams. This theorem also called as Clapeyron‟s theorem,
develops a relationship between the moment at three consecutive supports of
continuous beams and the B.M. in the corresponding simple spans. The support
moment can be determined from these relationships by the boundary conditions of
the beam. These relationships are developed by considering the continuity of the
beam displacement curve over supports (compatibility conditions). The three
moment theorem or Clapeyron‟s theorem is stated as “If a beam (shown in the
figure below) has „n‟ supports the ends of which are fixed, then the same number
of equations required to determine the support moment can be obtained from the
consecutive span”.
Mathematically,
Where,
= span length AB
= span length BC
= flexural rigidity of span AB
= flexural rigidity of span AB
= moment at support A,B and C
= flexural rigidity of span AB
= flexural rigidity of span BC
= distance of C.G of from A
= distance of C.G of from C
A E1 I1 B E2 I2 C
l1 l2
a) Given system
MA MB MC
b) Reduced system
X1 X2
A1 A2
- -
-
+ + + +
Application :
The three hinge moment theorem can be used to analyze beams which are
indeterminate easily. Theory is the most useful in analysis of continuous beams
with simply supports, fixed supports and with overhang.
Que. : Determine the support moments and draw SFD and BMD for the beam
shown below considering young’s modulus is constant.
15 kN 12 kN/m
8 kN/m
C
M A B
20 kNm
2m 3m 2m 3m
Considering imaginary beam AM and AB
Applying, 3-moment theorem,
Result :
The three hinge moment theorems are verified using SAP2000.
Reference :
Clapeyron, B.P.E., “Calcul d‟une pouter elastique resposant librement sur des
appuis inegalement espaces,” Comptes Rendus, Vol.45, 1857, pp. 1076-1080.
Experiment No –
Betti’s Theorem (Reciprocal-work Theorem)
Aim : Verification of Betti-Rayleigh reciprocal theorem.
Theory :
The reciprocal-work theorem states that “The work done by the forces in the first
state of laoding when they move through their corresponding displacement in the
second state of loading is equal to the work done by the forces in the second state
of loading when they move through their corresponding displacements in the first
state of loading.”
Betti‟s law is an extension of Maxwell‟s theorem.
Q2
Q1
Qn
Pm ‟Q1 ‟Q2
Q2
Q1 ‟Qn
Qn
1 ‟Pm 2
Pm
P2 ‟P2
P2
‟P1
P1
P1
OR
Procedure :
1. The apparatus was setup and the span of the beam is measured.
2. Two sets of three points were chosen.
3. At one set of points, dial gauge were setup and load is applied as other set.
4. Deflections were measured for the different sets of loading.
5. The setup was reversed. The dial gauges were setup at the second set of points
and loadings applied on the first set.
6. Step 4 to 6 was repeated.
Observations :
S. Load Deflection Caused by Load Deflection Caused by
No. (P) Load (P) (Q) Load (Q)
Division Deflection Division Deflection
(mm) (mm) ‟
Summation
Calculations :
Result :
Reference :
1) Betti, E., “Teoria della Elasticita,” II Nuova Cimento, Series 2, Vol. 7 and 8,
1872.
2) Rayleigh, Lord, “Some General Theorems relating to vibrations,” Proceeding
of London Mathematical Society, Vol. 4, 1873, pp. 357-368.
Date:
Experiment -
Verification of Moment Distribution Method by using Standard Structural
Analysis Software
Aim : Verification of moment distribution method by using some standard structural
analysis software.
Theory : The method of analysis of indeterminate structures involves the formulation and
solution of simultaneous equations. Such process can be tedious, time consuming
and error prone when large structure are analyzed. Thus, methods that did not
involve simultaneous equations were required to analyze large structures before
the advent of computers. Such method was developed early this century which did
not rely exclusive on the solution of simultaneous equations.
The moment distribution method was developed by Prof. Hardy Cross in the
1930s (some time referred as Hardy Cross‟ Method). This method involves the
distributing the known fixed-end moments of the structural members to the
adjacent members of the joints, in order to satisfy the conditions of continuity of
slope and displacements (compatibility conditions). Though this method is
iterative in nature, they converge in a few iterations to the correct solution.
The structural system is first reduced to its kinematically determinate form in this
method. This is accomplished by assuming all the joints to be fully restrained.
The end moments of all the members are computed for this condition of the
structure (all the members having fixed ends). The joints are allow to rotate one
after other by releasing them successively. The unbalanced moment at the joint is
shared by the members connected at the joint when it is released. This method
makes use of the ability of various structural members at a joint to sustain
moments in proportion to their relative stiffnesses. This method provides an
elegant and quick procedure to analyze continuous beams. The method can also
be applied to frames with few additional computations.
Procedure : The process of moment distribution method for prismatic beams is summarized
below:
1. Rotational stiffnesses K of all the members meeting at a joint are computed
depending upon the condition at the far end. The value of K is given by
K = 4EI/L (If the far end is fixed);
K = 3EI/L ( if the far end is simply supported), and
K = 0 (if the far end is free).
2. Distribution factors at each joint are computed on the basis of relative
rotational stiffnesses of the members at that joint. These factors are noted
alone each member meeting at the joint.
3. Fixed end moments (F.E.M) are computed for each member for the given
loading.
4. Moments are released at the simply supported end; these moments are referred
as released moment (R.M). The released moments are carried over to the far
ends of the corresponding members depending upon the carry over factors;
these moments are known as carry over moments (C.O.M.)
5. The unbalanced moments at each joint are computed from the total moments
(T.M) these moments are distributed among the various members meeting at
the joint on the basis of D.F. The unbalanced moments so distributed at a joint
are known as distributed moments (D.M.).
6. The D.M are carried over to the far ends of the corresponding members on the
basis of their C.O.M.
7. Steps 5 and 6 are repeated at each joint until no unbalanced moment exists at
any joint or till the moment carried over is negligible compared to their final
end moments (usually within about one percent)
8. The algebraic sum of all the moments (F.E.M. or T.M., R.M., D.M. and
C.O.M) from all the cycles (Step 5 to 7) for each member meeting at the joint
is calculated. These values are known as the final end moments (F.M.).
Exercise
Problem : Determine the B.M and S.F. diagrams for the beams shown in Fig below.
50 kN
10 kN/m
1) A B C
EI EI
8m 4m 2m
25 kN/m
2) A B C
1.5 EI EI
Support C sinks by
10 m 8m 10 mm
Assume EI = 10 MNm2
5 kN 4 kN/m
4) 2 kNm B
A C
EI 1.25 EI
2.5 m 2.5 m 2m 2m
A B
A
MAB MBA
B
Where,
FEMAB = Fixed end moments due to external loading over span AB at joint A
FEMBA = Fixed end moments due to external loading over span BA at joint B
w(x)
A B
FEMAB FEMBA
Rotation at A –
MAB
B MAB = 4EI A/L; MBA = 2EI A/L
A
A MBA
Rotation at B –
MAB MBA
A B B MAB = 2EI B/L; MBA = 4EI B/L
A
MAB MAB = 6EI /L2; MBA = 6EI /L2
B
MBA
Procedure : 1) Scan the beam and identify the number of segment and kinematic unknowns.
A segment is the portion of the beam between the two nodes. Kinematic
unknowns are those rotations and displacements that are not zero and must be
computed.
2) for each segment, generate the two governing equations. Check the end
conditions to see whether one of the end rotations is zero or not. If there are no
element loads, the FEM term is zero.
3) For each kinematic unknowns, generate an equilibrium conditions using the
FBD.
4) Solve for all unknowns by combining all the equations from step 2 and 3. Now
the equations are entirely in terms of the kinematic unknowns.
5) Compute the support reactions with appropriate FBDs.
Exercise
Problem : Determine the B.M and S.F. diagrams for the beams shown in Fig below.
50 kN
10 kN/m
1) A B C
EI EI
8m 4m 2m
25 kN/m
2) A B C
1.5 EI EI
Support C sinks by
10 m 8m 10 mm
Assume EI = 10 MNm2
5 kN 4 kN/m
4) 2 kNm B
A C
EI 1.25 EI
2.5 m 2.5 m 2m 2m
25 kN/m
2) A B C
1.5 EI EI
Support C sinks by
10 m 8m 10 mm
Assume EI = 10 MNm2
5 kN 4 kN/m
4) 2 kNm B
A C
EI 1.25 EI
2.5 m 2.5 m 2m 2m
References : 1) Castligliano, C. A. P., The Theory of Equlibirium of Elastic Systems and Its
Applications, translated by E. S. Andrews with a new introduction and
biographical portrait section by G. A. Oravas, Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, 1966.
Date:
Experiment -
Study of Three Hinged Arch
Aim : Study of Three Hinged Arch.
Theory : An Arch may be visualized as a beam curved in elevation with convexity
upward which is restrained at its ends from spreading outwards under the action
of downward vertical loading. Arches have a long and interesting history through
several countries and their development spans over several countries. Etruscans,
people of Asiatic origin who invaded northern Italy around 1300 B.C., apparently
used in recorded history. Ancient Egyptians, Assyrians and Babylonians also
knew the advantages of arches, and used them extensively as architectural units.
The support of arch must be strong enough to develop horizontal thrust. In some
cases, horizontal thrust can be developed by means of a tie rod connecting the two
end of an arch.
Arches are very efficient forms of structural elements that develop only small
B.M. and resist external loads predominantly through axial compression. The
central line of an arch should be approximately, as close as possible to the
funicular polygon for dead load and at least a part of live load so that the B.M. are
small. This concept is called as Theoretical arch concept. Circular segments,
parabolas and multicentre circular curves provide ideal shapes to the approximate
funicular polygons for usual loading conditions.
Arches can be classified in several ways; on the basis of materials, shape and
structural systems. Structural shape/configuration permits classification of arches
as three-hinged, two-hinged, two-hinge with tie rod, suspended tie arch and fixed
arch.
Arches are used in buildings either for their functionality and aesthetics. Their use
in other structures is also extensive on account of their efficient structural
performance. Bridges, dams and large subterranean structures make use of arch
profiles for safety and economy.
The given figure shows a three-hinged arch. It consists of two points or parts AC
and BC hinged together at the point C. Each part is hinged at to the permanent
support like an abutment at the lower ends (A and B). Hinge C, is provided at the
highest point of the centre line of the arch. The horizontal distance between the
lower ends A and B is called the span of the arch. When ends A and B are at the
same level, the height of the crown (point C), above the level of the ends is called
the rise of the arch.
W1
Crown, MC = 0,
a
C
Rise, yc
y
HA A x B HB
Span
VA VB
Any external loads tends to cause an increase in the span length, as horizontal and
vertical movement are not possible. Reactions at both ends A and B will have
both horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal component of reactions
are equal if there is no horizontal applied load over the arch. By using M C = 0, we
can easily find out the horizontal reactive component whereas the vertical
reactions will get from MA = 0 and FY = 0. The difference between beam and
arch is that in case of arch a horizontal thrust is induced at each support which
provides a hogging moment Hy at any section. This is called the H moment at
section X-X.
Actual BM at X-X = Beam moment at X-X – H moment at X-X.
Taking moment about C,
Va . (L/2) = H.h + W1((L/2)-a)
Hence, H is calculated.
The bending moment at section XX, „x‟ distance from support A is
MX = VA. x – W1(x-a) – H.y
In case of parabolic arch the numerical relation between x and y is
Advantages : 1) The sagging moments are compensated by the hogging produced by
horizontal reaction.
2) For the same material of construction, span, thickness of arches is less than that
of beams, hence more economical.
3) More resistance to temperature stresses.
4) Three hinged arches adjust themselves in case of yielding of support and so
does not fail.
Observations:
Results :
Conclusion :
Date:
Experiment No -
Influence Line Diagram and moving loads application in bridges
Aim : Study the influence line diagram and special application of moving
loads in bridges.
Theory : Superimposed loads on structures are not always static. Bridges, for
instance, are subjected to moving loads whose effects on structures vary
depending upon the position occupied by the load systems. For any
system, there will be at least one position of the given loads, for which
their effects (B.M., S.F., A.F. or deflections) will be maximum. In some
cases, it will be possible to locate the position of loads for maximum. In
some cases, it will be possible to locate the position of loads for
maximum effects by inspection or intuition. Trial and error process may
be adequate in few other cases. However, a systematic procedure to
determine the critical effects of moving loads is offered by the concept
of influence lines (I.L.).
The variation of significant effects in a structures caused by a moving
unit load can be expressed as a function of the position of the load. This
variation, when expressed in a graphical form, is known as the
influence diagram. In the case of linear structures such as beams,
trusses and frames, these diagrams are called influence lines.
The concept of I.L. was first formulated in 1867 by E. Winkler, a
German scientist. The importance of the concept was not realized until
after 1887, when Heinrich Mueller-Breslau, another German, developed
in further by extending the principle of reciprocity enunciated by J. C.
Maxwell. Mueller-Breslau also discovered a simple method of
developing influence diagrams qualitatively (Which bears his name).
An influence line, in general, can be defined as the graphical
representation of the variation of a specified parameter at a section in a
structure, when a unit load moves along its length.
Influence diagrams can be drawn for statically determinate as well as
indeterminate structures. They can be drawn for structures comprising
linear elements (beams, arches and frames), and for planar structures
(plates); in the latter case they are called influence surfaces.
The ordinates of the influence line for any chosen reaction component
may be determined by adopting any one of the following methods:
i) Direct Method
In this approach, the unit load is placed at any point P and the value of
the chosen reaction component is determined by using any one of the
methods.
ii) Indirect Method
The indirect method is based on Muller Breslau‟s principle, accordingly
the constraints corresponding to the chosen reaction component is
released and the chosen reaction component is given a unit
displacement while all other reaction components are kept undisplaced.
Example 1: Construct influence lines RA, RB, VC, MC of a simply
supported beam.