Source: CIVIL ENGINEERING FORMULAS

CHAPTER 7
SURVEYING
FORMULAS

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

244 CHAPTER SEVEN

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Units of measurement used in past and present surveys are

For construction work: feet, inches, fractions of inches

(m, mm)
For most surveys: feet, tenths, hundredths, thousandths
(m, mm)
For National Geodetic Survey (NGS) control surveys:
meters, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 m

The most-used equivalents are

1 meter
39.37 in (exactly)
3.2808 ft

1 rod
1 pole
1 perch
161兾2 ft (5.029 m)

1 engineer’s chain
100 ft
100 links (30.48 m)
1 Gunter’s chain
66 ft (20.11 m)
100
Gunter’s links (lk)
4 rods
1兾80 mi (0.020 km)
1 acre
100,000 sq (Gunter’s) links
43,560
ft2
160 rods2
10 sq (Gunter’s) chains
4046.87
m2
0.4047 ha
1 rood
3兾4 acre (1011.5 m2)
40 rods2 (also
local unit
51兾2 to 8 yd) (5.029 to 7.315 m)
1 ha
10,000 m2
107,639.10 ft2
2.471 acres
1 arpent
about 0.85 acre, or length of side of
1 square arpent (varies) (about 3439.1 m2)
1 statute mi
5280 ft
1609.35 m
1 mi2
640 acres (258.94 ha)

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

SURVEYING FORMULAS 245

1 nautical mi (U.S.)
6080.27 ft
1853.248 m

1 fathom
6 ft (1.829 m)
1 cubit
18 in (0.457 m)
1 vara
33 in (0.838 m) (Calif.), 331兾3 in (0.851 m)
(Texas), varies
1 degree
1兾360 circle
60 min
3600 s

0.01745 rad
sin 1
0.01745241
1 rad
57 17 44.8 or about 57.30
1 grad (grade)
1兾400 circle
1兾100 quadrant

100 centesimal min
104 centesimals (French)
1 mil
1兾6400 circle
0.05625
1 military pace (milpace)
21兾2 ft (0.762 m)

THEORY OF ERRORS

When a number of surveying measurements of the same

quantity have been made, they must be analyzed on the
basis of probability and the theory of errors. After all
systematic (cumulative) errors and mistakes have been elimi-
nated, random (compensating) errors are investigated to
determine the most probable value (mean) and other critical
values. Formulas determined from statistical theory and
the normal, or Gaussian, bell-shaped probability distribu-
tion curve, for the most common of these values follow.

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

246 CHAPTER SEVEN

Standard deviation of a series of observations is

√
d 2
s

n1

where d
residual (difference from mean) of single obser-

vation and n
number of observations.
The probable error of a single observation is

PE s
0.6745s

(The probability that an error within this range will occur is

0.50.)
The probability that an error will lie between two values
is given by the ratio of the area of the probability curve
included between the values to the total area. Inasmuch as the
area under the entire probability curve is unity, there is a
100 percent probability that all measurements will lie within
the range of the curve.
The area of the curve between s is 0.683; that is,
there is a 68.3 percent probability of an error between s
in a single measurement. This error range is also called the
one-sigma or 68.3 percent confidence level. The area of the
curve between 2s is 0.955. Thus there is a 95.5 percent
probability of an error between 2s and 2s that represents
the 95.5 percent error (two-sigma or 95.5 percent con-
fidence level). Similarly, 3s is referred to as the 99.7
percent error (three-sigma or 99.7 percent confidence level).
For practical purposes, a maximum tolerable level often
is assumed to be the 99.9 percent error. Table 7.1 indicates
the probability of occurrence of larger errors in a single
measurement.
The probable error of the combined effects of accidental
errors from different causes is

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

SURVEYING FORMULAS 247

TABLE 1 Probability of Error in a Single Measurement

Probability
Confidence of larger
Error level, % error
Probable (0.6745s) 50 1 in 2
Standard deviation (s) 68.3 1 in 3
90% (1.6449s) 90 1 in 10
2s or 95.5% 95.5 1 in 20
3s or 97.7% 99.7 1 in 370
Maximum (3.29s) 99.9 1 in 1000

Esum
√E 21 E22 E23

where E1, E2, E3 . . . are probable errors of the separate

measurements.
Error of the mean is
Esum E √n E
Em

s
s
n n √n
where Es
specified error of a single measurement.
Probable error of the mean is

√
PEs d 2
PEm

0.6745
√n n(n  1)

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE WITH TAPES

Reasonable precisions for different methods of measuring

distances are

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

248 CHAPTER SEVEN

Pacing (ordinary terrain): 1兾50 to 1兾100

Taping (ordinary steel tape): 1兾1000 to 1兾10,000 (Results can be
improved by use of tension apparatus, transit alignment,
leveling.)
Baseline (invar tape): 1兾50,000 to 1兾1,000,000
Stadia: 1兾300 to 1兾500 (with special procedures)
Subtense bar: 1兾1000 to 1兾7000 (for short distances, with a 1-s
theodolite, averaging angles taken at both ends)
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) devices have
been in use since the middle of the twentieth century and
have now largely replaced steel tape measurements on large
projects. The continued development, and the resulting drop
in prices, are making their use widespread. A knowledge of
steel-taping errors and corrections remains important, how-
ever, because use of earlier survey data requires a knowl-
edge of how the measurements were made, common sources
for errors, and corrections that were typically required.
For ordinary taping, a tape accurate to 0.01 ft (0.00305 m)
should be used. The tension of the tape should be about 15
lb (66.7 N). The temperature should be determined within
10°F (5.56°C); and the slope of the ground, within 2 per-
cent; and the proper corrections, applied. The correction to
be applied for temperature when using a steel tape is

Ct
0.0000065s(T  T0)

The correction to be made to measurements on a slope is

Ch
s (1  cos ) exact
or
0.00015s 2 approximate
or
h 2 /2s approximate

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

SURVEYING FORMULAS 249

where Ct
temperature correction to measured length, ft (m)

Ch
correction to be subtracted from slope dis-
tance, ft (m)
s
measured length, ft (m)
T
temperature at which measurements are made,
F (C)
T0
temperature at which tape is standardized, F (C)
h
difference in elevation at ends of measured
length, ft (m)

slope angle, degree
In more accurate taping, using a tape standardized when
fully supported throughout, corrections should also be made for
tension and for support conditions. The correction for tension is
(Pm  Ps)s
Cp

SE
The correction for sag when not fully supported is
w 2L3
Cs

24P m2
where Cp
tension correction to measured length, ft (m)
Cs
sag correction to measured length for each
section of unsupported tape, ft (m)
Pm
actual tension, lb (N)
Ps
tension at which tape is standardized, lb (N)
(usually 10 lb) (44.4 N)

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

250 CHAPTER SEVEN

S
cross-sectional area of tape, in2 (mm2)

E
modulus of elasticity of tape, lb/in2 (MPa)
(29 million lb/in2 (MPa) for steel) (199,955 MPa)
w
weight of tape, lb/ft (kg/m)
L
unsupported length, ft (m)

Slope Corrections

In slope measurements, the horizontal distance H
L

cos x, where L
slope distance and x
vertical angle,
measured from the horizontal—a simple hand calculator
operation. For slopes of 10 percent or less, the correction to
be applied to L for a difference d in elevation between tape
ends, or for a horizontal offset d between tape ends, may be
computed from
d2
Cs

2L
For a slope greater than 10 percent, Cs may be determined from

d2 d4
Cs

2L 8L3

Temperature Corrections

For incorrect tape length:

(actual tape length  nominal tape length)L

Ct

nominal tape length

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SURVEYING FORMULAS 251

For nonstandard tension:

(applied pull  standard tension)L

Ct

AE

where A
cross-sectional area of tape, in2 (mm2); and

E
modulus of elasticity
29,000,00 lb/in2 for steel
(199,955 MPa).
For sag correction between points of support, ft (m):

w2 L3s
C

24P2

where w
weight of tape per foot, lb (N)

Ls
unsupported length of tape, ft (m)
P
pull on tape, lb (N)

Orthometric Correction

This is a correction applied to preliminary elevations due

to flattening of the earth in the polar direction. Its value is
a function of the latitude and elevation of the level circuit.
Curvature of the earth causes a horizontal line to depart
from a level surface. The departure Cf , ft, or Cm, (m), may
be computed from

Cf
0.667M 2
0.0239F 2

Cm
0.0785K 2

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252 CHAPTER SEVEN

where M, F, and K are distances in miles, thousands of feet,

and kilometers, respectively, from the point of tangency to
the earth.
Refraction causes light rays that pass through the earth’s
atmosphere to bend toward the earth’s surface. For horizon-
tal sights, the average angular displacement (like the sun’s
diameter) is about 32 min. The displacement Rf, ft, or Rm,
m, is given approximately by

R f
0.093M 2
0.0033F 2

R m
0.011K 2

To obtain the combined effect of refraction and curvature of

the earth, subtract Rf from Cf or Rm from Cm.
Borrow-pit or cross-section leveling produces elevations
at the corners of squares or rectangles with sides that are
dependent on the area to be covered, type of terrain, and
accuracy desired. For example, sides may be 10, 20, 40, 50,
or 100 ft (3.048, 6.09, 12.19, 15.24, or 30.48 m). Contours
can be located readily, but topographic features, not so well.
Quantities of material to be excavated or filled are com-
puted, in yd3 (m3), by selecting a grade elevation or final
ground elevation, computing elevation differences for the
corners, and substituting in

nxA
Q

108

where n
number of times a particular corner enters as

part of a division block
x
difference in ground and grade elevation for
each corner, ft (m)
A
area of each block, ft2 (m2)

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SURVEYING FORMULAS 253

VERTICAL CONTROL

The NGS provides vertical control for all types of surveys.

NGS furnishes descriptions and elevations of bench marks
on request. As given in “Standards and Specifications for
Geodetic Control Networks,” Federal Geodetic Control
Committee, the relative accuracy C, mm, required between
directly connected bench marks for the three orders of
leveling is

First order: C
0.5√K for Class I and 0.7√K for Class II

Second order: C
1.0√K for Class I and 1.3√K for Class II
Third order: C
2.0√K
where K is the distance between bench marks, km.

STADIA SURVEYING

In stadia surveying, a transit having horizontal stadia

crosshairs above and below the central horizontal crosshair
is used. The difference in the rod readings at the stadia
crosshairs is termed the rod intercept. The intercept may
be converted to the horizontal and vertical distances
between the instrument and the rod by the following
formulas:

H
Ki(cos a)2 ( f c) cos a

1
V
Ki(sin 2a) ( f c) sin a
2

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254 CHAPTER SEVEN

where H
horizontal distance between center of transit

and rod, ft (m)
V
vertical distance between center of transit and
point on rod intersected by middle horizontal
crosshair, ft (m)
K
stadia factor (usually 100)
i
rod intercept, ft (m)
a
vertical inclination of line of sight, measured
from the horizontal, degree
f c
instrument constant, ft (m) (usually taken as
1 ft) (0.3048 m)

In the use of these formulas, distances are usually calculated

to the foot (meter) and differences in elevation to tenths of a
foot (meter).
Figure 7.1 shows stadia relationships for a horizontal
sight with the older type of external-focusing telescope.
Relationships are comparable for the internal-focusing type.
For horizontal sights, the stadia distance, ft, (m) (from
instrument spindle to rod), is

f
D
R C
i
where R
intercept on rod between two sighting wires,
ft (m)
f
focal length of telescope, ft (m) (constant for
specific instrument)
i
distance between stadia wires, ft (m)

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 SURVEYING FORMULAS

SURVEYING FORMULAS 255

FIGURE 7.1 Distance D is measured with an external-focusing

telescope by determining interval R intercepted on a rod AB by two
horizontal sighting wires a and b.

C
f c
c
distance from center of spindle to center of
objective lens, ft (m)
C is called the stadia constant, although c and C vary slightly.
The value of f/i, the stadia factor, is set by the manu-
facturer to be about 100, but it is not necessarily 100.00.
The value should be checked before use on important work,
or when the wires or reticle are damaged and replaced.

PHOTOGRAMMETRY

Photogrammetry is the art and science of obtaining reliable

measurements by photography (metric photogrammetry) and
qualitative evaluation of image data (photo interpretation). It
includes use of terrestrial, close-range, aerial, vertical, oblique,
strip, and space photographs along with their interpretation.

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256 CHAPTER SEVEN

Scale formulas are as follows:

Photo scale photo distance

Map scale map distance
ab f
Photo scale


AB H  h1
where f
focal length of lens, in (m)
H
flying height of airplane above datum (usually
mean sea level), ft (m)
h1
elevation of point, line, or area with respect to
datum, ft (m)

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