Int J Technol Des Educ

DOI 10.1007/s10798-015-9302-7

Influence of design training and spatial solution strategies

on spatial ability performance

Hanyu Lin

Accepted: 9 February 2015

Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract Numerous studies have reported that spatial ability improves through training.
This study investigated the following: (1) whether design training enhances spatial ability
and (2) whether differing solution strategies are applied or generated following design
training. On the basis of these two research objectives, this study divided the participants
into design and non-design groups. Each participant in these groups was required to
complete three spatial tests and one solution strategy questionnaire. This study found that
the participants in the design group outperformed those in the non-design group regarding
spatial visualization and spatial relations; however, the two groups showed no difference in
visuospatial perceptual speed performance. The design and non-design groups adopted
different solution strategies; the design group used the holistic strategy, whereas the non-
design group used the analytical strategy.

Keywords Spatial ability
Design training
Solution strategies

Introduction

Spatial ability plays a prominent role in design. Numerous studies have reported that
design training increases spatial performance (Martı́n-Dorta et al. 2008; Onyancha et al.
2009; Park et al. 2011; Workman et al. 1999). Most studies have investigated whether
design training increases spatial ability, and tended to assess spatial visualization by using
spatial tests. However, spatial ability includes several factors (Carroll 1993; Linn and
Petersen 1985). Therefore, studies must incorporate different factors into the spatial test to
determine which factors of spatial ability that design training improves. Several studies
have reported that strategies affect spatial performance and that a spatial test comprises

H. Lin (&)
Industrial Design Department, National Kaohsiung Normal University, No. 62, Shenjhong Rd.,
Yanchao District, Kaohsiung City 82446, Taiwan
e-mail: hanyu@nknu.edu.tw

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holistic and analytical strategies (Shepard and Cooper 1982). Participants with satisfactory
spatial performance rely less on the analytical strategy but more on the holistic strategy
(Freedman and Rovegno 1981). Some studies have indicated that participants can adopt
more efficient solution strategies through training (Glück et al. 2001). If design training
increases spatial ability, does it also change the solution strategies adopted? By dividing
the participants into design and non-design groups, this study aimed to (1) analyze whether
spatial ability differences exist between design and non-design groups, (2) identify the
spatial factors in which differences occur if they do exist, and (3) analyze whether solution
strategy differences exist between design and non-design groups.

Spatial ability

Spatial ability is a concept. Several researchers who studied spatial ability have asserted
that spatial ability is not a single skill; instead, it comprises multiple factors (Linn and
Petersen 1985; McGee 1979). McGee (1979) indicated that spatial ability comprises at
least two components, namely spatial visualization and spatial orientation. Lohman (1979)
divided spatial ability into three factors, namely spatial visualization, spatial orientation,
and spatial relations. Linn and Petersen (1985) stated that spatial ability comprises spatial
perception, mental rotation, and spatial visualization. Carroll (1993) indicated that spatial
ability comprises five factors, namely spatial visualization, spatial relations, visuospatial
perceptual speed, closure speed, and closure flexibility. By conducting a factor analysis on
42 spatial tests, Burton and Fogarty (2003) identified five factors of spatial ability, namely
visualization, spatial relations, visual memory, speed of closure, and perceptual speed-
closure flexibility. Based on the aforementioned findings, although different researchers
have different perspectives regarding the composition of spatial ability, they have all
included spatial visualization. In addition, researchers have often mentioned spatial rela-
tions and visuospatial perceptual speed (Miyake et al. 2001). This study therefore used
spatial visualization, spatial relations, and visuospatial perceptual speed as the factors of
spatial ability to perform the investigations.
Researchers have previously developed numerous tests including the Mental Rotation
Test (MRT, Shepard and Metzler 1971; Vandenberg and Kuse 1978) and Purdue Spatial
Visualization Test (Guay 1976) to evaluate spatial visualization. French (1951) considered
that the Card Rotation Test (CRT), Cube Comparisons Test, and Spatial Orientation Test
are applicable for evaluating spatial relations. Lohman (1988) and Carroll (1993) both
asserted that spatial relations could be tested using the CRT and Flag Test. Miyake et al.
(2001) adopted the Identical Pictures Test and Hidden Patterns Test (HPT) to evaluate
visuospatial perceptual speed.

Spatial ability and training

Numerous studies have asserted that training can enhance spatial ability. For example,
Lord (1987) used a paper folding test to measure participants’ spatial visualization ability.
People with low spatial abilities were selected and split into two groups. One group of
participants underwent spatial visualization training and testing for 12 weeks, and the other
group did not. The results indicated that the group that completed the spatial visualization
training outperformed the other group on the spatial tests. Thus, Lord (1987) contended
that spatial visualization abilities can be enhanced through training. However, although

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training enhances spatial ability, whether training influences trainees’ professional per-
formance remains unclear. Wanzel et al. (2002) investigated the relationship between
surgical procedures and visual-spatial ability. Their results indicated that mental rotations
tests were related to learning spatially complex surgical procedures. Resident physicians
with high mental rotation abilities exhibited superior machine operation performance
scores. Nevertheless, the test scores of physicians with low rotation abilities significantly
improved following mental rotation training and feedback, and no differences were ob-
served compared with the physicians in the high mental rotation group when performing a
two-flap Z-plasty surgery. Wanzel et al. (2002) asserted that surgeons who achieve high
spatial scores through training or practice can transfer their spatial abilities to new tasks
after training.
Cherney (2008) found that computer game training enhances spatial abilities. The
participants in that study were split into two training groups (massed and distributed) to
complete controlled computer game training. The overall training time was identical for all
participants. The study results showed that the participants’ scores for the Vandenberg and
Kuse Mental Rotation Test (VMRT) and CRT differed before and after training;
specifically, the participants’ mental rotation performance significantly improved follow-
ing training. Further investigations indicated that the degree of mental rotation testing
improvement in the massed training group was superior to that of the distributed training
group. In other words, massed training methods were more effective for improving spatial
ability.
Although many studies have reported that training enhances spatial ability, several
studies do not support this notion. For example, in studies involving apparel design, no
training programs or curricula have been proven to improve performance on spatial vi-
sualization tests. Workman et al. (1999) investigated the relationship between spatial
ability and apparel design. In their experiment, they considered training to be the inde-
pendent variable, and the Apparel Spatial Visualization Test (ASVT) and Differential
Aptitude Test-Space Relations (DATSR) scores to be the dependent variables. The ex-
periment results indicated that the ASVT scores of the training program or curriculum
participants significantly exceeded those of the participants with no training, although no
differences were observed between the DATSR scores of the trained and non-trained
participants. These findings suggested that although training influences professional per-
formance, professional training does not influence spatial ability performance. In addition,
the researchers found that DATSR and ASVT were unrelated, indicating that spatial ability
tests cannot predict the professional performance for apparel design.
A consensus regarding spatial ability and training has yet to be reached in relevant
studies. Some studies have asserted that training enhances spatial abilities, whereas others
have not obtained the same results. Therefore, further discussion on whether design
training enhances spatial abilities is necessary.

Spatial abilities and solution strategies

Solution strategies influence spatial test scores. Different people use different solution
strategies to solve the same problem (Lohman and Kyllonen 1983). Studies on solution
strategies are scarce, primarily because solution strategies are difficult to assess or esti-
mate. Currently, numerous methods are used to assess participants’ solution strategies; the
most commonly employed is the introspective method. This method involves the par-
ticipants describing their conscious experiences. These descriptions are then used to

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determine the psychological processes participants undergo during spatial testing. Other
methods used to explore solution strategies include response times and eye movement
tracking and analysis.
Snow (1980) collected introspective reports from numerous people who completed a
paper folding test. Snow found that the first action performed by the participants was item
or topic analysis, which included analyzing the contours, angles, symmetry, and other
characteristics of the patterns or figures. The participants reported that they extracted
pattern characteristics, used matching or pairing strategies, or employed elimination
strategies to disregard incorrect options. Some participants stated that elimination was an
alternative strategy when no solutions were identified after applying matching or pairing
strategies.
In the context of spatial strategy applications, Workman and Lee (2004) investigated
whether changes, as well as the cultural differences in these changes, existed between
spatial and professional abilities before and after apparel design lessons or classes. They
conducted retrospective interviews and instructed the participants to recall the strategies
they applied when answering questions. Their findings indicated that the participants’
spatial and professional abilities after attending lessons for one semester were significantly
superior to their previous abilities. Additionally, their results did not show cultural dif-
ferences. The participants applied seven strategies, namely stimulus analysis, extraction of
a landmark, matching, elimination, checking, relying on expectations based on prior
knowledge, and guessing.
Other studies have divided solution strategies for spatial testing into holistic and ana-
lytical strategies (e.g., Linn and Petersen 1985). Tzuriel and Egozi (2010) further inves-
tigated the relationship between holistic and analytical strategies and mental rotation
abilities. Their results indicated that children with high mental rotation abilities tended to
apply holistic strategies. They also found that boys and girls applied different strategies.
Most boys used holistic strategies, whereas most girls employed analytical strategies.
Tzuriel and Egozi (2010) contended that holistic strategies were more effective for solving
mental rotation tasks compared with analytical strategies. This implies that the use of
different strategies may be one reason for the spatial ability differences between boys and
girls.

Method

Participants

A total of 129 Taiwanese students participated in this study with 77 in the design group and
52 in the non-design group. Their ages ranged between 18 and 24 years (mean
age = 20.53, SD = 1.13). The design group participants were students from the Depart-
ment of Industrial Design at National Kaohsiung Normal University. The students in the
design group had studied engineering drawing, basic design, model creation, computer
aided design, and product design at school; these courses train students on spatial designing
skills, including idea sketching, 3D drawing, mockup, and computer 3D modeling. The
non-design group participants were students from the Department of Education and the
Department of Optoelectronics and Communication Engineering who had not participated
in courses related to designing.

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Influence of design training and spatial solution strategies

Measures

On the basis of the perspectives of Carroll (1993) and Miyake et al. (2001), three spatial
ability factors and the tests commonly employed for these factors were selected. The
factors comprised spatial visualization, spatial relations, and visuospatial perceptual speed.
The VMRT is commonly used to evaluate spatial visualization (Clayton 2012); several
researchers (e.g., Carroll 1993; Lohman 1988) have indicated that the CRT can be used for
evaluating spatial relations and that the HPT can be used for evaluating visuospatial
perceptual speed (Miyake et al. 2001). Thus, the three spatial tests used in this study were
the VMRT, CRT, and HPT.
The spatial solution strategies were based on those proposed by Moè et al. (2009).
Following the completion of the VMRT, the participants were instructed to complete a
strategy-item questionnaire survey. The questionnaire comprised four holistic items [(1) I
rotated the target stimulus to match the test stimulus, (2) I rotated the test stimulus to match
the target stimulus, (3) I globally rotated the stimulus, (4) I imagined myself rotating
around the object] and two analytical items [(1) I counted the cubes, (2) I rotated the
stimulus piece by piece]. The questionnaire adopted the 7-point Likert scale, with 1 rep-
resenting never having used the solution strategy during the VMRT, and 7 representing
always.

Procedures

The participants completed the spatial tests in a quiet environment in small groups of three
to eight people; each participant was required to complete three spatial tests and one
solution strategy questionnaire. Before every spatial test, two examples were provided for
practice. Formal testing was employed following the confirmation of participants’ un-
derstanding of how to complete the test. The test comprised two stages. In the first stage,
the participants completed the CRT and HPT. In the second stage, the participants com-
pleted the VMRT first, received the solution strategy questionnaires afterwards, and then
answered the questionnaires according to their solution strategies in the VMRT.

Results

To assess whether design training influenced spatial ability performance, and to identify
the spatial ability factors that were influenced, independent sample t tests were conducted
to compare the performance differences on the three spatial tests between the design and
non-design groups. Table 1 shows the t test results for the three spatial tests.

Table 1 t test results for the

Mean SD t test
three spatial tests
VMRT Design group 9.55 2.95 6.07**
Non-design group 6.46 2.64
CRT Design group 92.23 20.78 2.88*
Non-design group 81.69 19.90
HPT Design group 130.12 26.04 .96
Non-design group 125.83 23.02
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

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Table 2 t test results for the

Mean SD t test
solution strategies
Holistic Design group 4.00 .70 8.11**
Non-design group 3.07 .54
Analytical Design group 2.72 .73 -7.81**
Non-design group 3.77 .78
** p \ .01

For the VMRT, the t test results indicated that t127 = 6.07, p \ .01. Based on calcu-
lations of the mean, the design group scored 9.55 and the non-design group scored 6.46.
This suggests that the VMRT performance of the design group was significantly superior to
that of the non-design group. For the CRT, the t test results indicated that t127 = 2.88,
p \ .05. According to mean calculations, the design group scored 92.23 and the non-design
group scored 81.69. This suggests that the CRT performance of the design group was
significantly superior to that of the non-design group. For the HPT, the t test results
indicated that t127 = .96, p = .34. These results did not achieve significance, and therefore
indicates that the HPT performance of the design and non-design groups were similar.
For solution strategies, t tests were also conducted to compare the holistic and analytical
item scores of the design and non-design groups. Table 2 shows the t test results for the
solution strategies.
Regarding the holistic items, the scores for the four items were summed and divided by
four to obtain an overall holistic item score. Subsequently, the differences between the
scores for the design and non-design groups were compared. The t test results indicated
that t127 = 8.11, p \ .01. The mean score of the design group was 4.00 and that of the non-
design group was 3.07. This suggests that the participants in the design group applied
holistic strategies more during spatial testing than did those in the non-design group.
Regarding the analytical items, the scores for the two items were summed and divided by
two to obtain the overall analytical score. Subsequently, t tests were conducted to deter-
mine whether differences existed between the analytical strategies employed by the design
and non-design groups. The results indicated that t127 = -7.81, p \ .01. Based on cal-
culations of the mean, the design group scored 2.72 and the non-design group scored 3.77.
This suggests that the participants in the non-design group applied analytical strategies
more during spatial testing than did those in the design group.
Based on the Pearson product-moment correlation test results, the VMRT performance
was significantly positively correlated to the holistic items, r129 = .52, p \ .001, and
negatively significantly correlated to the analytical items, r129 = -.38, p \ .001. This
suggests that higher mental rotation scores were obtained with higher holistic item scores.
Conversely, lower mental rotation scores were obtained with higher analytical item scores.

Discussion

In this study, we investigated whether spatial abilities increase following design training
and whether different solution strategies are applied after design training, and we examined
the relationship between holistic and analytical strategies and spatial test performance.
Thus, we considered the design and non-design groups as independent variables, and the
three spatial tests and solution strategies as dependent variables. The results indicated that
the VMRT and CRT performances of the design group were significantly superior to those

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of the non-design group. However, no difference was observed in the HPT performance of
the two groups. The VMRT corresponded to spatial visualization, the CRT corresponded to
spatial relations, and the HPT corresponded to visuospatial perceptual speed.
The results indicate that design training increased the industrial design students’ spatial
visualization and spatial relations performance, and these results are consistent with those
of previous studies. In other words, course activities related to design such as freehand
sketching and computer-aided design courses increase the performance of spatial abilities
(Lord 1985; Martı́n-Dorta et al. 2008; Onyancha et al. 2009; Rafi et al. 2006). Several
industrial design courses (e.g., sketching, engineering drawing, product design, and
computer-aided design) train 2D and 3D abilities. Thus, in this study, the design group’s
more favorable performance regarding spatial visualization and spatial relations compared
with the non-design group can be attributed to design training.
This study found no difference between the visuospatial perceptual speed performance
of the design and non-design groups. In this study, the visuospatial perceptual speed test
required participants to observe a simple graphic diagram and rapidly determine whether
the diagram is included in the test figure, thereby testing the participants’ perceptual speed.
Industrial design courses, which primarily focus on design training, do not include pro-
grams that train perceptual speed. Therefore, in this study, no difference was observed
regarding the visuospatial perceptual speed of the two groups because of the lack of
training on this ability in the design courses. Most previous studies that investigated
whether training increases spatial ability have focused on spatial visualization; this study
provided evidence that visuospatial perceptual speed does not increase through design
training.
Previous studies have reported that people with high-spatial ability employ the holistic
strategy, and those with low spatial ability use the analytical strategy (Bethell-Fox and
Shepard 1988; Khooshabeh et al. 2013; Mumaw et al. 1984). This study found the same
results, that is, the participants in the design group who had high spatial ability used the
holistic strategy, whereas those in the non-design group who had low spatial ability used
the analytical strategy. Furthermore, Bethell-Fox and Shepard (1988) reported that par-
ticipants in a mental rotation test used the analytical strategy on unfamiliar objects, but
through practice they learned to use the holistic strategy on familiar objects. Similar studies
have reported that people adopt highly efficient solution strategies through training (Glück
et al. 2001). Thus, the difference in the solution strategies employed by the design and non-
design groups can be attributed to the design training they received.
Because spatial solution strategies can be obtained through instruction (Hsi et al. 1997),
using the holistic strategy solves spatial problems more efficiently (Linn and Petersen
1985). From the design education perspective, this study recommended that training
courses instruct students to use the holistic strategy in solving 2D and 3D problems. This
approach can enable students to form comprehensive images of 3D models in the initial
design stage in their minds and visualize product designs more efficiently.
In the design process, creative thinking, conceptual problem solving, and concept
generation all concern spatial ability (Roth 1993); furthermore, previous studies have
reported the relationship between spatial ability and creativity (Chang 2014; Kell et al.
2013). If spatial ability improves through design training, then does creativity also increase
with it? This topic warrants further investigation.

Acknowledgments This research was supported by the National Science Council of Taiwan under Grant
NSC100-2221-E-17-14.

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