How soils are formed?

Scientists tell us that there were mostly rocks on the earth millions of years ago.
Because of some natural forces like wind and water, many rocks broke up. Today,
tiny plants that grow on the rocks also contribute to the breaking of rocks. When
organisms like plants and animals die, their remains mix with the particles of rocks.
Particles of rocks are the mineral part of soil. The remains of dead plants and animals
are the organic parts of soil. Organic means that it is coming from living things.

Soil forms layers as it develops

sandy soil

The upper most layer of soil is the top soil. It is generally dark in color and crumbly.
It is rich in humus, a black material that comes from the remains of dead organisms.
Humus is rich in nutrients, so it makes the topsoil fertile. Top soil can be just a few
centimeters or more than a meter thick. Plants grow well on top soil. Beneath the top
soil is the subsoil. This layer is light brown. Compared to topsoil, the subsoil has
more mineral and less organic particles. Therefore, it is not fertile like topsoil. The
bottom layer is the bedrock or parent rock. The parent rock is grayish brown. As it
breaks down, it adds to the layers above it.

Kinds of soil

Silty soil

Different mixtures of rock particles and organic particles result in different kinds of
soil. Rock particles differ in sizes. Sand has the largest particles. You can see each
individual grain of sand. Next in size is silt. The particles of silt are smaller than those
of sand but can still be seen. The smallest particles are those of clay. Soils are
named according to the amount of the kind of rock particles that they have. A sandy
soil contains more sand, a silty soil contains more silt and a clayey soil has more
clay. Loam is a soil that contains about equal amounts of sand, silt and clay. Different
kinds of soil have different characteristics. Soil differs in color. There are yellow soils
and red soils. There are brown soils and black soils. Soils that are dark colored are
fertile soil.

Soils differ in smell

Clay soil

While some soils have no smell, some have a foul smell. Others have and earthy
smell. A large amount of humus in the soil gives it an earthy smell. Soils differ in
texture. Rub a bit of soil between your fingers. If it fells rocky and coarse, then it is
sandy soil. If the soil feels smooth and sticky then it is clayey soil.

Soil differ in the amount of space between particles

Sandy soil has big particles and the spaces between particles are big. A silty soil has
small particles and the spaces between particles are small. Particles of clay stick
together in clumps, leaving no space between particles. The amount of space
between particles determines how water can move through the soil and how much
water it can hold. When the spaces between the particles are so small, the soil will
have little water and air, and tiny organisms cannot live in the soil.

Characteristics of Different Soil Types

Sand, Loamy sand, Sandy loam

These are well drained and aerated and workable for most of the year. They are very light
to handle and quick to warm up in spring. Unless they have a very high organic matter
content they are prone to drying out too quickly, and additional watering will be needed.
This extra watering will also help to wash out the plant foods and lime from the soil, so they
are likely to be acid (except for some coastal soils). They are often referred to as
� hungry� soils and need lots of extra feeding. With careful management however, they
can be amongst the most productive soil types.

Medium loam, Sandy clay loam, Silt Loam

These are the � average� soil types. They achieve a good balance between the ability to
be very productive and the minimum of attention. The medium loam group is probably the
best in this respect.

Clay, Sandy clay, Clay loam, Silty clay loam, Silty clay, Silt
Although these soils are difficult to work and manage, they usually have good supplies of
plant foods and lime. The main drawbacks are the high water holding capacity (which
means they are late to get going in spring) and the effort required to work them. You will
need to catch just the right weather conditions to avoid hard work and damage to the soil
structure. The use of heavy machinery (and especially rotavators) should be avoided at all
costs, particularly when the soil is wet.
Peat moss or Fen Soils.
Provided they are not too acid and have effective sub drainage, these are probably the best
natural soils available. They are rich in plant foods, are easily workable and early. It is
possible to convert your existing soil into peat type soil by adding large amounts of organic
matter. Some of the keenest exhibition growers do just this. It can be time consuming and
costly at first, but once you get there life becomes much easier. You must avoid making
your soil too acid though, and careful choice of organic matter is needed.

Chalk soils and Limestone Soils

These are the soils that contain a high proportion of chalk or lime. So much in fact, that it
overrides their normal particle size classification. They are often very shallow soils, and
severely limit the types of plants that can be grown successfully in them. If you have a soil
of this type and are not happy with the range of plants it will allow you to grow, probably the
best thing you can do is move to a new area and check the soil out first. If you can� t move,
the most sensible course of action is to limit yourself to the plants that will grow in chalky
soils. Trying to change the soil is usually an uphill struggle and quite expensive. For the
incurably intrepid, details are given later in the � Golden Rules for Difficult Soils� section.

3 Soil Types
By Steve Johnson, eHow Contributor

There are different types of soil.

Soil exists all over the earth; however, few people understand the diversity that lies
right beneath them. Soil comes in many different types---depending upon its location.
Understanding the different soil types helps people to understand the diversity of
plant life that grows within different areas. This is important when planting a garden,
whether you're planting flowers or produce. Does this Spark an idea?

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 3 Main Types of Soil

 How to Teach Different Types of Soil

1. Types
o Soil is the life support of all plants and is normally classified either as
clay, sand, or silt. The type of soil varies from place to place and is
mostly dependent upon the climate and weather, as different types of
stresses create different types of soil. Affecting factors include the
amount of rain received, wind, terrain, as well as plant and animal life.

Clay
o The fine-textured, stiff, and sticky soil is called clay. When wet, it can be
molded into any shape and can be used to make bricks, pottery, and
ceramics---clay is often used by many people in poorer regions of the
world to create homes.

Clay retains water more easily and is good for plants. This ability to
retain water also provides a double-edged sword because it cannot
drain water easily. This causes problems with the roots rotting. Clay
also tends to be heavy and compact when dry, restricting plant growth

Sand
o Sand soil is dusty and coarse to the touch and is the type of soil that
people normally associate as dirt or soil. Sand is easy to handle
because it dries quickly. It can be difficult to grow plants in sand
because it is unable to retain water and nutrients well. It is also easily
carried by the wind, causing soil erosion, which can also make it difficult
for plants to grow---especially in windy areas.

Silt
o Silt is finer than sand. It is smooth, but can still feel gritty. It holds more
nutrients for plants than other types of soils, but erodes quickly. The
lightest among the three soil types, it is also easily carried by the wind
in dust form and washes out easily in areas with excess water.
What Is the Difference Between Topsoil & Subsoil & Bedrock?
By Kyle Lanning, eHow Contributor

Soil is the essence of life.

Most people take soil for granted; yet, it is the one thing that sustains plant life so that
the rest of us can live. Soil is composed of several layers, which all differ in their
composition and depth within the earth. Subsoil, bedrock and topsoil are three such
layers of soil, and they all have important characteristics for gardening and
landscaping. Does this Spark an idea?

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 What Is Topsoil Composed Of?

 Characteristics of Topsoil

1. Formation
o Making soil is a biological process accomplished by several different
microorganisms. Bacteria, fungi and other organisms decompose living
matter and eventually turn it back into soil. From there, temperature,
along with pressure and weathering, shapes the remains of previous
living beings into what we call soil. Furthermore, soil formation still goes
on today and deep within the earth, the same processes work to
change bedrock into topsoil at a rate of one inch every 500 years.

Bedrock
o The most fundamental level of soil is bedrock. The bedrock layer of soil
sits below the subsoil and topsoil levels in the form of very hard rock.
Here the bedrock waits for erosion and other geological processes,
 such as earthquakes, to begin changing its form. Bedrock is very hard
and tough to work with and allows little, if any, water or air circulation
through its tough form. The top of bedrock, called the rockhead, is
where the bedrock meets the next layer of soil and engineers often
have to dig and find the rockhead before beginning some construction
projects.

Subsoil
o Subsoil is the layer of soil below the topsoil. It contains mainly sandy
and clay deposits without a lot of organic matter. Although subsoil is
much less fertile than topsoil, it can be amended to increase its plant-
growing capacities. Subsoil is also much lighter in color and much
harder to handle than topsoil. It is, however, much looser than the
hardened layer of bedrock lying beneath it. One advantage that subsoil
has over topsoil is that it contains few if any weed seeds because of its
depth, therefore increasing its attractiveness to growers and companies
that make topsoil.

Topsoil
o The layer of soil closest to our feet is topsoil. Geologists refer to it as
the "A" horizon, whereas subsoil is the "B" horizon. Topsoil is much
more fertile than subsoil because it contains more organic matter, thus
giving it a darker color. A layer of humus, which is essentially dead and
decaying organic matter, sometimes covers topsoil. This humus has a
number of important properties for gardeners, and, as it decays into
topsoil, it creates a nutrient-rich blend of soil that gardeners and
landscapers dream about. Unfortunately, being the top level of soil
comes at a price. Topsoil is lost to soil erosion and poor farming
practices at an alarming rate. In fact, the Green Trust organization
estimated that the U.S. lost about 60 percent of its topsoil in 200 years
of farming.

Implications
o Topsoil depth varies from a few inches to several feet depending on
geological processes. Thus, when gardeners and landscapers explain
their soil type as clay, sandy or loamy, they are often referring to the top
layer of subsoil. A good rule to remember is that the darker the soil, the
more nutrients it carries. Additionally, if a gardener or landscaper is
concerned about soil fertility, he can have tests done at garden centers
or university cooperative extensions.
Difference Between Topsoil & Subsoil
By Debopriya Bose, eHow Contributor

According to one of the definitions provided by the United States Department of

Agriculture, soil is the unconsolidated organic or mineral material that covers the
Earth’s surface and acts as the medium on which plants grow. Soil has a complex
structure and composition that varies with depth and geographic location. Vertically,
soil has three main layers starting with topsoil on the surface, followed by subsoil and
bedrock at the bottom. Does this Spark an idea?

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 Subsoil and Topsoil Density

 Topsoil to Subsoil

1. Topsoil Characteristics
o As the name suggests, topsoil is the topmost layer of the soil. It is this
layer of the soil that we walk on and cultivate our crops. Topsoil is made
of fine, loose soil particles. Agents of erosion like wind, water,
temperature fluctuations and glaciers wear out the bedrock to form the
topsoil. The topsoil is porous. It has air between its particles and water
easily drains through it.

Subsoil Characteristics
o This layer lies just beneath the topsoil. It is more compact than the
topsoil. Hence, the subsoil is not as well aerated as the topsoil. It is
 lighter in color and stickier than the topsoil. Therefore, it is difficult to
handle, compared to the topsoil.

Composition
o According to the Forest Preserve District of Cook County (Illinois),
subsoil is mainly clay, muck or loess. It is rich in minerals. It has a few
elements that are important plant growth. However, these elements
need to be converted into forms that can be absorbed by plants. As the
topsoil is made from erosion of bedrock, it is rich in nutrients that can be
easily used by plants for their growth. Besides this, the topsoil is also
rich in organic matter.

Fertility
o Topsoil is more fertile than subsoil. It is because the topsoil is rich in
organic matter. As plants and animals die, they fall on the topsoil. Here
they disintegrate to make the soil fertile. This is called the humus.
Humus cannot reach down to the subsoil. Hence, it is not conducive for
plant growth.

Life
o Being closer to the surface, topsoil is in direct contact with the
atmosphere. Its loose particles allow air to pervade the topsoil. This
makes it possible for earthworms, millipedes, centipedes, millipedes
and other soil dwelling organisms to survive in the topsoil. These
organisms further mix and turn the topsoil making it more porous. This
enables gaseous exchange that is so important for living things. Since
the subsoil is more compact than the topsoil, it does not hold air.
Hence, it cannot support life.

Advantages and Disadvantages

o Despite its fertility, topsoil also poses problems for gardeners as it
harbors weed seeds. Subsoil is free from weed seeds. Hence,
gardeners prefer using subsoil to topsoil, for their lawns. Also, by
adding nutrients, subsoil can be easily enriched.

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