19/11/2014

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING II

Pavement Failures, Construction

And Maintenance

Flexible Pavement Distress

• Summary of the major flexible

pavement distresses is explained
below. Each distress discussion
includes (1) pictures (2) a description
of the distress, (3) why the distress is
a problem and (4) typical causes of
the distress.5)solution to the problem

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Failure Types

• Fatigue (alligator) cracking

• Bleeding
• Block cracking
• Corrugation and shoving
• Depression
• Joint reflection cracking
• Lane/shoulder drop-off
• Longitudinal cracking
• Patching Polished aggregate
• Potholes

• Raveling
• Rutting
• Slippage cracking
• Stripping
• Transverse (thermal) cracking
• Water bleeding and pumping

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Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

• Description: Series of interconnected

cracks caused by fatigue failure of the
HMA surface (or stabilized base) under
repeated traffic loading. In thin
pavements, cracking initiates at the
bottom of the HMA layer where the
tensile stress is the highest then
propagates to the surface as one or
more longitudinal cracks. This is
commonly referred to as "bottom-up"
or "classical" fatigue cracking.

• In thick pavements, the cracks most

likely initiate from the top .After
repeated loading, the longitudinal
cracks connect forming many-sided
sharp-angled pieces that develop into
a pattern resembling the back of an
alligator or crocodile.

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• Problem: Indicator of structural

failure, cracks allow moisture
infiltration, roughness, may further
deteriorate to a pothole
• Possible Causes: Inadequate
structural support. A few of the more
common ones are listed here:

• Decrease in pavement load supporting

characteristics
– Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support
(e.g., poor drainage or spring thaw resulting in
a less stiff base).
– Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the
stripped portion contributes little to pavement
strength so the effective HMA thickness
decreases)
• Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier
loads than anticipated in design)
• Inadequate structural design
• Poor construction (e.g., inadequate
compaction)

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• Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement

should be investigated to determine the
root cause of failure. Any investigation
should involve digging a pit or coring the
pavement to determine the pavement's
structural makeup as well as determining
whether or not subsurface moisture is a
contributing factor. Once the characteristic
alligator pattern is apparent, repair by
crack sealing is generally
ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally
falls into one of two categories:

• Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss

of subgrade support. Remove the cracked
pavement area then dig out and replace the area of
poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that
area if necessary. Patch over the repaired
subgrade.
• Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general
structural failure. Place an HMA overlay over the
entire pavement surface. This overlay must be
strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading because the underlying fatigue cracked
pavement most likely contributes little or no strength
(Roberts et. al., 1996).

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Bad fatigue cracking

Fatigue cracking from frost

action

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Fatigue cracking from edge

failure

Bleeding
• Description: A film of asphalt binder on
the pavement surface. It usually creates a
shiny, glass-like reflecting surface (as in
the third photo) that can become quite
sticky.
• Problem: Loss of skid resistance when
wet
• Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when
asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids
during hot weather and then expands onto
the pavement surface. Since bleeding is
not reversible during cold weather, asphalt
binder will accumulate on the pavement
surface over time .

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• This can be caused by one or a

combination of the following:
• Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA
(either due to mix design or
manufacturing)
• Low HMA air void content (e.g., not
enough room for the asphalt to
expand into during hot weather)

• Repair: The following repair measures

may eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder
film on the pavement's surface but may not
correct the underlying problem that caused
the bleeding:
• Minor bleeding can often be corrected by
applying coarse sand to blot up the excess
asphalt binder.
• Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting
off excess asphalt with a motor grader or
removing it with a heater planer. If the
resulting surface is excessively rough,
resurfacing may be necessary.

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Bleeding in Wheel Paths

Bleeding in wheelpaths

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HMA bleeding from over-

asphalting

3) Block Cracking

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• Description: Interconnected cracks

that divide the pavement up into
rectangular pieces. Blocks range in
size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1
ft2) to 9 m2 (100 ft2). Larger blocks
are generally classified as
longitudinal and transverse
cracking. Block cracking normally
occurs over a large portion of
pavement area but sometimes will
occur only in non-traffic areas.

• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration,

roughness
• Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and
daily temperature cycling. Typically
caused by an inability of asphalt binder to
expand and contract with temperature
cycles because of:
• Asphalt binder aging
• Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix
design

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• Repair: Strategies depend upon the

severity and extent of the block cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch
wide). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of
moisture into the sub-grade through the
cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack
edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et.
al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
cracks with raveled edges). Remove and
replace the cracked pavement layer with
an overlay.

4) Corrugation and Shoving

• Description: A form of plastic movement

typified by ripples (corrugation) or an
abrupt wave (shoving) across the
pavement surface. The distortion is
perpendicular to the traffic
direction. Usually occurs at points where
traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or
areas where HMA abuts a rigid object
(shoving).
• Problem: Roughness

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• Possible Causes: Usually caused by

traffic action (starting and stopping)
combined with:
• An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA
layer (caused by mix contamination,
poor mix design, poor HMA
manufacturing, or lack of aeration of
liquid asphalt emulsions)
• Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved

pavement should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure. Repair
strategies generally fall into one of two
categories:
• Small, localized areas of corrugation or
shoving. Remove the distorted pavement
and patch.
• Large corrugated or shoved areas
indicative of general HMA failure. Remove
the damaged pavement and overlay.

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5) Depression

• Description: Localized pavement surface

areas with slightly lower elevations than
the surrounding pavement. Depressions
are very noticeable after a rain when they
fill with water.
• Problem: Roughness, depressions filled
with substantial water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning
• Possible Causes: Frost heave or sub-
grade settlement resulting from inadequate
compaction during construction.

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• Repair: By definition, depressions are

small localized areas. A pavement
depression should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure (i.e.,
subgrade settlement or frost
heave). Depressions should be repaired
by removing the affected pavement then
digging out and replacing the area of poor
subgrade. Patch over the repaired
subgrade.

6) Joint Reflection Cracking

• Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay

of a rigid pavement. The cracks occur
directly over the underlying rigid pavement
joints. Joint reflection cracking does not
include reflection cracks that occur away
from an underlying joint or from any other
type of base (e.g., cement or lime
stabilized).
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration,
roughness

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• Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab

beneath the HMA surface because of thermal and
moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
however loading can hasten deterioration.
• Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and
extent of the cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent
cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture
into the sub-grade through the cracks and (2)
further raveling of the crack edges. In general,
rigid pavement joints will eventually reflect through
an HMA overlay without proper surface
preparation.
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Joint reflection cracking on an

arterial

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Joint reflection cracking close-

up

7) Longitudinal Cracking
• Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's
centerline or lay down direction. Usually a type of
fatigue cracking.
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness,
indicates possible onset of alligator cracking and
structural failure.
• Possible Causes:
Poor joint construction or location. Joints are
generally the least dense areas of a
pavement. Therefore, they should be constructed
outside of the wheel path so that they are only
infrequently loaded. Joints in the wheel path like
those shown in third through fifth figures above,
will general fail prematurely.

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• A reflective crack from an underlying

layer (not including joint reflection
cracking)
• HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of
future alligator cracking)
• top-down cracking
• Repair: Strategies depend upon the
severity and extent of the cracking:

• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and

infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent
(1) entry of moisture into the sub-grade
through the cracks and (2) further raveling
of the crack edges. HMA can provide
years of satisfactory service after
developing small cracks if they are kept
sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace
the cracked pavement layer with an
overlay.

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Longitudinal cracking as the

onset of fatigue cracking

Longitudinal cracking from poor

joint construction

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Longitudinal cracking from poor

joint construction

8) Patching

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• Description: An area of pavement that has been

replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement. A patch is considered a defect no
matter how well it performs.
• Problem: Roughness
• Possible Causes:
• Previous localized pavement deterioration that
has been removed and patched
• Utility cuts
• Repair: Patches are themselves a repair
action. The only way they can be removed from a
pavement's surface is by either a structural or
non-structural overlay.

9) Polished Aggregate
• Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the
portion of aggregate extending above the asphalt
binder is either very small or there are no rough or
angular aggregate particles.
• Problem: Decreased skid resistance
• Possible Causes: Repeated traffic
applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the
protruding rough, angular particles become
polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate
is susceptible to abrasion or subject to excessive
studded tire wear.
• Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal .

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SMAs at the NCAT test

track

5 years of wear

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10) Potholes

• Description: Small, bowl-shaped

depressions in the pavement surface that
penetrate all the way through the HMA
layer down to the base course. They
generally have sharp edges and vertical
sides near the top of the hole. Potholes
are most likely to occur on roads with thin
HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1 to 2
inches)) and seldom occur on roads with
100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA surfaces
(Roberts et al., 1996).

• Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular

damage can result from driving across
potholes at higher speeds), moisture
infiltration
• Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are
the end result of alligator cracking. As
alligator cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks
of pavement, which can be dislodged as
vehicles drive over them. The remaining
hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged
is called a pothole.
• Repair: In accordance with patching
techniques.

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Pothole from fatigue

cracking

Developing pothole

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11) Raveling

• Description: The progressive

disintegration of an HMA layer from
the surface downward as a result of
the dislodgement of aggregate
particles.
• Problem: Loose debris on the
pavement, roughness, water
collecting in the raveled locations
resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss
of skid resistance

• Possible Causes: Several including:

• Loss of bond between aggregate particles
and the asphalt binder as a result of:
– A dust coating on the aggregate particles that
forces the asphalt binder to bond with the dust
rather than the aggregate
– Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are
missing from the aggregate matrix, then the
asphalt binder is only able to bind the
remaining coarse particles at their relatively
few contact points.

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• Inadequate compaction during

construction. High density is required
to develop sufficient cohesion within
the HMA. The third figure above
shows a road suffering from raveling
due to inadequate compaction
caused by cold weather paving.

• Mechanical dislodging by certain

types of traffic (studded tires,
snowplow blades or tracked
vehicles). The first and fourth figures
above show raveling most likely
caused by snow plows.

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• Repair: A raveled pavement should be

investigated to determine the root cause of
failure. Repair strategies generally fall into
one of two categories:
• Small, localized areas of
raveling. Remove the raveled pavement
and patch.
• Large raveled areas indicative of general
HMA failure. Remove the damaged
pavement and overlay.

Raveling due to low density

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Raveling from snow-plough

operations

From segregation

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12) RUTTING
• Description: Surface depression in the
wheelpath. Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur
along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly
evident after a rain when they are filled with
water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix
rutting and subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs
when the subgrade does not rut yet the pavement
surface exhibits wheelpath depressions as a
result of compaction/mix design
problems. Subgrade rutting occurs when the
subgrade exhibits wheelpath depressions due to
loading. In this case, the pavement settles into
the subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in
the wheelpath.

• Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle

hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts
tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is
steered across the rut.
• Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any
of a pavement's layers or subgrade usually
caused by consolidation or lateral movement of
the materials due to traffic loading. Specific
causes of rutting can be:
• Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during
construction. If it is not compacted enough
initially, HMA pavement may continue to densify
under traffic loads.

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• Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of

inadequate pavement structure)
• Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g.,
excessively high asphalt content,
excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount
of angular aggregate particles)
• Ruts caused by studded tire wear present
the same problem as the ruts described
here, but they are actually a result of
mechanical dislodging due to wear and not
pavement deformation.
• .

• Repair: A heavily rutted pavement

should be investigated to determine
the root cause of failure (e.g.
insufficient compaction, subgrade
rutting, poor mix design or studded
tire wear). Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch
deep) can generally be left
untreated. Pavement with deeper
ruts should be leveled and overlaid

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Mix rutting

Mix rutting

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Rutting from mix instability

13) Slippage Cracking

(FIG: Slippage cracking at a bus stop )

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• Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped

cracks generally having two ends pointed into the
direction of traffic.
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
• Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels
cause the pavement surface to slide and
deform. The resulting sliding and deformation is
caused by a low-strength surface mix or poor
bonding between the surface HMA layer and the
next underlying layer in the pavement structure.
• Repair: Removal and replacement of affected
area.

14) Stripping

• Description: The loss of bond between

aggregates and asphalt binder that
typically begins at the bottom of the HMA
layer and progresses upward. When
stripping begins at the surface and
progresses downward it is usually called
raveling. The third photo show the
surface effects of underlying stripping.
• Problem: Decreased structural support,
rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or
cracking (alligator and longitudinal)

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• Possible Causes: Bottom-up

stripping is very difficult to recognize
because it manifests itself on the
pavement surface as other forms of
distress including rutting,
shoving/corrugations, raveling, or
cracking. Typically, a core must be
taken to positively identify stripping
as a pavement distress.
• Poor aggregate surface chemistry

• Water in the HMA causing moisture

damage
• Overlays over an existing open-graded
surface course. Based on WSDOT
experience, these overlays will tend to
strip.
• Repair: A stripped pavement should be
investigated to determine the root cause of
failure (i.e., how did the moisture get in?).
Generally, the stripped pavement needs to
be removed and replaced after correction
of any subsurface drainage issues.

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Core hole showing stripping at

the bottom

Stripping at bottom of hole

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Fatigue failure from stripping

15) Transverse (Thermal)

Cracking
• Description: Cracks perpendicular to the
pavement's centerline or laydown
direction. Usually a type of thermal
cracking.
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration,
roughness
• Possible Causes: Several including:
• Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low
temperatures or asphalt binder hardening
• Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath
the surface HMA layer
• top-down cracking

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• Repair: Strategies depend upon the

severity and extent of the cracking:
• Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent
(1) entry of moisture into the subgrade
through the cracks and (2) further raveling
of the crack edges. HMA can provide
years of satisfactory service after
developing small cracks if they are kept
sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).
• High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace
the cracked pavement layer with an
overlay

Large patched thermal crack

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