TRANSMISSION LINES 215

A
A T12 A T21 T01
2 B
Γ11
Γin = Γ11 + 2B A
1 − T01 Γ11 Γ22
0.943 × 0.943 × (0.707 − 0.707)2 × (−0.2)
= 0.333 +
1 − (0.707 − 0.707)2 × (−0.2) × (−0.333)
= 0.345 − 0.177 . (4.149)

Γin is the reflection at reference plane A and is referenced to Z1 = 30 Ω. So the

input impedance is
   
1 + Γin 1 + 0.345 − 0.177
Zin = Z1 = 30 = 55.39 + 23.08 Ω. (4.150)
1 − Γin 1 − 0.345 − 0.177

(f) Use the lossless telegraphist’s equation, Equation (4.128), to find Zin .
The infinitely long line presents an impedance Z02 to the 60 Ω transmission
line. So the input impedance looking into the 60 Ω line at reference plane A is,
using the lossless telegraphist’s equation,
 
Z02 + Z01 tan βl
Zin = Z01 ,
Z01 + Z02 tan βl

where the electrical length βl is 45◦ or π/8 radians. So

 
40 + 60 tan (π/8)
Zin = 60 = 55.39 + 23.08 Ω,
60 + 40 tan (π/8)

which is the same result obtained using the bounce diagram method.
In the above, two techniques were used to evaluate the input impedance of a
transmission line system. The bounce diagram technique required a subtle choice
of several different reference impedances which were required to keep track of
real power flow. It is quite difficult to make these choices. It can be viewed
that the bounce diagram considers instantaneous reflections of pulses. These are
summed to yield the steady-state input reflection coefficient, and thus the input
impedance. The telegraphist’s equation directly captures the steady-state response.
So while the bounce diagram technique aids in physical understanding, using the
telegraphist’s equation is a much less error prone approach to solving transmission
line problems.

4.8 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines

A number of special cases of lossless terminated transmission lines are
useful circuit elements in RF design.
216 MICROWAVE AND RF DESIGN: A SYSTEMS APPROACH

A B
A
1 T21 T01
A
T21 T01B T12
A
Γ11 A 2 B
T21T01 Γ11
A 2
T12AT21T01B Γ
11
A 3
T21T01 B Γ11AΓ22
A 3
T21T01 B Γ11AΓ22 B T12
A 4 2
T21T01 B Γ11 AΓ22
A 4
T12AT21T01B Γ 2 AΓ
11 22
A 5 B 2
T21T01 Γ11 AΓ222
A 5B 2 B
T21T01 Γ11 AΓ222 T12
A 6 B 3
A 6 3 T21T01 Γ11 AΓ222
T12AT21T01 B Γ11 AΓ222

Figure 4-22 Bounce diagram.

4.8.1 Electrically Short Lossless Line

Now consider the case of electrically short lines, that is, βℓ goes to zero (i.e.,
2πℓ/λ goes to zero), then Equation (4.128) becomes
 
ZL + Z0 (βℓ) ZL
Zin ≈ ≈ [ZL + Z0 (βℓ)] 1 −  (βℓ) .
1 +  ZZL0 (βℓ) Z0

This can be written

p as,√ √ p
since Z0 β = L/C(ω LC) and β/Z0 = (ω LC)/ L/C
Zin ≈ ZL 1 + (βℓ)2 +  ω(Lℓ) − ZL2 ω(Cℓ) .
   

Thus the input impedance of an electrically short line terminated in

impedance ZL is

Zin ≈ ZL +  ω(Lℓ) − ZL2 ω(Cℓ) .

 
(4.151)
Some special cases of this result will be considered next.

4.8.2 Short Length of Short-Circuited Line

A transmission line terminated in a short circuit (ZL = 0) has the input
impedance
Zin = Z0 tan(βℓ) . (4.152)
TRANSMISSION LINES 217

So a short length of line, ℓ < λg /4, looks like an inductor with inductance
Ls ,
Z0 tan(βℓ) = ωLs , (4.153)

and so
Z0 2πℓ
Ls = tan . (4.154)
ω λg

From Equation (4.154) it is seen that for a given ℓ, Ls is proportional

to Z0 . Hence, for larger values of Ls , sections of transmission line of high
characteristic impedance are needed. So microstrip lines with narrow strips
can be used to realize inductors in planar microstrip circuits.

EXAMPLE 4. 17 Inductive Transmission Line

This example demonstrates that one does not need an ideal short to effect a (predominantly)
inductive behavior from a segment of transmission line. Consider the transmission line
system shown below with lines having two different characteristic impedances, Z01 and
Z02 , Z02 ≪ Z01 .

Z in Z 01 Z 02

The value of Zin is

Z02 + Z01 tan βℓ
Zin = Z01 ,
Z01 + Z02 tan βℓ
which for a short line can be expressed as

Zin ≈ Z02 [1 + tan(βl)] + Z01 tan(βℓ) .

Note that Z01 tan(βℓ) is the dominant part for l < λ/8 and Z02 ≪ Z01 .
From this example it can be concluded that a microstrip realization of a series inductor
can be a high-impedance line embedded between two low-impedance lines. A top view
of such a configuration in microstrip is shown in the figure below. Recall that a narrow
microstrip line has high characteristic impedance.

Z0 2 Z01 Z02
218 MICROWAVE AND RF DESIGN: A SYSTEMS APPROACH

C1 C2 C3
L1 L2 L3
L1 L2 L3

C1 C2 C3

(a) (b)

Figure 4-23 A lowpass filter: (a) in the form of an LC ladder network; and (b)
realized using microstrip lines.

4.8.3 Short Length of Open-Circuited Line

An open-circuited line has ZL = ∞ and so

Z0
Zin = − . (4.155)
tan βℓ

For lengths ℓ such that ℓ < λ/4, an open-circuited segment of line realizes a
capacitor C0 for which
1 Z0
= (4.156)
ωC0 tan βℓ
and so
1 tan βℓ
C0 = . (4.157)
Z0 ω
From the above relationship, we see that for a given length of line ℓ, C0 is
inversely proportional to Z0 . Hence for larger values of C0 we need to use
sections of transmission line of low characteristic impedance.

EXAMPLE 4. 18 Transmission Line Filter

A microstrip realization of a lowpass filter consists of Ls and Cs as shown in Figure 4-23(a).

This lowpass filter section can be realized using wide and narrow microstrip lines, as shown
in Figure 4-23(b).

4.8.4 Quarter-Wave Transformer

The next important case of a transmission line section is the quarter-wave
transformer. Figure 4-24(a) shows a resistive load RL and a section of
transmission line whose length ℓ is λg /4 (hence the name quarter-wave
transformer). The input impedance of the line is

RL + Z1 tan(βℓ) RL + Z1 ∞ Z2

Zin = Z1 = Z1 = 1 . (4.158)
Z1 + RL tan(βℓ) Z1 + RL ∞ RL
TRANSMISSION LINES 219

Z0 Z1 RL Z 02 Z0 Z 01

Zin λg /4 λ g /4
(a) (b)

Figure 4-24 The quarter-wave transformer line: (a) interfacing two lines; and (b)
transforming a load.

So the input impedance is matched to the transmission line Z0 if

Zin = Z0 ; (4.159)

that is, p
Z1 = Z0 RL . (4.160)
Thus the quarter-wavelength long line acts as an ideal impedance
transformer.
Another example of the quarter-wave transformer is shown in Figure 4-
24(b). It is clear from the figure that the input impedance looking into the
quarter-wave transformer is given by

Z01 + Z0 tan(βℓ) Z01 + Z0 ∞ Z2

Zin = Z0 = Z0 = 0 . (4.161)
Z0 + Z01 tan(βℓ) Z0 + Z01 ∞ Z01

Hence a section of the transmission line of length ℓ = λg /4 + nλg /2, where

n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., can be used to match two different impedances Z01 , Z02 by
constructing the line such that its characteristic impedance Z0 is
p
Z0 = Z01 Z02 . (4.162)

Note that for a design center frequency f0 , the electrical length of the
matching section is λg /4, but at different frequencies the electrical length
is different and a perfect match is no longer achieved. In general, a perfect
match is obtained only at the frequencies at which ℓ = λg /4 + nλg /2.
There is an interesting property of a quarter-wave transformer that is
widely used in filters. Examine the final result in Equation (4.161) which
is repeated here:
Z2
Zin = 0 . (4.163)
Z01
This result applies to complex impedances as well. Equation (4.163)
indicates that a quarter-wavelength long line is an impedance inverter,
presenting, at Port 1 the inverse of the impedance presented at Port 2, Z01 .
This inversion is normalized by the square of the characteristic impedance
220 MICROWAVE AND RF DESIGN: A SYSTEMS APPROACH

Z 02 Z0 Z 01

Figure 4-25 Layout of a microstrip quarter-wave transformer.

V (z ) I(z )

Zin Z 0 ,α, β ZL

Figure 4-26 A low-loss transmission line.

of the line. This inversion holds in the reverse direction as well. The quarter-
wave transformer is also called an impedance inverter (or equivalently an
admittance inverter).
The layout of a microstrip quarter-wave transformer is shown in Figure
4-25, where ℓ = λg /4 and the characteristic impedance of the transformer,
Z
p0 , is the geometric mean of the impedances on either side, that is Z0 =
Z0,1 Z0,2 .

4.9 Input Impedance of a Terminated Lossy Line

In this section a lossy transmission line with low-loss is considered p
so that
R ≪ ωL and G ≪ ωC, and the characteristic impedance is Z0 ≈ L/C.
Figure 4-26 is a lossy transmission line whose attenuation constant is α and
the phase constant is β. The propagation constant, γ, is a complex function
of both α and β. The total voltage and current at any point on the line are
given by

V (z) = V0+ e−γz + Γeγz

 
(4.164)

and
V0+  −γz
− Γeγz .

I(z) = e (4.165)
Z0
In a similar fashion, the impedance seen looking into the line for this case is
given by the lossy telegraphist’s equation:

ZL + Z0 tanh γℓ
Zin = Z0 . (4.166)
Z0 + ZL tanh γℓ
TRANSMISSION LINES 221

For a lossless line this becomes

ZL + Z0 tan βℓ
Zin = Z0 (4.167)
Z0 + ZL tan βℓ

as γ = α + β and with α = 0, tanh γℓ becomes tanh βℓ =  tan βℓ.

For a lossy transmission line it is clear that not all of the power applied
at the input will be delivered to the load. There will be a certain amount
of power lost on the line due to the finite attenuation constant that results
from loss on the line. Equations (4.168)–(4.170) are the equations of power
delivered to the load, the power incident on the line, and the power lost on
the line, respectively. So the power delivered to the load is
 + 2
1 V 
PL = R {V (0)I ∗ (0)} = 0 (1− | Γ |2 ) . (4.168)
2 2Z0
Similarly the power at the input of the line is
 + 2
1 V  
Pin = Re {V (−ℓ)I (−l)} = 0 1− | Γ |2 e−4αℓ e2αℓ
∗

(4.169)
2 2Z0
and the power lost in the line is
 + 2
V  
= Pin − PL = 0 e2αℓ − 1 + | Γ |2 1 − e−2αℓ .



Ploss (4.170)
2Z0

4.10 Microstrip Transmission Lines

Transmission lines with conductors embedded in an inhomogeneous
dielectric medium cannot support a pure TEM mode. This is the case even
if the conductors are lossless. The most important member of this class is
the microstrip transmission line (Figure 4-8(c)). Part of the field is in the air
and part in the dielectric between the strip conductor and ground. In most
practical cases, the dielectric substrate is electrically thin, that is, h ≪ λ. It can
be shown that the transverse field is dominant, |EL | ≪ |ET |, and the fields
are called quasi-TEM.

4.10.1 Microstrip Line in the Quasi-TEM Approximation

In this section it is shown that the static solutions for the transverse electric
field alone can be used to calculate the characteristics of a transmission
line. The procedure described is used in many EM computer programs to
calculate the characteristics of transmission lines.
As a first step, the potential of the conductor strip is set to V0 and Laplace’s
equation is solved for the electrostatic potential everywhere in the dielectric.
Then, the p.u.l. electric charge, Q, on the conductor is determined. Using this