Earth—Its Place in Our Solar System

• Some 4.6 billion years ago, various planetesimals in our

solar system gathered enough material together to
form Earth and the other planets. Scientists think that
this early Earth was probably cool, of generally uniform
composition and density throughout, and composed
mostly of silicates, compounds consisting of silicon
and oxygen, iron and magnesium oxides, and smaller
amounts of all the other chemical elements.
Subsequently, when the combination of meteorite
impacts, gravitational compression, and heat from
radioactive decay increased the temperature of Earth
enough to melt iron and nickel, this homogeneous
composition disappeared and was replaced by a series
of concentric layers of differing composition and
density, resulting in a differentiated planet
• This differentiation into a layered
planet is probably the most
significant event in Earth’s history.
Not only did it lead to the formation
of a crust and eventually continents,
but it also was probably responsible
for the emission of gases from the
interior that eventually led to the
formation of the oceans and
atmosphere.
• This orderly division results from density differences between
the layers as a function of variations in composition,
temperature, and pressure.
• The core has a calculated density of 10–13 grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3) and occupies about 16% of Earth’s total
volume. Seismic (earthquake) data ndicate that the core
consists of a small, solid inner region and a larger, apparently
liquid, outer portion. Both are thought to consist mostly of iron
and a small amount of nickel.
• The mantle surrounds the core and comprises about 83% of
Earth’s volume. It is less dense than the core (3.3–5.7
g/cm3)and is thought to be composed mostly of peridotite, a
dark, dense igneous rock containing abundant iron and
magnesium.
• The mantle can be divided into three distinct zones
based on physical characteristics. The lower mantle is
solid and forms most of the volume of Earth’s interior.
The asthenosphere surrounds the lower mantle. It has
the same composition as the lower mantle, but
behaves plastically and flows slowly. Partial melting
within the asthenosphere generates magma (molten
material), some of which rises to the surface because it
is less dense than the rock from which it was derived.
The upper mantle surrounds the asthenosphere. The
solid upper mantle and the overlying crust constitute
the lithosphere, which is broken into numerous
individual pieces called plates that move over the
asthenosphere, partially as a result of underlying
convection cells.
• Interactions of these plates are responsible for such
phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
the formation of mountain ranges and ocean basins.
• The crust, Earth’s outermost layer, consists of two
types. Continental crust is thick (20–90 km), has an
average density of 2.7 g/cm3, and contains
considerable silicon and aluminum. Oceanic crust is
thin (5–10 km), denser than continental crust (3.0
g/cm3), and is composed of the dark igneous rocks
basalt and gabbro.
 Earth’s Systems
• Scientists who
study Earth have
identified four main
Earth systems: the
geosphere,
atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and
biosphere. Each
system is unique,
yet each interacts
with the others.
• Geosphere. The area
from the surface of Earth
down to its center is
called the geosphere. The
geosphere is divided into
three main parts: the
crust, mantle, and core.
The rigid outer shell of
Earth is called the crust.
There are two kinds of
crust—continental crust
and oceanic crust. Just
below the crust is Earth’s
mantle. The mantle
differs from the crust
both in composition and
behavior. The mantle
ranges in temperature
from 100°C to 4000°C —
much warmer than the
temperatures found in
Earth’s crust. Below the
mantle is Earth’s core.
• Atmosphere. The
blanket of gases that
surrounds our planet is
called the atmosphere.
Earth’s atmosphere
contains about 78
percent nitrogen and 21
percent oxygen. The
remaining 1 percent of
gases in the atmosphere
include water vapor,
argon, carbon dioxide,
and other trace gases.
Earth’s atmosphere
provides oxygen for
living things, protects
Earth’s inhabitants from
harmful radiation from
the Sun, and helps to
keep the planet at a
temperature suitable for
life.
• Hydrosphere. All the water on Earth, including the water in
the atmosphere, makes up the hydrosphere. About 97
percent of Earth’s water exists as salt water, while the
remaining 3 percent is freshwater contained in glaciers,
lakes and rivers, and beneath Earth’s surface as
groundwater. Only a fraction of Earth’s total amount of
freshwater is in lakes and rivers.
• Biosphere. The biosphere includes all organisms on Earth
as well as the environments in which they live. Most
organisms live within a few meters of Earth’s surface, but
some exist deep beneath the ocean’s surface, and others
live high atop Earth’s mountains. All of Earth’s life-forms
require interaction with at least one of the other systems
for their survival.
 Earth’s Composition
• Matter. Atoms are the basic building blocks of all
matter.
• Atoms. Matter is anything that has volume and
mass. Everything in the physical world that
surrounds you is composed of matter. On Earth,
matter usually occurs as a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
All matter is made of substances called elements.
An element is a substance that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances by physical or
chemical means. For example, gold is still gold
whether it is a gold brick, coins, or a statue.
 What elements are most abundant?
• Astronomers have identified the two most abundant
elements in the universe as hydrogen and helium. All
other elements account for less than 1 percent of all
atoms in the universe, as shown in the figure
• Analyses of the composition of rocks and minerals on Earth
indicate that the percentages of elements in Earth’s crust
differ from the percentages in the universe. As shown in
the figure, 98.5 percent of Earth’s crust is made up of only
eight elements. Two of these elements, oxygen and silicon,
account for almost 75 percent of the crust’s composition.
This means that most of the rocks and minerals on Earth’s
crust contain oxygen and silicon.