How do we measure how much

water is in a stream?
• Volumetric measurements-
– Work on very low flows, collect a known
volume of water for a known period of time
Volume/time is discharge or Q
• Cross-section/velocity measurements
• Dilution gaging with salt or dye
• Artificial controls like weirs
• Empirical equations, e.g. Manning’s eqn.
 Site factors for gaging
1. stable control - bedrock, non-erosive channel, man-made
structure
2. locate gage a short distance above control
3. want minimal backwater or tidal influence
4. straight reach above gage for 4-5 channel widths
5. No local inflows or outflows- groundwater or flood
bypasses
6. must be accessible at all times
7. securely mounted structure
8. stable confining banks
9. good to have a benchmark nearby for datum
10. good to have an auxillary stage nearby- staff gage
 Other considerations

• Few eddies or areas of zero velocity

• Few instream obstacles
• Relatively consistent cross-section profile
• Velocity and depth do not exceed
instrument capabilities or personnel height
 Velocity – Area Method
of discharge measurement

By measuring the cross-sectional area of the stream and the

Average stream velocity, you can compute discharge

Q = VA units are L3/t (volume / time)

Where Q is discharge
V is velocity
A is cross-sectional area
 Pygmy Meter
Rotations make clicking
sound in headphones

If current strong
may need weight

U Mass, Boston
 Velocity Profile

0.2

0.6 depth

0.8

If stream is deep, take average of measurements at 0.2 and 0.8

U Mass, Boston
Velocity Distribution In A Channel

Depth-averaged velocity is above

the bed at about 0.4 times the depth
Photo from Black Hills State University
 How many subsections?
• Subsections should be at least 0.3 feet or
~0.1 m wide
• Each subsection should have 10% or less of
total discharge
• Number of subsections should be doable
in a reasonable amount of time
 Velocity – Area method of discharge
measurement

Tape measure- horizontal location of measures taken from tape

Water surface

Measurement represents mid-section of a polygon

Velocity measured 0.6d from water surface (0.4d from bottom)

Record x value (tape distance), y value (total depth at measurement

site, and velocity at 0.6d
 Mid-point method of calculating discharge (Q)
Location of depth and velocity measurements

Area included

Area not included

Key Assumption: Over estimation (area included) = Under estimation (area not included),
therefore cross-section area is simply the sum of all the sections (rectangles), which is much
easier than taking the integral! However, the hypotenuse of each over-under estimation
triangle can be used to calculate the wetted perimeter.
 Equation for computing subsection
discharge - qi
Equation for computing q in each subsection
X = distance of each velocity point along tape
Y = depth of flow where velocity is measured
V = velocity

Q = total discharge = sum of qis

 Float method of discharge
measurement
• Gives good estimates when no equipment is
available
• Use something that floats that you can
retrieve or is biodegradable if you can’t
retrieve it
– E.g. oranges, dried orange peels, tennis balls
 Float method of velocity measurement
Three people are needed to run the float test. One should be positioned
upstream and the other downstream a known distance apart, one in the
middle to record data.

The upstream person releases the f loat and starts the clock and the
downstream person catches the float and signals to stop the clock. The
recorder writes down the time of travel of the float.

Velocity is the distance traveled divided by the time it takes to travel that
distance.

You should conduct at least 3 float tests and take an average velocity.

With an estimate of cross-sectional area, discharge can be computed as

Q = VA where V is average velocity
U Mass, Boston
 Float Method

surface velocity = distance / time

average velocity = (0.8*surface velocity) U Mass, Boston
 Float method in action

U Mass, Boston
 Dilution gaging method
• Use a chemical tracer, dye or salt
– Exotic to stream
– Stable
– Non-toxic
– Cheap
– Detectable
• Do mass balance on concentrations
upstream and downstream
 Constant injection method
• Inject at known rate for some time period
• Do mass balance

• CTQT = CTd (Q + QT)

– CT is concentration of tracer upstream
– QT rate of input of tracer upstream
– CTd is equilibrium concentration of tracer downstream

• Q = QT (CT - CTd )
CTd
 How else might we estimate streamflow?

Stream Stage- elevation

The stage of a stream is the elevation
of the water surface above a datum.

The most commonly used datum is mean sea level.

Gages are used to measure the stage of streams.

Types of gages:
- recording
- non-recording
U Mass, Boston
 Fixed Gauging Stations - Weirs
Stable cross section with simple geometry
rating curve – just measure stage

U Mass Boston
 How do we measure the stage?

Nonrecording gauges

Staff Gauge

Estimating Peak Flow

Debris Line
Crest Gauges - Cork

U Mass, Boston
 Continuous Measurement - Water Level Recorders

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 The Stage of a Stream

U Mass, Boston Float moves up / down with water surface

 How can we relate stage to discharge?
Rating Curve – relates stage to discharge Empirical
relationship
from
observations

Measure
discharge
at different
flows

USGS

Rating curves usually have a break point, which is around the stage at which the river
spreads out of it's banks, or it could be at a lower stage if the river bed cross section
changes dramatically. Above that stage, the river does not rise as fast, given that other
conditions remain constant. This is illustrated by a change in slope in the rating curve.
On this figure the break point appears to be around 6-7 feet.
 Rating curve

We can do this is Excel

Very often it is a power

equation (log-log)

U Mass, Boston Fit a mathematical equation

 Resistance Equations

Manning’s Equation Equation 7.2

1.49 2 3 1 2
v R S
n
 Manning’s Equation
• In 1889 Irish Engineer, Robert Manning
presented the formula:
1.49 2 3 1 2
v R S Equation 7.2
n
• v is the flow velocity (ft/s)
• n is known as Manning’s n and is a coefficient of roughness
• R is the hydraulic radius (a/P) where P is the wetted perimeter (ft)
• S is the channel bed slope as a fraction
• 1.49 is a unit conversion factor. Approximated as 1.5 in the book.
Use 1.0 if SI (metric) units are used.
Discharge from Manning’s equation
• Q = vA equation 7.1
• v =(1.5/n) R2/3 S1/2 (equation 7.2)
• R= A/P, hydraulic radius (equation 7.3)
• A = width x depth
• P= wetted perimeter
• S = water slope (ft/ft)
• N = Manning’s roughness coefficient
 Parameters for Manning’s equation

Water surface

Cross sectional area = A

Wetted perimeter = p area of stream in contact with

bottom and sides
R = hydraulic radius = A/p
 Mid-point method of calculating discharge (Q)
Location of depth and velocity measurements

Area included

Area not included

Key Assumption: Over estimation (area included) = Under estimation (area not included),
therefore cross-section area is simply the sum of all the sections (rectangles), which is much
easier than taking the integral! However, the hypotenuse of each over-under estimation
triangle can be used to calculate the wetted perimeter.
 Table 7.1 Manning’s n Roughness Coefficient
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
Streams on a plain

Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.03 0.033
Clean, winding, some pools, shoals, weeds & 0.033 0.045 0.05
stones
Same as above, lower stages and more stones 0.045 0.05 0.06
Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.05 0.07 0.07
Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.1 0.15
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel,
banks steep, trees & brush along banks
submerged at high stages
Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.03 0.04 0.05
Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.04 0.05 0.07
http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes013_24.html
Mountain
Stream-
Bottom with
cobbles and
large boulders

http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes101_41.html
Plains stream-
full stage, no rifts
or deep pools

http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes020_27.html
Table 7.2. Values for the computation of the roughness coefficient (Chow, 1959)
Channel Conditions Values
Material Involved Earth n0 0.025
Rock Cut 0.025
Fine Gravel 0.024
Coarse Gravel 0.027
Degree of irregularity Smooth n1 0.000
Minor 0.005
Moderate 0.010
Severe 0.020
Variations of Channel Cross
Gradual n2 0.000
Section
Alternating Occasionally 0.005
Alternating Frequently 0.010-0.015
Relative Effect of Obstructions Negligible n3 0.000
Minor 0.010-0.015
Appreciable 0.020-0.030
Severe 0.040-0.060
Vegetation Low n4 0.005-0.010
Medium 0.010-0.025
High 0.025-0.050
Very High 0.050-0.100
Degree of Meandering Minor m5 1.000
Appreciable 1.150
Severe 1.300

n = (n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 ) m5 Equation 7.12