GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS 3(6) (2012) 773e788

available at www.sciencedirect.com

China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gsf

RESEARCH PAPER

A geochemical perspective on charnockite magmatism

in Peninsular India
H.M. Rajesh

Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa

Received 5 December 2011; received in revised form 20 March 2012; accepted 9 April 2012
Available online 17 May 2012

KEYWORDS Abstract Large charnockite massifs occur in the high-grade Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) and
Charnockite massif; Eastern Ghats Belt (EGB) crustal provinces of Peninsular India. Available geochronological data indicate
Geochemistry; that the magmatism is episodic, associated with distinct orogenic cycles in the different crustal domains.
Peninsular India; The geochemical data also indicate a change in composition from trondhjemitic at w3.0e2.9 Ga to domi-
Southern granulite terrain; nantly tonalitic at w2.6e2.5 Ga to tonalitic-granodiorite-granitic at w2.0e1.9 Ga to dominantly tonalitic
Eastern Ghats belt at 1.7e1.6 Ga to quartz monzonitic or tonalitic at w1.0e0.9 Ga to granodiorite-granitic at w0.8e0.7 Ga.
The trondhjemitic and tonalitic end members are metaluminous, magnesian and calcic to calc-alkalic,
characteristic of magnesian group charnockites. The granodioritic to granitic end members are metalumi-
nous to slightly peraluminous, ferroan and calc-alkalic to alkali-calcic, characteristic of ferroan group
charnockites. The quartz monzonitic end members are metaluminous to peraluminous, magnesian to ferro-
an and calcic to calc-alkalic, neither characteristic of the magnesian group nor of the ferroan group of char-
nockites. Based on the occurrence and difference in composition of the charnockite massifs, it is suggested
that the charnockite magmatism registers the crustal growth of the Indian plate on its southern (SGT) and
eastern (EGB) sides, along active continental margins by accretion of arcs.
ª 2012, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by
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1. Introduction

Charnockites characterized by orthopyroxene-bearing granitic

E-mail address: hmrajesh@uj.ac.za.
mineral assemblages are important components of the lower
1674-9871 ª 2012, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking
University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
continental crust in many high-grade terrains (Bohlender et al.,
1992; Kilpatrick and Ellis, 1992; Sheraton et al., 1992; Berger
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences et al., 1995; Zhou et al., 1995; Peucat et al., 1996; Duchesne
(Beijing). and Wilmart, 1997; Hughes et al., 1997; Prame, 1997; Frost
doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2012.04.003 et al., 2000; Janasi, 2002; Mendes et al., 2002; Percival and
Mortensen, 2002; Kar et al., 2003; Keppie et al., 2003;
Rajesh and Santosh, 2004; Shang et al., 2004; Janou
sek et al.,
2006; Mikhalsky et al., 2006; Tollo et al., 2006; Motuza et al.,
Production and hosting by Elsevier
2008; Skridlaite_ et al., 2008). The two high-grade crustal
provinces of Peninsular India, Southern granulite terrain and
774 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788

Eastern Ghats belt, are characterized by large charnockite 2. Geologic setting

massifs (Fig. 1). They are the only known terrains in the world,
where charnockite massifs cover large tracts forming the 2.1. Southern Granulite Terrain
dominant rock type in the different blocks/provinces that make
up these terrains. Available geochronological and geochemical
The Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT), south of the Archean
data bearing on different charnockite massifs from the two
granite-greenstone terrane of the Dharwar Craton, consists of
high-grade provinces of Peninsular India are compiled here.
a series of Mesoarchean to Neoproterozoic polymetamorphic
Considering the occurrence of charnockite massifs as orthog-
blocks (the Salem, Madras, Nilgiri, Madurai and Trivandrum
neiss plutons and the pervasive nature of the regional meta-
blocks), separated from one another by regional shear zones
morphic events in the different blocks/provinces of the
(Drury et al., 1984; Harris et al., 1994; Braun and Kriegsman,
Southern granulite terrain and Eastern Ghats belt, which hosts
2003; Santosh et al., 2003, 2009; Fig. 1).
these charnockite massifs, an evaluation of the metamorphic
The region just to the south of Dharwar Craton, forming the
overprint on the chemistry of charnockites is carried out first.
northern part of SGT (the Salem, Nilgiri and Madras blocks)
This is followed by an evaluation of the geochemical charac-
preserves evidence for Neoproterozoic supra-subduction zone
teristics of charnockite massifs using samples that are least
magmatism followed by a prominent w2.5e2.4 Ga granulite-
likely to have been affected by the metamorphic overprint.
facies metamorphic event (Fig. 1; Peucat et al., 1993;
Based on the available tectonic models for Peninsular India, the
Mahabaleswar et al., 1995; Raith et al., 1999; Meissner et al.,
change in the geochemical characteristics of the charnockite
2002; Bhaskar Rao et al., 2003; Mojzsis et al., 2003; Santosh
massifs for different age brackets is used to place constraints
et al., 2003, 2011; Ghosh et al., 2004; Clark et al., 2009; Sato
on the nature of continental crust formation in Peninsular India
et al., 2011; Yellappa et al., 2011). The w2.5e2.4 Ga
with time.

Figure 1 Shaded relief image of Peninsular India showing the prominent geologic features, including the two high-grade crustal provinces of
Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) and Eastern Ghats Belt (EGB) along the southern margin of Dharwar Craton and along the eastern margin of
eastern DharwareBastareSinghbhum cratons. The subdivisions of SGT and EGB, together with the approximate extent of the different meta-
morphic events in SGT are shown. Different charnockite massifs from SGT and EGB are indicated by white-filled abbreviations. See Table 1 for
details on the abbreviations. The Palghat Cauvery shear zone system (PCSS) includes a series of shear zones including the Moyar shear zone,
Bhavani shear zone, Palghat-Cauvery shear zone, Salem-Attue shear zone and Gangavalli shear zone.
 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788
metamorphic event extends south of the Palghat Cauvery shear
zone to the northern part of the Madurai block (Fig. 1; Bhaskar
Rao et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004; Brandt et al., 2011). The
region south of the Palghat Cauvery shear zone preserves evidence
for a prominent w0.6e0.5 Ga granulite-facies metamorphic event
(Fig. 1; Bartlett et al., 1998; Braun et al., 1998; Meissner et al.,
2002; Santosh et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004; Collins et al.,
2007; Brandt et al., 2011; Kr€oner et al., 2012). The eastern part
preserves a granulite-facies metamorphic event at w0.8e0.7 Ga
(Fig. 1; Santosh et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004; Bhutani et al.,
2007; Catlos et al., 2008; Teale et al., 2011). The w0.8e0.7 Ga
event has not been reported from the western part of SGT. The
southeastern part of Madurai block, in addition, preserves a local
granulite-facies metamorphic event at w0.9 Ga (Braun et al.,
2007). The pervasive polyphase deformation and migmatization
that accompanied the latest granulite facies event (w0.6e0.5 Ga)
have largely erased structural imprints of early deformations in the
SGT (Miller et al., 1996; Bartlett et al., 1998; Santosh et al.,
2003). Plate reconstructions suggest that the EdiacaraneCam-
brian overprint of SGT is coincident with the amalgamation of
supercontinent Gondwana (Yoshida et al., 2003; Collins and
Pisarevsky, 2005; Santosh et al., 2009).
2.2. Eastern Ghats Belt
The Eastern Ghats Belt (EGB) is a high-grade terrain, extending in an
arcuate pattern over 1000 km along the eastern fringe of Peninsular
India (Fig. 1). The craton (eastern DharwareBastareSinghbhum)e
EGB contact in eastern India, where the granulite-facies rocks of the
EGB are thrusted over the cratonic rocks, has been interpreted as
a crustal suture related to Indo-Antarctic collisional events (Chetty
and Murthy, 1994; Leelanandam et al., 2006; Biswal et al., 2007;
Das et al., 2008; Upadhyay, 2008; Mohanty, 2012) which resulted in
the formation of the Proterozoic EGB orogen (Grew and Manton,
1986; Dasgupta and Sengupta, 2003; Dobmeier and Raith, 2003).
Like the SGT, EGB also includes a series of multiply deformed and
polymetamorphosed terrains, bounded and segmented by shear
zones and thrust faults (Ramakrishnan et al., 1998; Rickers et al.,
2001; Dasgupta and Sengupta, 2003; Dobmeier and Raith, 2003).
Not withstanding the arguments against it (e.g., Gupta, 2004), the
present study uses the classification scheme of Dobmeier and Raith
(2003) which subdivided the EGB into four crustal provinces (the
Jeypore, Rengali, Eastern Ghats and Krishna provinces; Fig. 1) based
on the isotopic data of Rickers et al. (2001) combined with available
petrological, structural and other geochronological data.
Both the Jeypore province in the northwest, adjacent to the Bastar
Craton, and the Rengali Province in the north, adjacent to the
Singhbhum Craton (Fig. 1), preserve evidence for a granulite-facies
metamorphic event at w2.8 Ga (Kovach et al., 2001). Although no
subsequent metamorphic imprints are identified from the Jeypore and
Rengali provinces, the shear zones and fault zones forming respective
boundaries with the Eastern Ghats province were reactivated during
w1.1e1.0 Ga and w0.6e0.5 Ga orognesis (Crowe et al., 2001;
Upadhyay and Raith, 2006). The Ongole domain of the Krishna
province, which is closer to the eastern Dharwar Craton, preserves
evidence for a pervasive metamorphic event at w1.7e1.6 Ga
(Mezger and Cosca, 1999; Kovach et al., 2001; Simmat and Raith,
2008; Upadhyay et al., 2009). No younger metamorphic events
have been reported from the Ongole domain, except its western
margin which was reworked at amphibolite-facies conditions at
w0.6e0.5 Ga (Dobmeier et al., 2006; Upadhyay et al., 2006). The
largest of the four provinces, the Eastern Ghats province (Fig. 1),
775
preserves evidence for four metamorphic events (w1.2e1.1 Ga,
w1.0e0.9 Ga, w0.8e0.7 Ga and w0.6e0.5 Ga; Grew and Manton,
1986; Shaw et al., 1997; Kovach et al., 1998; Mezger and Cosca,
1999; Bhattacharya et al., 2002; Dobmeier and Simmat, 2002;
Biswal et al., 2007; Simmat and Raith, 2008; Upadhyay et al., 2009;
Korhonen et al., 2011). Unlike SGT, the w1.0e0.9 Ga event corre-
sponds to the main fabric-defining granulite-facies metamorphism
and anatexis in EGB.
3. Charnockite massifs from SGT and EGB
Available geochronological data, including igneous crystallization
and metamorphic overprint age, on the different charnockite
massifs from SGT and EGB is summarized in Table 1. Char-
nockite massifs in SGT occur along the southern margin of the
Dharwar Craton. The northern part of SGT consists of Meso- to
Neoarchean charnockite massifs. From west to east, these include
the Coorg hills massif, Biligirirangan hills massif, Shevroy hills
massif, Madras massif, Nilgiri hills massif and Kollimalai massif
(Fig. 1). At w3.0e2.9 Ga, the Biligirirangan hills massif forms
the oldest charnockite massif in SGT (Mahabaleswar et al., 1995;
Mojzsis et al., 2003). Except the Coorg hills massif and the
Kollimalai massif, available age data indicate that the remaining
charnockite massifs in the northern part of SGT were formed at
w2.6e2.5 Ga (Table 1; Bernard-Griffiths et al., 1987; Peucat
et al., 1993; Raith et al., 1999; Bhaskar Rao et al., 2003;
Santosh et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004; Clark et al., 2009; Sato
et al., 2011). No age data are available for the Coorg hills and
Kollimalai massifs and these massifs are therefore not included in
this study.
Charnockite massifs from the northeastern part of the Madurai
block (Kodaikanal hills massif) yield w2.6e2.5 Ga age (Brandt
et al., 2011; Plavsa et al., 2012), whereas those from the south-
eastern part of the Madurai block (Cardamom hills massif) yield
w1.0e0.9 Ga and w0.8e0.7 Ga ages (Santosh et al., 2003;
Ghosh et al., 2004; Plavsa et al., 2012). The northern part of the
Trivandrum block exposes the w1.9 Ga Erinpura massif (Kr€ oner
et al., 2012), while the southern part of Trivandrum block exposes
the w2.0e1.9 Ga Nagercoil massif (Ghosh et al., 2004; Santosh
et al., 2006).
Charnockites are widely reported throughout the EGB (Halden
et al., 1982; Aftalion et al., 1988; Paul et al., 1990). Like SGT, the
oldest charnockite massifs in EGB are w3.0e2.9 billion years old
and occur near the craton-mobile belt contact. This include the
Jenapore massif near the contact of EGB and Singhbhum Craton,
close to the boundary of the Rengali Province (Bhattacharya et al.,
2001) and the Machkund massif within the Jeypore Province (Subba
Rao et al., 1998; Kovach et al., 2001; Rickers et al., 2001). No record
of the dominant w2.6e2.5 Ga charnockite magmatism as in the
northern part of the SGT as well as the w2.0e1.9 Ga charnockite
magmatism as in the southern part of the SGT is available from
EGB. After the Mesoarchean, the next record of charnockite mag-
matism in EGB occurs at w1.7e1.6 Ga (Kovach et al., 2001;
Dobmeier et al., 2006; Dharma Rao et al., 2012). The Kondapalle
massif belongs to this group (Dharma Rao et al., 2012). The
dominant charnockite-forming event in EGB occurred at
w1.0e0.9 Ga, as part of the Grenvillan orogeny (Grew and Manton,
1986; Aftalion et al., 1988; Paul et al., 1990; Shaw et al., 1997;
Kovach et al., 1998; Krause et al., 2001). The charnockite massifs
near Eleswaram, Narsipatnam, Vizianagaram, Paderu, Visakha-
patnam, Srikakulam and Bobili areas belong to this group.
776 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788

Table 1 Summary of available geochronological data on the different charnockite massifs from SGT and EGB. See text for references on
geochronological data. Metamorphic overprint age refers to age of metamorphic overprint on the different charnockite massifs.
Charnockite massifa Abbreviation High-grade Block/Province Igneous crystallization Metamorphic overprint
used in Fig. 1 terrain age (Ga) age (Ga) from the massif
Biligirirangan hills massif BG SGT Salem block w3.0e2.9 w2.5e2.4
Nilgiri hills massif NG SGT Nilgiri block w2.6e2.5 w2.5e2.4
Shevroy hills massif SH SGT Salem block w2.5 w2.5e2.4
Madras massif MD SGT Madras block w2.6e2.5 w2.5e2.4
Kodaikanal hills massif KK SGT Madurai block w2.6e2.5 w0.6e0.5
Nagercoil massif NL SGT Trivandrum block w2.0e1.9 w0.6e0.5
Erinpura massif ER SGT Trivandrum block w1.9 w0.6e0.5
Cardamom hills massif CM SGT Madurai block w1.0e0.9 w0.6e0.5
Cardamom hills massif CM SGT Madurai block w0.8e0.7 w0.6e0.5
Jenapore massif JP EGB Rengali province w3.0e2.9 w2.8
Machukund massif MC EGB Jeypore province w3.0e2.9 w2.8
Kondapalle massif KP EGB Krishna province w1.7e1.6 w1.6
Visakhapatnam massif VK EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
Vizianagram massif VN EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
Bobili massif BB EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
Srikakulam massif SK EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
Eleswaram massif EL EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
Narsipatnam massif NP EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
Paderu massif PD EGB Eastern Ghats province w1.0e0.9 w0.9
a
highlands made of dark greenish charnockite rocks that underlie a prominent, high-standing topographic feature.

In general, the charnockite massifs from both SGT and EGB
form highland areas of dark greenish to greenish-gray charnockite
interspersed with lowlands consisting of gneissic rocks (granitic
orthogneisses and/or paragneisses) that have experienced
amphibolite to granulite-facies metamorphism. They are locally
homogenous and massive in appearance in quarry exposures.
Often the massive charnockite exposures are overprinted by foli-
ation, defined by mafic (biotite, pyroxene and/or garnet) and felsic
minerals. The xenoliths, occurring as either bands and/or lenses, in
the different charnockite massifs include aluminous metapelites,
garnet-biotite gneisses, amphibole- and pyroxene-bearing mafic
granulites, calc-silicate rocks, and rare pyroxenites and kyanite-
bearing metaquartzitic rocks (e.g. Raith et al., 1999; Rajesh et al.,
2011). Cross-cutting charnockitic dykes have been reported from
the different charnockite massifs, with available geochronologic
studies indicating similar age with the main charnockite body (e.g.
w2 Ga charnockitic dyke within the Nagercoil massif; Ghosh
et al., 2004).
Although all the charnockite massifs show overprints of
subsequent granulite-facies metamorphism (see Table 1), the
igneous nature of their protoliths is evident from the homogeneity
at outcrop scale, presence of enclaves and xenoliths, cross-cutting
charnockitic dykes and preserved granitic textures (Rajesh and
Santosh, 2004).
4. Geochemical characteristics of charnockite
massifs
4.1. Effect of metamorphic overprint
Considering the metamorphic overprint, it is important to under-
stand the effect of granulite-facies metamorphism on the original
igneous chemistry of the different charnockite massifs. Depletion
in Rb, as indicated by high K/Rb ratios, is a common, although not
an invariable feature of granulite-facies rocks (e.g. Rollinson,
1996). In spite of the metamorphic overprint, the K/Rb ratios of
different charnockites from SGT and EGB are similar to those
found in common igneous rocks, including unmetamorphosed
charnockites [e.g. charnockites from Louis Lake Batholith,
Wyoming (Frost et al., 2000); Fig. 2a]. This raises the question of
the effect of metamorphic overprint on the chemistry of these
charnockites. Despite the well-documented LILE depletion of
many granulites, an increasing number of studies indicate that this
is not a universal character (e.g. Berger and Rollinson, 1997;
Rollinson and Tarney, 2005) and indeed some studies suggest that
the LILE abundances in many granulites reflect the composition of
the pre-metamorphic protolith (e.g. Knudsen and Andersen,
1999).
Rajesh et al. (2011) carried out a detailed geochemical study
on the w2.0e1.9 Ga Nagercoil charnockite massif from SGT. In
spite of the Late NeoproterozoiceCambrian granulite-facies
metamorphic overprint on the Nagercoil massif, the K/Rb ratios
of the charnockites are similar to those found in common igneous
rocks, including unmetamorphosed charnockites (Fig. 2a). The Sr
contents of the Nagercoil charnockite define a low Sr
(143e406 ppm) and high Sr (604e911 ppm) group (Fig. 2c). This
grouping can be extended to other major and trace elements
(Fig. 3). The high Mg-number, high Ni, Cr and Sr, and low Y
assign TTG affinities to the high-Sr Nagercoil charnockite
samples (e.g. Fig. 2d). On the other hand, the low-Sr samples from
the Nagercoil charnockite do not show any TTG affinity. The
similar ranges of w(SiO2) contents for both low-Sr (w61%e72%)
and high-Sr (w61%e71%) group charnockites (e.g. Figs. 2c and 3),
indicate that the process that was responsible for lowering the Sr
contents was pervasive. Considering the probable effect of later
metamorphic overprint, a comparison of the chemistry of low-Sr
Nagercoil charnockite samples was made with that of
orthopyroxene-bearing metamorphic dehydration zones (popularly
known as incipient charnockites) occurring in gneisses from
 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788 777

Figure 2 (a) K2O vs. K/Rb plot of the charnockite massifs considered here from SGT and EGB. Open and closed symbols for the Nagercoil and
Nilgiri hills massifs from SGT, and those for the Jenapore massif from EGB represent high-Sr and low-Sr samples, respectively. Unmetamor-
phosed charnockites from the Louis Lake Batholith, Wyoming (Frost et al., 2000) is shown for comparison; (b) Normative An-Ab-Or triplot
illustrating the similar chemical composition high-Sr and low-Sr charnockite samples from the Nagercoil and Nilgiri hills massifs from SGT; (c)
Sr vs. SiO2 plot illustrating the low-Sr and high-Sr group of charnockite samples from the Nagercoil and Nilgiri hills massifs from SGT and from
the Jenapore massif from EGB. See Rajesh et al. (2011) for references used to compile the compositional range of orthopyroxene-bearing
metamorphic dehydration zones; (d) Sr/Y vs. Y plot illustrating the similarity of high-Sr charnockite samples from the Nagercoil and Nilgiri
hills massifs from SGT to Archean TTGs. The fields are from Drummond and Defant (1990).

southern India and elsewhere (Figs. 2c and 3), which are
considered to represent in situ stages of granulite formation driven
by the influx of low-aH2O fluids (e.g. Newton et al., 1980;
Santosh, 1986; Hansen et al., 1987; Santosh and Omori, 2008;
Harlov, 2012; Touret and Huizenga, 2012). Such an exercise was
Figure 3 Representative major- and trace-element variation
diagrams of the high-Sr and low-Sr charnockite samples from the
Nagercoil massif. See Rajesh et al. (2011) for references used to
compile the compositional range of orthopyroxene-bearing meta-
morphic dehydration zones.
carried out as the timing of formation of the orthopyroxene-
bearing metamorphic dehydration zones in gneisses surrounding
the different charnockite massifs, including the Nagercoil massif,
correspond to the metamorphic overprint reported in the different
charnockite massifs as well as the respective regional meta-
morphic event (e.g., Mojzsis et al., 2003; Ghosh et al., 2004;
Santosh et al., 2006; Clark et al., 2009; Brandt et al., 2011; Plavsa
et al., 2012; see also Table 1). At similar SiO2 contents, low-Sr
charnockite samples have higher TiO2, Fe2O3, K2O and Nb
contents and lower Na2O, and Al2O3 contents, similar to the
dehydration zones (e.g. Fig. 3). The high K2O and Nb contents of
the low-Sr charnockite samples correlate well with geochemical
studies that demonstrated the important role of potassium in the
formation of some dehydration zones (e.g. St€ahle et al., 1987;
Raith and Srikantappa, 1993). It follows that the chemistry of low-
Sr Nagercoil charnockite samples can be correlated with the late
metamorphic event, whereas the high-Sr Nagercoil charnockite
samples were most likely not affected by metamorphism.
The w2.6e2.5 Ga Nilgiri hills charnockite massif from SGT is
another example. In spite of the w2.5e2.4 Ga granulite-facies
metamorphic overprint on the Nilgiri hills massif, the K/Rb ratios
of the charnockites are similar to those found in common igneous
rocks, including unmetamorphosed charnockites (Fig. 2a). Like
the Nagercoil charnockite, the Sr contents of the Nilgiri hills
charnockite define a low Sr (125e471 ppm) and high Sr
(725e1087 ppm) groups (Fig. 2c). Both groups have similar
ranges of w(SiO2) contents (high-Sr group: 56%e66%; low-Sr
group: 58%e70%). The Mg-number, high Ni, Cr and Sr, and
low Y assign TTG affinities to the high-Sr Nilgiri hills charnockite
samples (e.g. Fig. 2d). On the other hand, the low-Sr samples from
the Nilgiri hills charnockite do not show any TTG affinity. Like
778 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788

Figure 4 Charnockites from SGT and EGB in terms of normative An-Ab-Or triplot (a), Fe*/(Fe*þMgO) vs. SiO2 plot (b) and Na2OþK2O-
CaO vs. SiO2 plot (c). w1.0e0.9 Ga charnockites from East Antarctica (Rayner complex) are shown for comparison. The fields in (b) and (c) are
from Frost et al. (2001). Source of geochemical data for Figs. 4e6: w3.0e2.9 Ga: Condie and Allen (1984), Janardhan et al. (1994), Subba Rao
et al. (1998), Raith et al. (1999), Bhattacharya et al. (2001), Kar et al. (2003), Mojzsis et al. (2003); w2.6e2.5 Ga: Howie (1955), Howie and
Subramaniam (1957), Subramaniam (1959), Weaver et al. (1978), Weaver (1980), Condie and Allen (1984), Bernard-Griffiths et al. (1987),
Janardhan et al. (1994), Srikantappa (1996), Raith et al. (1999), Tomson et al. (2006), Catlos et al. (2011); w2.0e1.9 Ga: Rajesh et al. (2011);
w1.7e1.6 Ga: Dharma Rao et al. (unpublished data); w1.0e0.9 Ga: Paul et al. (1990), Chacko et al. (1992), Munksgaard et al. (1992), Sheraton
et al. (1992), Young et al. (1997), Zhao et al. (1997), Saradhi et al. (2000), Mikhalsky et al. (2006), Rajesh (2007); w0.8e0.7 Ga: Chacko et al.
(1992), Rajesh (2007).
 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788 779

the w2.0e1.9 Ga Nagercoil massif, at similar SiO2 contents, the from both massifs define a low-Sr and high-Sr group [Jenapore
low-Sr Nilgiri hills charnockites have higher TiO2, Fe2O3, K2O massif: low Sr (94e472 ppm), high Sr (593e1075 ppm), Kar
and Nb contents and lower Na2O and Al2O3 contents, similar to et al., 2003; Kondapalle massif: low Sr (426e499 ppm), high Sr
that of orthopyroxene-bearing metamorphic dehydration zones (531e620 ppm), Dharma Rao et al., unpublished data; e.g.
(e.g. Fig. 2c). Fig. 2c]. Like the youngest massifs in SGT, the w1.0e0.9 Ga
Following the scenarios of the w2.0e1.9 Ga Nagercoil massif massifs from EGB do not show any low-Sr and high-Sr grouping
and the w2.6e2.5 Ga Nilgiri hills massif, available geochemical within individual massifs. Available geochemical data on these
data from the different charnockite massifs from SGT were evalu- massifs from EGB have uniformly low K/Rb values, lower than
ated in terms of their Sr content. Significantly, available geochem- those of the older episodes of charnockite magmatism (Fig. 2a).
ical data define low-Sr and high-Sr groups for the w3.0e2.9 Ga The Sr contents are also uniformly low for all the w1.0e0.9
Biligirirangan hills massif [low Sr (171e479 ppm), high Sr massifs from EGB (w40e280 ppm; Saradhi et al., 2000). The
(620e981 ppm); Condie and Allen, 1984; Janardhan et al., 1994; significance of the uniformly low-Sr contents for the different
Mojzsis et al., 2003], the w2.5 Ga Shevroy hills massif [low Sr w1.0e0.9 massifs from EGB is not clear at this stage.
(75e428 ppm), high Sr (591e879 ppm); Rameswar Rao et al.,
1991; Hansen et al., 1995; Hansen and Harlov, 2007], the 4.2. Geochemical characteristics of the charnockite massifs
w2.6e2.5 Ga Madras massif [low Sr (96e479 ppm), high Sr
(533e821 ppm); Weaver, 1980; Bernard-Griffiths et al., 1987], and This section evaluates the geochemical characteristics of the
the w2.6e2.5 Ga Kodaikanal massif [low Sr (100e461 ppm), high different charnockite massifs from SGT and EGB. For older
Sr (591e1576 ppm); Tomson et al., 2006; Catlos et al., 2011]. The episodes of charnockite magmatism, only the high-Sr samples
low-Sr samples of these charnockite massifs are similar in compo- were considered. Regarding the younger episodes of charnockite
sition to orthopyroxene-bearing metamorphic dehydration zones, magmatism (w1.0e0.9 Ga and w0.8e0.7 Ga massifs from SGT
while the composition of high-Sr samples are different and were and w1.0e0.9 Ga massifs from EGB), all the available
most likely not affected by later metamorphism.
An exception to the above exercise includes the w1.0e0.9 Ga
and w0.8e0.7 Ga charnockites within the Cardamom hills massif.
Here the older charnockites have high Sr (447e766 ppm)
contents, whereas the younger charncokites have low Sr
(223e455 ppm) contents (Chacko et al., 1992; Rajesh, 2007). This
raises the question of whether a low-Sr content can be used as an
indicator of metamorphic overprint in charnockite massifs of
a wide range of ages. Some studies (e.g. Martin and Moyen, 2002)
explain variations in Sr content in Archean TTG granitiods by the
presence or absence of residual plagioclase in the source. They
interpret the secular behavior of Sr in terms of melting depth, with
the depth of partial melting being relatively shallow at 4.0 Ga
(w550 ppm Sr) to greater depths of partial melting at 2.5 Ga
(w1200 ppm Sr). However, unlike the studies on TTG granitiods
compiled by Martin and Moyen (2002), where the Sr content of
TTG granitiods varies with time (w550 ppm at 4.0 Ga to
w1200 ppm at 2.5 Ga), available geochemical data define distinct
low Sr and high-Sr groups within individual charnockite massifs
from SGT (e.g. w2.0e1.9 Ga Nagercoil massif, w2.6e2.5 Ga
Nilgiri hills massif e see Fig. 2c). Considering that at similar
ranges of SiO2 contents (e.g. Figs. 2c and 3), both low-Sr and
high-Sr group charnockites within individual massifs have distinct
geochemical characteristics, with the former showing affinities to
Archean TTGs (e.g. Fig. 2d) and latter showing similarities to
orthopyroxene-bearing metamorphic dehydration zones
(e.g. Fig. 3) occurring in gneissic rocks surrounding the different
charnockite massifs, this study considers the high-Sr charnockites
to be not affected by later metamorphism and hence representative
of the original igneous protolith composition within individual
massifs. The significance of the Sr contents reported for the older
and younger charnockites within the Cardamom hills massif is not
clear at this stage.
The situation is no different for the charnockite massifs from
EGB. In spite of the later granulite-facies metamorphic overprint
on the w3.0e2.9 Ga Jenapore massif and the w1.7e1.6 Ga
Kondapalle massif, the K/Rb ratios of charnockites from these Figure 5 Plot of Rb-Sr-Ba concentrations for charnockites from the
massifs are similar to those found in common igneous rocks, SGT and EGB provinces. Data field for ca. 1.0e0.9 Ga charnockites
including unmetamorphosed charnockites (Fig. 2a). Available from East Antarctica (Rayner complex) shown for comparison. See
geochemical data indicate that the Sr contents of charnockites Rajesh and Santosh (2004) for details on the fields.
780 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788

geochemical data from the literature were used for the
geochemical characterization. The geochemical data from the
different massifs are presented here using a series of diagrams
(Figs. 4e6; see the caption of Fig. 4 for the source of data).
The w3.0e2.9 Ga Bligirirangan hills massif from SGT and the
w3.0e2.9 Ga Jenapore and Machukund massifs from EGB are
dominantly trondhjemitic, metaluminous, magnesian and calcic to
calc-alkalic (Fig. 4aec). They have high contents of Ba and Sr
relative to Rb (Fig. 5). These rocks show geochemical charac-
teristics similar to those of Archean TTGs (Fig. 6). Their Mg#
[Mg/(Mg þ Fetot): w30e55] values are similar to those of TTGs
younger than 3.0 Ga and are slightly higher than those of TTGs
older than 3.0 Ga (see compilation in Smithies et al., 2003).
The w2.6e2.5 Ga episode of charnockite magmatism, which
affected only the northern part of SGT, is dominantly tonalitic,
metaluminous, magnesian and calcic to calc-alkalic (Fig. 4aec).
Like the w3.0e2.9 Ga charnockites, the w2.6e2.5 Ga char-
nockite massifs also have high Ba and Sr contents relative to Rb
(Fig. 5), and show affinities to Archean TTGs (Fig. 6), with Mg#
values (w30e50) similar to those of TTGs younger than 3.0 Ga.
The w2.6e2.5 Ga Madras massif is an exception to the above
group, and exhibits greater differentiation with compositions
extending from tonalite to granodiorite to granite. It is metal-
uminous to slightly peraluminous, magnesian to ferroan, and
calcic to calc-alkalic to alkali-calcic (not shown in Fig. 4). Like
the w2.6e2.5 Ga counterparts, the tonalitic samples from the
Madras massif have high Ba and Sr contents relative to Rb
(included in Fig. 5), and shows affinities to Archean TTGs
(included in Fig. 6).
The w2.0e1.9 Ga episode of charnockite magmatism, which
affected only the southern part of SGT, exhibits differentiated
compositions from tonalite to granodiorite to granite, is metal-
uminous to slightly peraluminous, calcic to calc-alkalic to alkali-
calcic and magnesian to ferroan (Fig. 4aec). They have high Ba
and Sr contents relative to Rb (Fig. 5). Like the w2.6e2.5 Ga
counterparts, the tonalitic samples from the w2.0e1.9 Ga episode
of charnockite magmatism show TTG affinities (Fig. 6).
The w1.7e1.6 Ga episode of charnockite magmatism, which
affected only the EGB, is dominantly tonalitic, metaluminous,
magnesian and calcic to calc-alkalic (Fig. 4aec). Like the tonalitic
members of the older episodes of charnockite magmatism, the
w1.7e1.6 Ga charnockite massifs also have high Ba and Sr
contents relative to Rb (Fig. 5), and show affinities to Archean
TTGs (Fig. 6).
The w1.0e0.9 Ga episode of charnockite magmatism affected
both SGT and EGB. Like the w2.6e2.5 Ga episode forming the
dominant episode of charnockite magmatism in SGT, the
w1.0e0.9 Ga episode forms the dominant episode of charnockite
magmatism in EGB. All the w1.0e0.9 Ga massifs from EGB are
quartz monzonitic in composition and have slightly different

Figure 6 Plot of Y vs. Sr/Y concentrations for charnockites from the SGT and EGB provinces. Data field for ca. 1.0e0.9 Ga charnockites from
East Antarctica (Rayner complex) shown for comparison. The fields are from Drummond and Defant (1990).
 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788 781

trends (Fig. 4a) in comparison with the tonalitic-granodioritic-
granitic counterparts. They are metaluminous to peraluminous,
magnesian to ferroan and calcic to calc-alkalic (Fig. 4b, c). They
have low Ba and Sr contents relative to Rb (Fig. 5). Here the
magnesian samples are calcic and peraluminous, whereas the
ferroan samples are calc-alkalic and metaluminous.
The youngest episode of charnockite magmatism in SGT is
represented by w1.0e0.9 Ga and w0.8e0.7 Ga charnockites of
the Cardamom hills massif in the southeastern part of the Madurai
block. They have distinct geochemical characteristics, with the
older charnockites tonalitic, predominantly metaluminous,
magnesian and calc-alkalic (Fig. 4aec), whereas the younger
charnockites are granodioritic to granitic, metaluminous to
slightly peraluminous, magnesian to ferroan and calc-alkalic to
alkali-calcic (Fig. 4aec). The older charnockites have high Ba and
Sr contents relative to Rb (Fig. 6), whereas the younger char-
nockites have low Ba and Sr contents relative to Rb (Fig. 6).
5. Discussion e Implications on the tectonic models
for Peninsular India
Available geochronologic data (Table 1) indicate that the char-
nockite magmatism affected the high-grade SGT and EGB prov-
inces at w3.0e2.9 Ga, w2.6e2.5 Ga, w2.0e1.9 Ga,
w1.7e1.6 Ga, w1.0e0.9 Ga and w0.8e0.7 Ga. Interestingly,
this distribution of the timing of charnockite magmatism from
Peninsular India nearly corresponds with the beginning and
waning stages of peak clusters of frequency distribution of
continental crust growth (preservation) with time presented by
Condie and Aster (2010) (Fig. 7). To evaluate the significance of
this charnockite magmatism on the tectonic models for Peninsular
India, it is important to first evaluate the general geochemical
characteristics of charnockites and their general tectonic
connotation.
Recent compilations of geochemical data on charnockites from
different parts of the world, including southern India, indicate that
charnockites generally belong to three groups: (1) a magnesian,
calcic to calc-alkalic, metaluminous group, (2) a ferroan, alkali-
calcic to alkalic, metaluminous group, and (3) a transitional group
that straddles from ferroan to magnesian group (Fig. 8; Rajesh and
Santosh, 2004; Rajesh, 2007; Frost and Frost, 2008). In general,
the magnesian charnockites are tonalitic (trondhjemitic counter-
parts are also magnesian, but occurrences are few relative to
tonalites), whereas the ferroan charnockites are granodioritic to
granitic (Rajesh, 2007). The transitional group charnockites are
quartz monzonitic. In general, the ferroan charnockites likely
occur in extensional tectonic settings whereas the magnesian
group charnockites likely form in magmatic arcs (Frost and Frost,
2008). The transitional group charnockites likely occur in
continent-continent collision tectonic settings (Rajesh, 2007).
Before addressing the significance of the geochemical char-
acteristics of the different charnockite massifs from SGT and EGB
with time, available tectonic models for Peninsular India are
summarized. The Southern Granulite Terrain and Eastern Ghats
Belt form high-grade crustal provinces juxtaposed against low-
grade granite-greenstone assemblages to the south (Dharwar
Craton) and to the east (eastern DharwareBastareSinghbhum

Figure 7 Frequency distribution of juvenile continental crust growth (preservation) with time in bins of 50 Ma (from Condie and Aster, 2010),
compared with time frames of episodic charnockite magmatism in Peninsular India. Bars labeled SGT and EGB indicate the timeframe of
charnockite formation in Southern granulite terrain and Eastern Ghats belt, respectively. See text for references on geochronological data used to
define the different episodes of charnockite magmatism in Peninsular India. V indicates the abundance in terms of aerial distributions of rocks of
known ages estimated from geologic maps.
782 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788
Figure 8 Fe*/(Fe*þMgO) vs. SiO2 and Na2OþK2O-CaO vs. SiO2
plots illustrating the general grouping of charnockites from different
parts of the world into magnesian, ferroan and transitional groups. In
addition to the references from SGT and EGB (see caption of Fig. 4),
the following references were used to compile the geochemical data
used to define the different fields e Kilpatrick and Ellis (1992),
Bohlender et al. (1992), Sheraton et al. (1992), Whitney (1992),
Berger et al. (1995), Zhou et al. (1995), Peucat et al. (1996), Duchesne
and Wilmart (1997), Hughes et al. (1997), Prame (1997), Young et al.
(1997), Zhao et al. (1997), Volker and Drake (1999), Frost et al.
(2000), Janasi (2002), Percival and Mortensen (2002), Mendes et al.
(2002), Elliott (2003), Keppie et al. (2003), Ownby et al. (2004),
Slagstad et al. (2004), Shang et al. (2004), Tollo et al. (2004), Wilson
and Overgaard (2005), D’Souza et al. (2006), Janou
sek et al. (2006),
Mikhalsky et al. (2006), Tollo et al. (2006), Motuza et al. (2008) and
Skridlait_e et al. (2008).
cratons), respectively. Various geochronologic studies from the
northern part of SGT have shown that the different blocks south of
the Dharwar Craton host quartzo feldspathic juvenile crust that
accreted to the south of the craton during two episodes e an older
one at w3.0e2.9 Ga and a younger one at w2.6e2.5 Ga (Peucat
et al., 1989, 1993; Hansen et al., 1997; Mojzsis et al., 2003).
Whole rock Sm/Nd and Rb/Sr initial isotope ratios correspond to
direct mantle derivation with no record of prior crustal residence
(e.g. Peucat et al., 1989), a finding that has been confirmed by
single-crystal zircon U-Pb geochronology (e.g. Peucat et al.,
1993). The nearly synchronous crustal accretion and high-grade
metamorphism in the northern part of SGT led Peucat et al.
(1989) to the concept of “synaccretion” granulite-facies meta-
morphism. Different studies supported this accretion event for
individual blocks of SGT using different parameters like structural
discontinuity, discontinuities in lithologic units, change in meta-
morphic conditions, age differences including Nd model ages,
variation in crustal thickness, bipolar magnetic-gravity signatures,
and other geophysical evidences (e.g. Drury et al., 1984; Peucat
et al., 1989; 1993; Harris et al., 1994; Hansen et al., 1997;
Meissner et al., 2002; Mojzsis et al., 2003; Rao et al., 2006; Clark
et al., 2009; Santosh et al., 2009; Naganjaneyulu and Santosh,
2010). The intervening shear zones that separate the different
blocks are proposed as suture zones (e.g. Drury et al., 1984;
Collins et al., 2007; Santosh et al., 2009), with recent studies
identifying ophiolitic components and high-pressure eclogitic
rocks within them (e.g. Sajeev et al., 2009; Yellappa et al., 2010;
Santosh et al., 2011). In the above scenario, the southern blocks
(Madurai and Trivandrum blocks) became part of the Indian
ensemble during the Neoproterozoic, with ocean closures along
the Palghat Cauvery shear zone and the Achankovil zone.
The craton (eastern DharwareBastareSinghbhum)eEGB
contact in eastern India, where the granulites of the EGB are
thrusted over the cratonic rocks, has been interpreted as a crustal
suture related to Indo-Antarctic collisional events (Chetty and
Murthy, 1994; Leelanandam et al., 2006; Biswal et al., 2007;
Das et al., 2008; Upadhyay, 2008) that resulted in the formation of
the Proterozoic EGB orogen (Grew and Manton, 1986; Dasgupta
and Sengupta, 2003; Dobmeier and Raith, 2003). Using a combi-
nation similar to that used in SGT, of Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr crustal
residence ages with Pb isotopes, which is very useful for the
discrimination of old reworked crust from juvenile crust (e.g.
DePaolo, 1988), an accretionary model similar to that for the
northern part of SGT has been proposed for the transition between
the Dharwar Craton and EGB (Rickers et al., 2001). Thus the
Rengali and Jeypore provinces were accreted to the cratonic India
during w3.0e2.9 Ga. Based on similar aged events from the
Krishna province of EGB and Napier complex of East Antarctica,
Dobmeier and Raith (2003) suggested that the collision between
the Napier complex and eastern Dharwar Craton occurred between
w1.7 and 1.6 Ga. Various continental reconstruction studies have
pointed out the adjacent position of the largest province of EGB,
the Eastern Ghats province and Rayner complex of East
Antarctica at w1 Ga as part of the Eastern GhatseRayner
complex terrane (Yoshida et al., 1992; Fitzsimons, 2000; Kelly
et al., 2002; Dasgupta and Sengupta, 2003; Dobmeier and Raith,
2003; Dobmeier et al., 2006; Kelsey et al., 2008). As the
Archean cratonic forelands (the Jeypore and Rengali provinces)
and the Krishna province of the EGB, lack any Grenvillian
(w1 Ga) tectono-metamorphic imprint, but have been affected by
late Neoproterozoic deformation and low-grade retrogression, the
Eastern GhatseRayner complex terrane was not welded to
subcontinental India until the Late Neoproterozoic to Cambrian
aggregation of Gondwana (e.g. Fitzsimons, 2000; Dobmeier et al.,
2006). According to isotope data presented by Rickers et al.
(2001), the continent-continent collision for the EGB at
w1.7e1.6 and w1 Ga involved only minor addition of juvenile
material.
The charnockites in Peninsular India occur to the south of the
Dharwar Craton in SGT, and to the east of the eastern Dhar-
wareBastareSinghbhum cratons in EGB (Fig. 1). The
geochemical characteristics of the w3.0e2.9 Ga Biligirirangan
hills, Jenapore and Machukund massifs, typical of magnesian
group charnockites (Fig. 4), support formation in an active
 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788 783

continental margin setting (Fig. 9). It is suggested that these
charnockite massifs form part of the initial crustal accretion event
to the Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum cratons, respectively.
The w2.6e2.5 Ga charnockites, occurring only in the SGT,
represent abundant juvenile material added to the crust as indi-
cated by their tonalitic composition (Fig. 4) and available Sm/Nd
and Rb/Sr isotope ratios in combination with Pb isotope results
(Peucat et al., 1989, 1993; Hansen et al., 1997; Raith et al., 1999;
Bhaskar Rao et al., 2003). Their geochemical characteristics,
typical of magnesian group of charnockites (Fig. 4), support
formation in an active continental margin setting (Fig. 9), forming
part of the w2.6e2.5 Ga crustal accretion event to the south of the
Dharwar Craton.
The w2.0e1.9 Ga episode represented by the Nagercoil massif
in the southern tip of the Trivandrum block in SGT is more
differentiated, showing tonalitic-granodioritic-granitic composi-
tions and belonging to both the magnesian and ferroan group of
charnockites (Fig. 4). The geochemical characteristics of the least
differentiated samples from these charnockites are tonalitic and
similar to magnesian group charnockites, supporting formation in
an active continental margin setting (Fig. 9).
The w1.7e1.6 Ga episode of charnockite magmatism occurs
only in EGB. Although the time frame of w1.7e1.6 Ga represents
a pervasive tectono-metamorphic event in the Krishna province
near eastern Dharwar Craton, only one charnockite massif (Kon-
dapalle massif) is reported from this province. The geochemical
characteristics of the Kondapalle charnockites are tonalitic and
similar to magnesian group charnockites (Fig. 4). It probably
represents the minor juvenile material added to EGB during
w1.7e1.6 Ga (Rickers et al., 2001).

Figure 9 Charnockites from SGT and EGB in terms of Nb/Zr vs. Zr plot. w1.0e0.9 Ga charnockites from East Antarctica (Rayner complex)
are shown for comparison. The fields are from Thieblemont and Tegyey (1994).
784 H.M. Rajesh / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 773e788
The w1.0e0.9 Ga charnockite massifs from the Eastern Ghats
province, the largest of the provinces in EGB, are quartz mon-
zonitic and have geochemical features that are neither character-
istic of the magnesian-group nor of the ferroan-group of
charnockites (Fig. 4). Significantly, the w1.0e0.9 Ga charnockite
massifs from Rayner complex of East Antarctica are also quartz
monzonitic (Fig. 4). Their geochemical characteristics (Fig. 9)
support the possible collision between the Eastern Ghats province
and Rayner complex, accounting for the widespread w1.0e0.9 Ga
charnockite massifs in the Eastern GhatseRayner complex
terrane.
The w1.0e0.9 Ga and w0.8e0.7 Ga episodes of charnockite
magmatism in SGT, form the older and younger components,
respectively, of the Cardamom hills massif in the southeastern
Madurai block. The geochemical characteristics of the older
charnockites are tonalitic and similar to magnesian group char-
nockites (Fig. 7), supporting formation in an active continental
margin setting (Fig. 9). The younger charnockites on the other
hand are granodioritic to granitic (Fig. 4). The details of the
accretion event in the southern part of the SGT are not clear at
this stage. But considering that south of the Cardamom hills
massif is the Achankovil zone (Fig. 1), a Cambrian suture
between the Trivandrum block to the south with the Madurai
block to the north (Santosh et al., 2009), it can be suggested that
the southern charnockite massifs only became part of the Indian
ensemble during the EdiacaraneCambrian amalgamation of
Gondwana.
6. Concluding remarks
Compilation of available geochronological data on charnockite
massifs from the two high-grade crustal provinces of Peninsular
India, indicate that all the major orogenic cycles witnessed char-
nockite magmatism. Available geochemical data on these char-
nockite massifs indicate a change in composition from
trondhjemitic at w3.0e2.9 Ga to dominantly tonalitic at
w2.6e2.5 Ga to tonalitic-granodiorite-granitic at w2.0e1.9 Ga
to dominantly tonalitic at 1.7e1.6 Ga to qtz-monzonitic or tona-
litic at w1.0e0.9 Ga to granodiorite-granitic at w0.8e0.7 Ga.
The w2.6e2.5 Ga episode forms the dominant charnockite
magmatic event in SGT, whereas the w1.0e0.9 Ga episode forms
the dominant event in EGB. The older charnockites in SGT and
EGB, emplaced during the w3.0e2.9 Ga and w2.6e2.5 Ga
episodes, and w3.0e2.9 Ga and w1.7e1.6 Ga episodes,
respectively, are magnesian group charnockites. The younger
charnockites in SGT are in general more differentiated, belonging
to both the magnesian and ferroan groups indicating that the
magnesian-ferroan distinction is sometimes not useful at high
SiO2 contents. Charnockites from the w1.0e0.9 Ga episode in
EGB show geochemical characteristics that are neither charac-
teristic of the magnesian group nor of the ferroan group char-
nockites. Considering within the context of the available tectonic
models for Peninsular India, the different charnockite massifs
hosted by different blocks and provinces of SGT and EGB likely
formed part of what might have been arc-related magmatic
systems occurring within what were likely compressional tectonic
environments associated with continental convergence to the south
of the Dharwar Craton and to the east of the eastern Dhar-
wareBastareSinghbhum cratons. In such a scenario, the inter-
vening crustal shear zones, which separate the different blocks/
provinces, are paleo-sutures and the blocks and provinces to the
south of the shear zones represents an arc system (e.g. Chetty and
Murthy, 1994; Leelanandam et al., 2006; Biswal et al., 2007;
Collins et al., 2007; Santosh et al., 2009, 2011). The w1.0e0.9 Ga
charnockites from EGB are an exception to the above scenario,
with continent-continent collision being the likely tectonic setting
for their formation. Thus the charnockite magmatism registers the
crustal growth of the Indian plate on its southern (SGT) and
eastern (EGB) sides, respectively, along active continental
margins by the accretion of arcs.
Acknowledgments
Richard Tollo, Eugene Mikhalsky and Gra
zina Skridlait_e provided
detailed, encouraging and insightful comments on the manuscript.
This is a contribution to the Paleoproterozoic Mineralization
(PPM) Research Group and Gondwana Institute for Geology and
Environment (GIGE).
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