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Foundation Engineering of Offshore “Jacket” Structures

Ioannis Chatzigiannelis1, Khaled Elsayed2, and Kostas Loukakis1, M. ASCE, P.E.

1
Archirodon NV, Athens Engineering Department, 3 Ag. Andreou Str., Athens, Greece
2
Archirodon Construction (Overseas) Co. SA

ABSTRACT: “Jackets” are marine structures commonly utilized in civil – offshore

construction practice. Foundation engineering of jackets requires exceptional design
and construction skills to cope with adverse geotechnical conditions and extreme
operational and environmental loads. A synopsis of deep foundation design and
practice employed in jacket engineering is summarized in this paper. A case study is
presented involving jackets founded on piles, in which the proposed permanent
“mudmats” and ground improvement, required for the temporary support of the
jackets, were replaced during construction by temporary reusable brackets and piles.

INTRODUCTION

Marine civil engineering encompasses coastal engineering dealing with shoreline

processes and protection, and harbor engineering dealing with port development, and
berthing, servicing, and navigational requirements of vessels. Offshore engineering
has emerged as a result of the ever growing demand for recovery of natural resources
(oil and gas) and for conversion of renewable energy sources (winds, waves, and
tidal currents). Stationary offshore structures are either secured on the sea bottom
through deep foundation systems, or built as gravity type structures. Deep
foundations may comprise either pile groups, usually employed in the offshore
platform industry, or monopile-type foundations, often encountered in wind turbine
offshore practice.
Jacket structures are commonly utilized both in port (e.g., berth facilities and
marine terminals) and in offshore engineering practice (e.g., wind turbines and,
mainly oil platforms). Difficulties that need to be addressed in the design of jacket
structures include engineering against operational and extreme environmental loads
(waves, winds, currents, earthquakes).
Jacket structures are commonly assembled on land and transported to their final
position, where they are temporarily positioned on the sea floor and then
permanently secured in place. Hence, they have to be also designed to sustain
temporary loads that are equally adverse to permanent or accidental loads. Piles are
employed in unfavourable ground conditions to safely transfer loads from the

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superstructure to the foundation layers. If the jacket legs have small diameters, piles
are constructed as “skirt piles” through sleeves connected onto the jacket legs (fig.
1a). If the jacket legs can accommodate the required pile diameter, then piles are
constructed as “leg or pin” piles through the jacket legs (fig. 1b). A very wide range
of pile types and construction methods are employed in offshore engineering
foundation practice, e.g. steel driven piles, drilled in situ reinforced concrete piles, or
other combinations that better suit project specific ground conditions, such as driven
steel piles with rock sockets drilled through the steel casing and filled with concrete.

a) skirt piles b) leg piles

FIG. 1. Jacket structure a) with skirt piles and b) with leg piles

A case study dealing with two alternative jacket installation methods is presented,
which highlights the importance of engineering innovation in the offshore
construction practice. In this application, ground conditions suggested that support of
jackets on piles was the only viable foundation solution. In addition, it was envisaged
that, for the temporary support of the jackets on the sea floor, each jacket leg would
have to be fitted with a permanent steel welded “mudmat”. Furthermore, the ground
at the locations where the mudmats would be placed would have to be improved. An
alternative solution was implemented during construction, which eliminated the need
for costly and time consuming ground improvement and mudmats by using
temporary reusable brackets and piles.

TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS IN OFFSHORE JACKET STRUCTURES

The construction sequence of an offshore jacket structure supported on deep

foundations includes a series of six high precision steps. According to Gerwick
(2000) these are: a) fabrication of steel jacket, b) loading out, tying down and
transporting, c) removing from barge, lifting and launching, d) up-ending, e)
installation on the sea floor, and f) construction of permanent foundation system.
Stationary jacket structures are commonly founded on piles. The type of piles and
method of construction depends mainly on ground conditions. Driven steel piles are
used, when ground comprises thick soil deposits. Drilled, cast in situ piles are used,
when piles are constructed in rock. A combination of drilled cast-in-situ concrete

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piles through driven steel casing is employed, when soil deposits overlay bedrock
formations.
During the initial temporary placement on the sea floor, the jacket is supported on
“mudmats”. These are structural steel, or heavily reinforced flat plates, carefully
designed to provide proper bearing. Alternatively, the jacket can be supported on
temporary piles. It is important that the jacket be level until the permanent
foundation piles are installed to avoid introducing high bending stresses in the piles.
Piles are constructed through the jacket legs or the external skirts by either
drilling/driving rigs on floating barges or by rigs placed on top of the jacket structure,
and connected to the jacket structure usually by grouting the annulus between the
pile and the skirt or leg sleeve. The load transfer through grout is enhanced by means
of hoops or spiral rebar that are welded onto the perimeter of the jacket leg/skirt to
act as shear keys. The load in the permanent situation is transferred as friction
between the grout annulus and the shear keys in the jacket to pile connection and as
skin friction between the rock and the concrete in the rock socket.
Figures 2 through 5 illustrate various pile construction methods. In fig. 2, steel
piles are driven in soil deposits through the jacket leg up to the final depth and are
then connected to the jacket legs by grouting and shear keys. Fig. 4 and 5 illustrate
two cases where drilled rock sockets are constructed into the bedrock after driving
steel casing through the overlying soil layers (fig. 3).

jacket
leg pile grout

FIG. 2. Driven steel pile through jacket leg into soil deposits

jacket
leg steel casing rock
(temporary or
permanent)
socket

FIG. 3. Construction of rock socket; drilling through jacket leg and steel casing

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In fig. 4 the rock socket is filled with concrete, and a steel pile is advanced in the
concrete, while it is still fresh. The temporary steel casing is then removed, and the
steel pile is connected to the structure by grouting the annulus between the pile and
the sleeve. In the case of fig. 5, a cast-in-situ reinforced concrete pile is constructed
inside the permanent steel casing used to support the overburden soil while drilling.
The permanent steel casing is connected to the jacket leg sleeve by grouting and
shear keys.

installation removal of grout

of steel pile steel casing
concrete

FIG. 4. Installation of steel pile in concrete-filled rock socket.

grout
reinf. cage in-situ permanent
concrete steel casing

FIG. 5. Construction of R.C. pile connected to permanent steel casing

DESIGN METHODS FOR OFFSHORE JACKET FOUNDATIONS

Foundation design of offshore jacket structures follows the design principles of

shallow and deep foundations. Jackets are usually supported on mudmats during
initial placement on the sea floor and during construction of the piles through the
skirt pile sleeves or jacket legs, whereas they are supported on piles at operation (“in
place” condition). The jacket structure during the transient construction stage needs
to be firmly supported on the sea floor, to allow for the safe construction of the pile
foundation in open sea conditions. Loads exerted on the structure during construction
include reduced environmental loads (considering events with a smaller return

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period) and loads from construction equipment (e.g., rigs supported on the jacket),
which often dictate the design and define the construction procedure.
In addition to the mudmats, it may be required that loose foundation soils are
improved to safely sustain the jacket loads. Such methods may include dredging and
replacement of unsuitable materials with gravel and preloading of the foundation,
vibrocompaction, or vibroreplacement and construction of stone columns, etc.
Foundation design of the jacket on mudmats is carried out with conventional
shallow foundation design methods (e.g., bearing capacity equations, settlement
calculations). However, potential for differential settlement needs to be thoroughly
addressed and considered as a particular loading condition for the modeling of the
superstructure.
Jacket foundation design for the “in-place condition” is based on deep foundation
design principles. Piles have to be designed to sustain vertical and horizontal loads
from the superstructure. The length of the piles is dictated by the applied axial loads.
Several methodologies have been proposed in the literature for the determination of
rock socket length (e.g., Tomlinson 2001). The skin friction contribution of any loose
overburden soil overlying bedrock is usually ignored. The pile tip resistance is also
either ignored or scaled down by a large safety factor, since significant displacement
is required for its full mobilization. For piles driven in soil deposits, the required
embedment depth is determined through driveability analysis. In this case, various
design methods based on in-situ testing can also be applied (e.g., API RP-2A).
Typical design formulas are presented in table 1.
The lateral resistance of the piles is developed by assuming a depth to “pile fixity”
or by the p-y approach (elastic beam supported by non-linear springs). Scour
potential needs to be also addressed. The effects of fatigue, corrosion and marine
growth are also considered in the structural design of the piles. Design of the
foundation includes detailing the connections between steel piles and pile sleeves
that transfer the loads from the piles to the superstructure. The grout connections are
usually designed after relevant standards (e.g., API RP-2A).

Table 1. Pile design methods – Axial loading

Soil type Method Ultimate skin friction
Rock AASHTO (2002) fsu = 0.15 qu for qu ≤1.9MPa
fsu = 0.21 √qu for qu >1.9MPa
Tomlinson (2001) fsu = α β qu, α depends on qu and β depends on
discontinuities in the rock mass
Fleming et al (1998) fsu = 1.3 (pa qu)0.5
Clays API (2000) fsu = α cu; α depends on effective stress
Sands API (2000) fsu = K σ’v tanδ; where K depends on pile type
and δ depends on NSPT

CASE STUDY

Several jacket-type platforms were constructed as part of a two-berth expansion of a

facility designed to moor and load refrigerated liquefied propane gas carriers, and
pentane tankers in the United Arab Emirates. Each new berth comprised a central

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loading platform, and several mooring and breasting dolphins. The soil profile in the
project area comprises 6.5m ± 1.5m of marine deposits (loose silty sand
characterized by 0 ÷ 5 blowcounts at the Standard Penetration Test) underlain by
bedrock described as calcarenite, calcareous siltstone with inclusions of gypsum,
exhibiting quite high RQD (Rock Quality Designation) values (although the rock
mass is termed as weak to very weak based on the unconfined compressive strength
determined through laboratory tests).
The initially proposed jacket installation method included dredging level pockets in
the sea floor, construction of a gravel pad at the location of each jacket leg and
preloading it, fitting each jacket leg with a permanent steel welded “mudmat” (fig.
5a), placing the jacket on the gravel pads, and further preloading at the top of the
jacket. The loads during subsequent drilling operations and pile construction are
transferred to the foundation layers by the mudmats. A 1,067mm diameter pile steel
casing is then driven inside the jacket leg into the top of the bedrock, with a minimal
penetration of 0.4m. The annulus between the steel casing and the jacket leg is
grouted, thus achieving, in conjunction with shear keys, full collaboration between
the two. The rock socket is drilled below the steel casing, the hole is cleaned and the
reinforcing cage is lowered into place and concreted through a tremie pipe.
Foundation design included design: a) of the “deep” rock socket for the permanent
operation of the jacket and b) of the “shallow” mudmat for the temporary stage of
jacket placement on the sea bottom and subsequent pile construction.
The rock socket (900mm diameter and 11m long) was designed using the αβ-
method (Tomlinson 2001) along with an average UCS (Unconfined Compression
Strength) rock profile (1MPa, 2MPa, and 3MPa at depths 0-3m, 4-7m and >10m,
respectively, with linear interpolation in between). Conservatively, the contribution
of overburden loose soils and the pile tip bearing resistance were ignored in the
calculation of rock socket length.
Foundation design of the jacket for the temporary placement on the sea floor
resulted in: a) mudmats of 3.0m diameter, b) dredging 2.8m of the in situ materials
(from mudline at -16.0m to -18.8m) and replacement with gravel, and c) preloading
of the mudmats. A stepwise preloading scheme was recommended. First the gravel
pads should be preloaded with 23ton concrete blocks. Then, after jacket placement
on the gravel pads, further preloading would be required via two 40ton blocks on
each jacket leg. These measures were required to meet: a) the bearing capacity
(calculated according to Brinch-Hansen theory with φ = 36o for the gravel layer), and
b) settlement (due to temporary construction/drilling loads) requirements. After
removal of preloading blocks, the temporary platform and the drilling rig would be
installed on the jacket for the construction of the foundation piles.
An alternative jacket installation technique was proposed, designed and
implemented by the contractor (Archirodon Construction Overseas), in order to
eliminate the permanent mudmats and ground improvement measures. Such works
would be required to deal with the temporary problems of jacket stability during
jacket placement on the sea floor and of pile construction. The proposed solution
involved installation of temporary brackets on the jacket legs to provide support of
the jacket on reusable temporary piles (fig. 5b). Brackets included hydraulic jacking
devices for accurate level adjustment of the jacket.

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Initially, temporary 711mm diameter steel piles were driven in pre-drilled 600mm
diameter boreholes, into the seabed by a rig and hammer operating from a jack-up
barge. Next, the jacket structure was lowered into the water so that the temporary
brackets rested onto the temporary piles, leveled and secured in place by divers. Pile
steel casings were then lifted by floating cranes and driven through the jacket legs up
to the bedrock. The steel casing was connected to the jacket leg by grouting the
annulus between the two. After curing of the grout, a heavy duty platform and
drilling rig were installed on the jacket structure and the rock socket was drilled and
air-lifted through the steel casing up to the final foundation level (photos in fig. 6 and
7). The reinforcement cage was installed by a floating crane, and the pile was
constructed by tremie concreting. The temporary piles and the brackets were then
removed to be used for the next jacket.
jacket leg

temporary
bracket

steel casing
jacket leg
temporary
pile
mud line

bed rock
mudmat
rock socket

mud line

FIG. 5. a) Initial (left) and b) alternative (right) solution for temporary support
of steel jacket structure

The alternative installation scheme presented numerous advantages. The costly

mudmats were completely eliminated and only reusable brackets with jacking
devices and piles were utilized. The installation procedure was accelerated as
dredging, placement of gravel and preloading were not required anymore. Safety of
the entire operation was greatly enhanced as the time of the unsupported temporary
structure in open sea conditions was minimized. Finally, a better control of the
construction was achieved through the hydraulic jacks, since deviations up to 300mm
could be eliminated by leveling.

CONCLUSIONS

A wide range of piled solutions is available for the foundation of stationary jacket
structures. Selection of the proper foundation system depends on ground conditions
and requires in depth knowledge of geotechnical engineering and significant
construction experience. Adverse ground conditions, extreme design loads, and
construction in the open sea require innovative construction, thoroughly engineered
solutions. This is highlighted in the case study presented, where a “permanent

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solution” involving heavy mudmats and ground improvement to a transient design

condition (placement of jackets on the sea floor and construction of foundation
piles), was substituted by a “temporary solution” involving temporary reusable
brackets and piles.

FIG. 6. Jacket with temporary brackets

FIG. 7. Positioning of drilling rig on temporary platform (left). Drilling rock

socket through jacket leg (right)

REFERENCES

AASHTO LRFD (2002). "Standard Specifications for Highways." 17th Ed.

API RP-2A (2000). "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Working Stress Design." 21st Ed.
Gerwick, B.C. Jr. (2000). "Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures." 2nd Ed.
CRC Press.
Fleming, W.G.K., Weltman, A.J., Randolph, M.F. & Elson, W.K. (1998). "Piling
Engineering." 2nd Ed. Taylor & Francis.
Tomlinson, M.J. (2001). "Foundation Design and Construction." 7th Ed. Pearson
Education Limited.

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