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A Fiber Bragg Grating Based Torsional Vibration Sensor for Rotating

Machinery

Article  in  Sensors · August 2018

DOI: 10.3390/s18082669

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 sensors
Article
A Fiber Bragg Grating Based Torsional Vibration
Sensor for Rotating Machinery
Jingjing Wang, Li Wei *, Ruiya Li ID
, Qin Liu and Lingling Yu
School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China;
jingjingwangwhut@163.com (J.W.); liruiya@whut.edu.cn (R.L.); m17786416229@163.com (Q.L.);
18883278903@163.com (L.Y.)
* Correspondence: weili@whut.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-159-2721-1586




Received: 8 June 2018; Accepted: 8 August 2018; Published: 14 August 2018


Abstract: This paper proposes a new type of torsional vibration sensor based on fiber Bragg grating
(FBG). The sensor has two mass ball optical fiber systems. The optical fiber is directly treated as
an elastomer and a mass ball is fixed in the middle of the fiber in each mass ball fiber system,
which is advantageously small, lightweight, and has anti-electromagnetic interference properties.
The torsional vibration signal can be calculated by the four FBGs’ wavelength shifts, which are
caused by mass balls. The difference in the two sets of mass ball optical fiber systems achieves
anti-horizontal vibration and anti-temperature interference. The principle and model of the sensor,
as well as numerical analysis and structural parameter design, are introduced. The experimental
conclusions show that the minimum torsional natural frequency of the sensor is 27.35 Hz and the
torsional vibration measurement sensitivity is 0.3603 pm/(rad/s2 ).

Keywords: fiber Bragg grating; torsional vibration; rotating machinery

1. Introduction
Rotating machinery has become an important branch of mechanical equipment and is widely
used in industrial production. Mechanical vibration often results in various malfunctions in rotating
machines during operation. The vibration of rotating machinery can be classified into bending vibration,
axial vibration and three forms of torsional vibration. Axial vibration and bending vibration are
easier to detect due to the obvious forms of vibration, so many more mature detection methods are
available for these vibration types after a long period of research. Conversely, torsional vibration
form is not obvious, the detection is complication and initially has not received enough attention.
Torsional vibration of shafts is an important form of vibration in all kinds of rotary machinery.
Torsional vibration is circumferential vibration caused by torque changing with time acting on the
shaft [1]. Long-term torsional vibration can cause shaft structure stress fatigue failure when the
vibration frequency is close to the natural frequency of the structure, resulting in greater fracture.
Therefore, studying methods and techniques of detecting torsional vibration of rotating machinery is
of considerable significance.
Many scholars have contributed to the study of torsional vibration measurements. As early as
1916, German scientist Geiger designed a mechanical torsional vibration meter to measure torsional
vibration of engine shafting, which marked the beginning of torsional vibration measurement. After a
century of deep research, measurement methods for torsional vibration are being constantly enriched,
and mainly include contact methods, non-contact methods, and sensorless methods [1].
The contact methods are a class of methods that directly measure torsional vibration by using
the sensor rotating with the rotating shaft. Ji et al. [2] proposed measuring torque changes in shafts

Sensors 2018, 18, 2669; doi:10.3390/s18082669 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 2 of 16

with two resistance strain gauges attached to the surface of the shaft, which were 45◦ to the axis
and perpendicular to each other. Yang et al. [3] used two identical piezoelectric acceleration sensors
mounted symmetrically in the circumferential tangential direction on the rotating shaft to measure the
tangential acceleration of the rotating shaft. Liao et al. [4] presented a torsional vibration measuring
device based on the principle of inertia, effectively eliminating radial vibration. Binglin et al. [5]
proposed a novel and highly accurate indirect torsional vibration receptance measurement method for
shaft structures.
Non-contact methods involve sensors being fixed outside rotating shafting that do not rotate
with the shaft. Sometimes, this method uses the existing structure or auxiliary structures are installed
on the shaft. Jiang et al. [6] proposed a measuring method for the torsional vibration of aeroengine
rotors by adopting eddy current displacement sensors and structures on the aeroengine rotor, such as
aeroengine speed measurement fluted discs. He et al. [7] improved the above method [6] to avoid the
impact on the measurements caused by profile error. They used groove or protrusion on the shaft as
the key phase mark and recorded the key phase signal measured by a non-contact displacement sensor
as the reference starting point. Zhao et al. [8] presented a torsional vibration measurement system
consisting of a photoelectric incremental encoder and a signal acquisition instrument. Zhang et al. [9]
described a method for rotor torsional vibration measurement based on the electromagnetic induction
effect. This method is accurate, simple to install, and is user-friendly in terms of operation.
Furthermore, there are some non-contact measurement methods based on the laser Doppler
principle [10–13]. Xiang et al. [10] proposed a laser torsional vibrameter to measure the torsion
vibration of a rotating shaft system under electrical network impact, which was based on laser
Doppler velocimetry. Huang et al. [11] introduced a measurement method for the torsional vibration of
high-speed rotary machine, which was more real-time, and the dynamic range was considerably
extended compared with other measurement methods based on the laser Doppler technique.
Liu et al. [12] developed two types of fiber-optic sensor based on the laser Doppler principle
for instantaneous torsional vibration measurements: either differential or reference instruments,
which were more easily applicable.
In addition to the above methods, sensorless detection techniques have been used for the
measurement of torsional vibration, in which conventional physical quantity sensors are no longer
used, but the stator current of the drive motor is directly extracted and analyzed to monitor the
working condition of the rotating equipment and the motor itself [14–16]. Shi et al. [14] used sensorless
detection techniques to carry out a vibration monitoring experiment and verified the feasibility of the
stator current signal of the motor to measure the vibration fault, which was more sensitive to torsional
vibration than transverse vibration.
Among the above torsional vibration measurement methods, electrical measurement and
magnetoelectric measurement methods are susceptible to electromagnetic interference, non-contact
gear measuring methods have trouble transmitting signals, and the laser Doppler method uses
expensive equipment and the measurement process is susceptible to environmental interference.
Compared with the above sensing technology, the emerging fiber grating sensors have
many advantages including their small size, immunity from electromagnetic interference,
strong environmental adaptability, easy implementation of dynamic and distributed detection,
and long-distance transmission. Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) has been applied to the measurement of
torsional vibration. Sheng et al. [15,16] designed a two FBG rotary position sensor based system to
detect the rotating angle of a rotor. The two FBGs are affixed to the metal rod along the axial direction
and separated from each other by 90 degrees on the circumference. When the rotor rotates, the force of
the two magnets on the rotor to the magnet at the end of the metal rod constantly changes, which causes
the deflection curve of the metal rod to change continuously, thus resulting in the constant change
in wavelength of the FBGs. Due to the use of a magnetic field, the sensor is susceptible to external
interference. Yu et al. [17] designed a device for measuring static and tiny torsion. The inner ring is
fixed on the base, and one end of the two FBGs is affixed on the surface of the rotatable outer ring,
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 3 of 16

and the other end is fixed on the base. The sensor is not affected by temperature and has a sensitivity
of 0.743 nm/◦ . However, it is not suitable for torsional measurement of dynamic rotating machines.
Kruger et al. [18] stuck two FBGs on opposite sides of the shaft in the direction of 45 ◦ along the
axis to measure torsional vibration. On this basis, Li et al. [19] established a complete strain sensing
model and analyzed the decoupling principle of bending and torsional coupled vibrations, which was
verified by experiments on a rotor platform. The theory of this measurement method is based on the
equal diameter circular axis, so it is not applicable to stepped axes. In addition, this method requires
FBGs to be directly affixed to the shaft, so it is not suitable for severe working conditions.
In order to overcome the above mentioned drawbacks, a new type of torsional vibration sensor
based on fiber Bragg grating is proposed in this paper. The sensor has two mass ball fiber systems.
A mass ball is fixed in the middle of the fiber in each mass ball fiber system. This system is small,
lightweight, and has anti-electromagnetic interference properties. The torsional vibration signal can
be calculated by the FBGs’ wavelength shifts that are caused by the mass ball. The combination
of the two sets of mass ball optical fiber systems effectively resists transverse vibration and
temperature interference.

2. Sensor Principles and Model

According to the sensing principle of FBG, when the fiber grating receives axial stretching
or compression, or the ambient temperature changes, the center wavelength of the fiber grating
correspondingly shifts due to the grating cycle and the effective refractive index changes. The relation
between strain, temperature, and center wavelength shifts ∆λ can be written as [20]:

∆λ
= (1 − Pe )∆ε + (α f + ξ f )∆t (1)
λ
where Pe is the strain-optic coefficient of optical fiber, af is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and xf
is the thermal-optic coefficient. Normally, Pe is 0.22, af is 0.55 × 10−6 /◦ C, and xf is 5.775 × 10−6 /◦ C.

2.1. Principle of the Sensor

A schematic diagram and photograph of the proposed rotating mechanical torsional vibration
sensor are shown in Figure 1. The sensor is mainly composed of a shell, an inner disk, two copper
mass balls, and four FBGs. The shell and the inner disk are connected together by a thread, and each
disk has a center hole. The center hole of the shell was fitted with a rotating shaft, the diameter of
which was smaller than that of the center hole of the inner disk. Each of two identical copper mass
balls was provided with a through hole, of which the diameter was slightly larger than that of the
optical fiber to allow the optical fiber to pass through the mass ball. Two mass balls were fixed on the
middle of optical fiber 1 and optical fiber 2 with 502 glue. #1FBG and #2FBG were placed on both sides
of the mass ball on optical fiber 1, #3FBG and #4FBG were placed on both sides of the mass ball on
optical fiber 2. The same tension was applied to optical fiber 1 and optical fiber 2, two sides of which
were mounted on the bumps of the inner disk with glue. The two optical fibers were parallel to each
other and the distances to the center of the round hole were equal. There were two limit slots on the
inner disk used to limit the movement range of the two mass balls to prevent optical fibers from being
pulled off.
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(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) The schematic diagram and (b) photograph of the proposed rotating mechanical torsional
Figure 1. (a) The schematic diagram and (b) photograph of the proposed rotating mechanical torsional
vibration sensor.
vibration sensor.

As shown in Figure 1, the sensor is mounted on the rotating shaft, the optical fiber are drawn
As shown
from the gapinbetween
Figure 1,the
theinner
sensor is mounted
disk on the
of the sensor androtating shaft, shaft.
the rotating the optical
When fiber are drawn
torsional from of
vibration
thethe
gap between
rotating the occurs,
shaft inner disk
the of the sensor
forces and the rotating
in the tangential of the shaft. When
two mass torsional
balls change.vibration of the
The relationship
rotating shaft occurs, the forces in the tangential of the two mass balls change. The relationship
between torsional vibration acceleration and the strain of the fiber grating can be obtained by between
torsional vibration
establishing the acceleration and the strain
differential relation betweenof the
thefiber grating
forces actingcan
onbethe
obtained
two mass by establishing thethe
balls. Finally,
differential
torsional relation
vibrationbetween
signal canthebe
forces actingby
measured onthethewavelength
two mass balls.
shift Finally, the FBGs.
of the four torsional vibration
signal can be measured by the wavelength shift of the four FBGs.
2.2. Mathmatical Model of the Sensor
2.2. Mathmatical Model of the Sensor
The sensor rotates with the rotating shaft and is subjected to torsional vibration in a clockwise
The sensor rotates with the rotating shaft and is subjected to torsional vibration in a clockwise
direction. The force diagram of the sensor is shown in Figure 2. The vibration of the 0sensor′s mass
direction. The force diagram of the sensor is shown in Figure 2. The vibration of the sensor s mass ball
ball optical fiber system can be seen as a combination of its axial vibration along the X direction (as
optical fiber system can be seen as a combination of its axial vibration along the X direction (as shown
shown in Figure 3a) and the lateral vibration along the Y direction (as shown in Figure 3b). The forces
in Figure 3a) and the lateral vibration along the Y direction (as shown in Figure 3b). The forces acting
acting on the mass ball can be divided into several categories: (1) gravity mg, the direction of which
on the mass ball can be divided into several categories: (1) gravity mg, the direction of which is always
is always vertical downward, where m is mass of the mass ball and g is the acceleration of gravity;
vertical downward, where m is mass of the mass ball and g is the acceleration of gravity; (2) the inertia
(2) the inertia force -ma caused by torsional vibration, the direction is tangential along the rotating
force -ma caused by torsional vibration, the direction is tangential along the rotating shaft, where a is
shaft, where a is the acceleration of mass ball caused by torsional vibration; (3) interference force F,
the acceleration of mass ball caused by torsional vibration; (3) interference force F, which is the inertia
which is the inertia force caused by the radial vibration of the rotating shaft; and (4) the pulling force
force caused by the radial vibration of the rotating shaft; and (4) the pulling force of the optical fiber,
of the optical fiber, of which the direction is outward along the fiber.
of which the direction is outward along the fiber.
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 5 of 16
Sensors 2017, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Figure 2. The
The force diagram of the mass ball optical fiber systems of the sensor.
sensor.

Initially, the same tension T0 is applied to the two fibers to make #1FBG, #2FBG, #3FBG, and
Initially, the same tension T0 is applied to the two fibers to make #1FBG, #2FBG, #3FBG, and #4FBG
#4FBG have an equal pre-strain ε0. The relationship between tension T0 and pre-strain ε0 is:
have an equal pre-strain ε0 . The relationship between tension T0 and pre-strain ε0 is:
T0  EA 0 (2)
T0 = EAε 0 (2)
where E represents the Young′s Modulus of optical fiber and A represents the cross-sectional area of
where E represents 0 s Modulus of optical fiber and A represents the cross-sectional area of
the optic fiber. SincethetheYoung
mass balls are fixed on the fiber, the mass balls are subjected to the first three
the optic fiber. Since the mass balls
forces to create a slight displacement areinfixed onand
the X theYfiber, the mass
direction, balls the
causing are fibers
subjected to the or
to stretch first three
shrink,
forces
and sotothecreate
massa balls
slightare
displacement
subjected tointhe X andforce
thefourth Y direction, causing the
simultaneously. fibers to stretch
According or shrink,
to the balance of
and
forceso thethe
and mass
lawballs are subjected
of orthogonal to the fourth
decomposition, weforce
can simultaneously. According
determine the relation betweento the
thebalance of
first three
force
forcesand
andthe lawof
strain of the
orthogonal
fibers. decomposition, we can determine the relation between the first three
forcesFirstly,
and strain of the fibers.
we analyzed the forces of the mass balls and the strain of FBGs in the X direction of the
sensor. For optical fiber 1, weforces
Firstly, we analyzed the of the mass
determined from balls
Figureand the the
2 that strain ofthree
first FBGsforces
in theofX the
direction of the
mass ball in
sensor. For optical
the X direction are fiber
mgsin1,θ,we determined
ma, and Fsin γ,from
whichFigure
make2 the
thatmass
the first
ballthree
moveforces of the
x1 in the mass ballAs
X direction. in
the X direction
a result, #1FBG are mgsin θ, ma,
is stretched andand Fsinisγ,
#2FBG which makeand
compressed, thethe
mass move x1 in of
ballincrements
strain X direction.
the#1FBG As a
and #2FBG
result, #1FBG is stretched and #2FBG is compressed, and the strain increments
are Δε Δεx, and −Δεx. So, Equation (3) obtained for optical fiber 1 in the X direction, of #1FBG and #2FBG
are ∆ε ∆εx , and −∆εx . So, Equation (3) is obtained for optical fiber 1 in the X direction,
mg sin   ma  F sin   2 EA x (3)
mg sin θ + ma + F sin γ = 2EA∆ε (3)
where θ is the angle between mg and Y axis direction, and γ isx the angle between F and Y axis
direction.
where θ is the angle between mg and Y axis direction, and γ is the angle between F and Y axis direction.
Using a similar process, we can determine from Figure 2 that # FBG is stretched and #4FBG is
Using a similar process, we can determine from Figure 2 that # FBG is stretched and #4FBG
compressed in the X direction, the strain increments of #3FBG and #4FBG are Δεx′ and −Δεx′,
is compressed in the X direction, the strain increments of #3FBG and #4FBG are ∆εx 0 and −∆εx 0 ,
respectively. So Equation (4) for optical fiber 2 in the X axis direction can be expressed as:
respectively. So Equation (4) for optical fiber 2 in the X axis direction can be expressed as:
'
mg sin   ma  F sin   2 EA x (4)
mg sin θ − ma + F sin γ = 2EA∆ε0x (4)
Figure 3a depicts the axial (X-direction) vibration model of the mass ball fiber grating system of
Figure The
the sensor. 3a depicts the axialof(X-direction)
axial stiffness the fiber can vibration
be writtenmodel
as: of the mass ball fiber grating system of
the sensor. The axial stiffness of the fiber can be written as:
EA
k f  EA (5)
kf = l (5)
l
where l represents half of the initial length of the optical fiber. The axial equivalent stiffness of the
mass ball fiber grating system can be expressed as:
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 6 of 16

Sensors 2017, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

where l represents half of the initial length of the optical fiber. The axial equivalent stiffness of the
mass ball fiber grating system can be expressed as: 2 EA
K x  2k f  (6)
l
2EA
Kx = 2k f = (6)
So the resonant frequency of the axial vibration of thel mass ball-fiber grating system ωx can be
expressed
So theas:
resonant frequency of the axial vibration of the mass ball-fiber grating system ω x can be
expressed as: rK r2 EA
 x  Kxx  2EA (7)
ωx = mm
= ml
ml
(7)

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Equivalent vibration model of sensor’s mass ball optical fiber system: (a) axial vibration
Figure 3. Equivalent vibration model of sensor’s mass ball optical fiber system: (a) axial vibration
model along the X direction and (b) lateral vibration model along the Y direction.
model along the X direction and (b) lateral vibration model along the Y direction.

Then, we analyzed the forces of the mass balls and the strain of the FBGs in the Y direction of
Then, As
the sensor. weshown
analyzed the forces
in Figure 2 forofoptical
the mass
fiberballs and
1, the the
first strain
three of the
forces FBGs
acting oninthe
the Y direction
mass ball in theof
the
Y sensor.
axis As shown
direction in Figure
are mgcosθ, 2 forFcosγ,
0, and opticalwhich
fiber 1,makes
the first
thethree
massforces acting
ball fiber on thevibrate
system mass ball in the
laterally,
Y axis direction are mgcosθ, 0, and Fcosγ, which makes the mass ball fiber system
and the displacement of the mass ball in the Y direction is y1. #1FBG and #2FBG are stretched in the vibrate laterally,
and
Y the displacement
direction, of the mass
which increases ball in of
the tension Y direction
theoptical y1 .ΔT.
fiber 1isby #1FBG
The and
angle #2FBG
between are stretched
the optical the Y
infibers
direction, which increases the tension of optical fiber 1 by ∆T. The angle between
on both sides of the mass ball and the X direction are both a. The strain increases of #1FBG and #2FBG the optical fibers on
both sides of the mass ball and the X
are both Δεy, so we can obtain Equation (8) as:direction are both a. The strain increases of #1FBG and #2FBG are
both ∆εy , so we can obtain Equation (8) as:
mg cos  F cos  2T sin  mr 2 (8)
mg cos θ − F cos γ − 2∆T sin α = mrω 2 (8)
where ω is angular velocity of rotational axis and r is the distance from the position of the mass ball
to the axis.
where ω is angular velocity of rotational axis and r is the distance from the position of the mass ball to
Similarly, for optical fiber 2, the tension increment of optical fiber 2 is ΔT′, the angle between the
the axis.
optical fibers on
Similarly, forboth sides
optical of the
fiber mass
2, the ball and
tension the X direction
increment of opticalare both
fiber 2 isβ,∆T
and the angle
0 , the strainbetween
incrementsthe
of #3FBG
optical andon
fibers #4FBG
both are
sidesboth Δεymass
of the . We can
ball obtain
and theEquation
X direction(9) are
as: both β, and the strain increments of
#3FBG and #4FBG are both ∆εy . We can obtain Equation '(9) as:
 mg cos  F cos  2T sin   mr 2 (9)

In the transverse vibration− mg cos θ shown

model 2∆T 0 sin
γ −Figure
+ F cos in = mrω
3b,β the
2
system freely vibrates when the (9)
resultant force of the above three kinds of changing external forces acting on the mass ball is kept at
zero. In
Inthe
thetransverse vibration
position shown model
in the shown
picture, in displacement
the Figure 3b, the system freelyball
of the mass vibrates when
is y, and thetension
the resultantof
force of the above three kinds
the fiber can be described as: of changing external forces acting on the mass ball is kept at zero. In the
position shown in the picture, the displacement of the mass ball is y, and the tension of the fiber can be
described as: T  T0  k f (ql 2  y 2  l ) (10)
T = T0 + k f ( l 2 + y2 − l ) (10)
The resultant force of the tensions of the optical fibers on both sides of the mass ball can be
The resultant force of the tensions of the optical fibers on both sides of the mass ball can be
written as:
written as:
F  2T
Fyy = 2T sin
sin
α (11)
(11)

The lateral equivalent stiffness of the mass ball-fiber grating system can be expressed as:
Fy
Ky  (12)
y
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 7 of 16

The lateral equivalent stiffness of the mass ball-fiber grating system can be expressed as:

Fy
Ky = (12)
y

Combining Equations (5) and (10)–(12), we can obtain Equation (13). Since y is much smaller than
l, Equation (13) is further simplified as:
p
2T0 + 2k f ( l 2 + y2 − l ) 2T
Ky = p ≈ 0 (13)
2
l +y 2 l

So, according to the theory of vibration and Equation (2), the resonant frequency of the lateral
vibration of the mass ball-fiber grating system can be expressed as:
r r
2T0 2EAε 0
ωy = = (14)
ml ml

Combining Equations (3) and (4), the relationship between torsional vibration acceleration and
the strain increments of the optical fibers in the X direction can be described as:

2ma = 2EA(∆ε x − ∆ε0x ) (15)

where ε1 , ε2 , ε3 and ε4 are the strains of 1#FBG, 2#FBG, 3#FBG, and 4#FBG, respectively, which can be
expressed by:
ε 1 = ∆ε y + ∆ε x + ε 0



 ε = ∆ε − ∆ε + ε

2 y x 0
0 − ∆ε0 + ε (16)

 ε 3 = ∆ε y x 0
ε 4 = ∆ε0y + ∆ε0x + ε 0



According to Equation (1), we can obtain the following equation:

∆λ1
λ = (1 − Pe )ε 1 + (α f + ξ f )∆t
∆λ2
= (1 − Pe )ε 2 + (α f + ξ f )∆t
λ
∆λ3 (17)
λ = (1 − Pe )ε 3 + (α f + ξ f )∆t
∆λ4
λ = (1 − Pe )ε 4 + (α f + ξ f )∆t

Combining Equations (16) and (17), the strain increment ∆εx of optical fiber 1 and the strain
increment ∆εx 0 of optical fiber 2 in the X direction can be expressed as:

∆ε x = 1
( ∆λ1 ∆λ2
(
2(1− Pe ) λ1
− λ2 )
(18)
∆ε0x = 1
( ∆λ4
2(1− Pe ) λ4
− ∆λ3
λ3 )

where λ1 , λ2 , λ3, and λ4 represent the center wavelength of #1FBG, #2FBG, #3FBG, and #4FBG,
respectively; and ∆λ1 , ∆λ2 , ∆λ3, and ∆λ4 represent the center wavelength shift of #1FBG, #2FBG,
#3FBG and #4FBG, respectively.
Since λ1 ≈ λ2 ≈ λ3 ≈ λ4 >> ∆λ1 , ∆λ2 , ∆λ3 , ∆λ4 , and combining Equations (15) and (18),
the torsional vibration acceleration a of the mass ball can be written as:
EA ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4
a= (19)
2m(1 − Pe ) λ
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

According to the relationship between angular acceleration β and tangential acceleration a

According
expressed as a =toβr,the
therelationship
relationshipbetween
between angular
angular acceleration and FBGs’
acceleration ββ and tangential shift isa
acceleration
wavelength
expressed as
described as: a = βr, the relationship between angular acceleration β and FBGs’ wavelength shift
is described as:
EA(（
EA 1+
∆λ 3 3−∆λ
1 ∆λ 22−∆λ
44)）
β =
 (20)
(20)
2mr ( 1 −
2mr (1  Pe )
P ) λ
e
So the angular acceleration sensitivity of the sensor can be expressed as:
So the angular acceleration sensitivity of the sensor can be expressed as:
∆λ1+∆λ
33− ∆λ  ∆λ
22 − mr (1(1 −
44 =22mr Pe P)e )λ
S=
S 1  (21)
β EA (21)
 EA
It can
It can be
be known
known from
from Equation
Equation (21)
(21) that
that the
the angular
angular acceleration sensitivity SS is
acceleration sensitivity is aa certain
certain value,
value,
0 0
which
which is
is related
related to
to the mass m
the mass m ofof the
the sensor
sensor′ss mass
mass ball
ball and radius rr of
and radius of the
the mass
mass ball′s
ball s location.
location.
Therefore, the desired sensitivity can be obtained by adjusting these two parameters.
Therefore, the desired sensitivity can be obtained by adjusting these two parameters.
3. Numerical Analysis and Structural Parameter Design
3. Numerical Analysis and Structural Parameter Design
From Equations (7) and (14), we can see that the mass ball optical fiber vibration system of the
From Equations (7) and (14), we can see that the mass ball optical fiber vibration system of the
sensor has two natural frequencies: ω y and ω x . In order to study the vibration characteristics and
sensor has two natural frequencies: ωy and ωx. In order to study the vibration characteristics and
measurement range of the sensor, it was necessary to determine the minimum natural frequency of the
measurement range of the sensor, it was necessary to determine the minimum natural frequency of
sensor. We know that ω y << ω x , so the minimum natural frequency of the torsional vibration of the
the sensor. We know that ωy << ωx, so the minimum natural frequency of the torsional vibration of
sensor is ω y , which is affected by m, l, and ε0 . According to Equation (21), the sensitivity is affected by
the sensor is ωy, which is affected by m, l, and ε0. According to Equation (21), the sensitivity is affected
m and r.
by m and r.
Since the minimum natural frequency is related to l, and the sensitivity is independent of it, we
Since the minimum natural frequency is related to l, and the sensitivity is independent of it, we
firstly determined the value of l. The smaller value of l should be taken as far as possible because the
firstly determined the value of l. The smaller value of l should be taken as far as possible because the
minimum natural frequency is negatively correlated with l. The length of fiber grating gate used in the
minimum natural frequency is negatively correlated with l. The length of fiber grating gate used in
experiment was 5 mm, and the possible maximum radius of the mass ball was 13 mm (according to
the experiment was 5 mm, and the possible maximum radius of the mass ball was 13 mm (according
the mass range), so l was taken as 20 mm. The Young’s Modulus of optical fiber Ef is 69 GPa and the
to the mass range), so l was taken as 20 mm. The Young’s Modulus of optical fiber Ef is 69 GPa and
outer diameter of the optic fiber was 125 µm. So, according to Equation (14), the relationship between
the outer diameter of the optic fiber was 125 μm. So, according to Equation (14), the relationship
frequency ω y and mass (m)/center wavelength shift (∆λ) of fiber grating under prestrain ε0 is shown
between frequency ωy and mass (m)/center wavelength shift (Δλ) of fiber grating under prestrain ε0
in Figure 4.
is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The relationship between frequency ωy and mass and center wavelength shift of fiber grating
Figure 4. The relationship between frequency ω y and mass and center wavelength shift of fiber grating
under prestrain.
under prestrain.
It can be seen from Figure 4 that the natural frequency ωy decreases with increasing mass of the
massItball,
can and
be seen from Figure
increases 4 that the natural
with increasing frequency ωshift
center wavelength y decreases
of FBG with
underincreasing
prestrain.mass
When of the
mass of
ball,
the mass ball was small, Δλ had a more obvious impact on the natural frequency. Thus, the
and increases with increasing center wavelength shift of FBG under prestrain. When
mass of
value of the
m andmassΔλball was
were set small, ∆λ had
according a more
to the obvious
vibration rangeimpact on the natural
to be measured by thefrequency. Thus,
sensor. In order
theobtain
to value of and ∆λ
asmlarge were set according
a vibration range as topossible,
the vibration range to be measured
a small–medium mass and by athe sensor.
large Δλ In order
should
to obtain as
be selected. large a vibration range as possible, a small–medium mass and a large ∆λ should be selected.
ωy and S are related to the mass of mass ball. When Δλ = 2 nm, l = 20 mm, according to
Equations (14) and (21). The curves of the natural frequency and sensitivity versus mass are shown in
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 9 of 16

ω y and S are related to the mass of mass ball. When ∆λ = 2 nm, l = 20 mm, according to
Sensors 2017, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
Equations (14) and (21). The curves of the natural frequency and sensitivity versus mass are shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 5. From
From Figure
Figure 5, 5, we
we can
can see
see that
that asas the
the mass
mass of of the
the mass
mass ball
ball increases,
increases, the the minimum
minimum natural natural
frequency of the system decreases non-linearily. When m > 2 g,
frequency of the system decreases non-linearily. When m > 2 g, the natural frequency curve becomesthe natural frequency curve becomes
flat and
flat and thethechange
change in in
mass has has
mass littlelittle
effecteffect
on theon minimum
the minimum natural natural
frequency. However,However,
frequency. the sensitivitythe
of the system
sensitivity increases
of the systemlinearly
increaseswith the increase
linearly with the in the mass of
increase inthe
themass
massball;of the themass
higher thethe
ball; value of r,
higher
the value
the higherofthe value
r, the of the
higher thecorresponding sensitivity.
value of the corresponding sensitivity.
In summary, in order to simultaneously ensure that sensitivity
In summary, in order to simultaneously ensure that the the sensitivityis large is enough
large enough and theand natural
the
frequency is not too small, we should choose a mass ball with
natural frequency is not too small, we should choose a mass ball with a moderate range of mass.a moderate range of mass. In this paper,
In
the mass
this paper,ofthe themassmassof ball
thewasmass4.08
ballg, was
half the
4.08length
g, halfofthe thelength
opticaloffiber l was 20
the optical mm,
fiber and 20
l was themm,distance
and
from
the the position
distance from the of the mass ball
position of theto mass
the axis ballr was
to the30axis
mm.r was 30 mm.
Figure 6 is schematic diagram of the pre-strain loading device of the sensor 0 s FBGs. The left
Figure 6 is schematic diagram of the pre-strain loading device of the sensor′s FBGs. The left end
end of the optical fiber is pressed on the iron plate by magnet blocks
of the optical fiber is pressed on the iron plate by magnet blocks to fix it, and the drawn optical to fix it, and the drawn optical
fiber
fiber
is is connected
connected to the to FBG
the FBG interrogator
interrogator (resolution:
(resolution: 1 pm;1 pm; sampling
sampling rate:4000
rate: 4000Hz; Hz;test testbandwidth:
bandwidth:
1525–1565 nm)
1525–1565 nm) and and thethe computer.
computer. The The right
right end
end of of the
the optical
optical fiber
fiber isis clamped
clamped by by magnet
magnet blocksblocks after
after
being passed
being passed around
around the the pulley.
pulley. The
The mass
mass ballball isis supported
supported by by the
the iron
iron plate
plate to to ensure
ensure that that the
the mass
mass
ball has no force on the optical fiber when the optical fiber is applied
ball has no force on the optical fiber when the optical fiber is applied with tension in the assembly with tension in the assembly
process of
process of the
thesensor.
sensor.InInthethe optical
optical fiber binding
fiber binding process
processof theofsensor, the number
the sensor, the numberof right-side magnet
of right-side
blocks can
magnet be adjusted
blocks can be to change the
adjusted tensile force
to change of the optical
the tensile force of fiber
theonoptical
the basis of wavelength
fiber on the basisshift of
of the sensor’s FBG obtained by the computer. Four FBGs
wavelength shift of the sensor’s FBG obtained by the computer. Four FBGs are distributed are distributed on two grating on strings,
two
each of which
grating strings,has each twoofFBGs.
whichThe hasfiber
two Bragg
FBGs.grating
The fiber used in the
Bragg sensorused
grating was in single-mode
the sensorfiber was grating,
single-
fiber type SMF-28e, and SLSR ≥ 4 dB. The gate area of each
mode fiber grating, fiber type SMF-28e, and SLSR ≥ 4 dB. The gate area of each FBG was 5 mm, FBG was 5 mm, the emission spectral
the
bandwidth
emission was 0.1–0.2
spectral bandwidth nm, thewasreflectivity
0.1–0.2 nm,was the80%, and the
reflectivity core
was diameter
80%, and thewas core125 mm. When
diameter the
was 125
wavelength
mm. When the shift of sensor’s
wavelength FBG
shift of reached
sensor’s FBG 2 nm,reached
the weight2 nm,ofthe theweight
suspended of the magnet
suspended blocks was
magnet
150 g, so the optical fiber was subjected to a pull force of 1.5 N, and
blocks was 150 g, so the optical fiber was subjected to a pull force of 1.5 N, and the glue was loaded the glue was loaded at this time.
When
at the colloid
this time. When solidified,
the colloidthe center wavelength
solidified, of each FBG
the center wavelength of of
eachtheFBGsensor of theshifted,
sensor asshifted,
shown as in
Table 1.inThe
shown Table average FBGs center
I. The average FBGswavelength
center wavelength shift ofshift
the two
of the mass
twoballmass optical fiber systems
ball optical were
fiber systems
1.999 nm and 2.032 nm. According to Equation (14), the torsional
were 1.999 nm and 2.032 nm. According to Equation (14), the torsional vibration natural frequencies vibration natural frequencies of the
sensor’s
of #1 and#1
the sensor’s #2andmass#2ball massoptical
ball fiber
optical systems were 29.99
fiber systems and29.99
were 29.74andHz,29.74
respectively. The sensitivity
Hz, respectively. The
of the sensor was 0.3603 pm/(rad/s 2 ), which was calculated by Equation (21).
sensitivity of the sensor was 0.3603 pm/(rad/s ), which was calculated by Equation (21).
2

Figure
Figure 5.
5. The
Thecurves
curves of
of the
the sensor’s
sensor’sfrequency
frequencyand
and sensitivity
sensitivity change
change with
with mass
mass of
of the
the mass
mass ball.
ball.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the pre-strain loading device of the sensor’s fiber Bragg gratings
(FBGs).
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 10 of 16
Figure 5. The curves of the sensor’s frequency and sensitivity change with mass of the mass ball.

Figure 6.6.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagram
of of
thethe pre-strain
pre-strain loading
loading device
device of theof the sensor’s
sensor’s fibergratings
fiber Bragg Bragg gratings
(FBGs).
Sensors(FBGs).
2017, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
Table 1. Center wavelength shift of each fiber Bragg grating (FBG) of the sensor.
Table 1. Center wavelength shift of each fiber Bragg grating (FBG) of the sensor.
Number of FBGs #1FBG #2FBG #3FBG #4FBG
Number of FBGs #1FBG #2FBG #3FBG #4FBG
Initial center wavelength (nm)
Initial center wavelength (nm) 1539.688 1542.635
1539.688 1542.635 1549.608 1551.632
1549.608 1551.632
Wavelength after prestress
Wavelength (nm) (nm)1541.682
after prestress 1541.682 1544.638
1544.638 1551.639
1551.639 1553.6651553.665
Wavelength shift after
Wavelength prestress
shift (nm) (nm)
after prestress 1.994 1.994 2.003
2.003 2.031
2.031 2.033 2.033

4.
4. Experiments and Discussion
Discussion
Figure
Figure 77 shows
shows aa schematic
schematic diagram
diagram andand photograph
photograph of of the
the sensing
sensing characteristics
characteristics experiment
experiment
for
for the
the FBG-based
FBG-based torsional
torsional vibration
vibration sensor.
sensor. The
The sensor
sensor and
and two
two counterweights
counterweights are are mounted
mounted on on the
the
rotary
rotary shaft, which is is fitted
fittedwith
withbearings
bearingsatatboth
bothends.
ends.OneOneendendof of
thethe beam
beam is fixed
is fixed to the
to the endend of
of the
the shaft
shaft by by means
means of of bolts
bolts and
and couplings,
couplings, andandthe
theother
otherendendisisconnected
connected with with the vibration exciter
exciter
through
through aa connecting
connecting piece.
piece. Thus, the vibration
vibration exciter
exciter provides a tangential
tangential vibration
vibration signal to to the
the
shaft
shaft through
through thethe beam.
beam. The vibration exciter is driven by a signal generator and power amplifier;
the
the signal
signalgenerator
generatorgenerates
generatesaacontrol
controlsignal,
signal,which
which is is
transmitted
transmitted to to
thethe
exciter after
exciter amplification
after amplificationby
the power amplifier, and the exciter outputs the corresponding excitation signal.
by the power amplifier, and the exciter outputs the corresponding excitation signal. A 4507B A 4507B piezoelectric
sensor is fixed
piezoelectric at the
sensor is vibration exciter,
fixed at the the exciter,
vibration signal of
thewhich
signalisoftransmitted to the computer
which is transmitted via the
to the computer
collecting module,module,
via the collecting so we can record
so we the magnitude
can record of the acceleration
the magnitude of the of
of the acceleration excitation signalsignal
the excitation from
the
frompiezoelectric acceleration
the piezoelectric sensor. sensor.
acceleration The optical
The fiber output
optical fiberinterface of the FBG
output interface of torsional
the FBG vibration
torsional
sensor is connected
vibration to FBG interrogator,
sensor is connected which is connected
to FBG interrogator, which is to the computer
connected to theon which the
computer onFBG signal
which the
is displayed.
FBG signal is displayed.

(a) (b)

Figure 7.
Figure 7. (a)
(a) The
The schematic diagram and
schematic diagram and (b)
(b) photograph of sensing
photograph of sensing characteristics
characteristics experiments
experiments for
for the
the
FBG-based torsional vibration sensor.
FBG-based torsional vibration sensor.

4.1. Amplitude-Frequency Property Experiments

4.1.1. Exciter Excitation Experiments

Firstly, we studied the sensor’s amplitude-frequency properties. In the experimental process, the
acceleration amplitude was set at 5 m/s2 and remained unchanged. The frequency changed from 0 to
1000 Hz. The experiment was repeated two times. The amplitude-frequency characteristic curves of
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 11 of 16

4.1. Amplitude-Frequency Property Experiments

4.1.1. Exciter Excitation Experiments

Firstly, we studied the sensor’s amplitude-frequency properties. In the experimental process,
the acceleration amplitude was set at 5 m/s2 and remained unchanged. The frequency changed
from 0 to 1000 Hz. The experiment was repeated two times. The amplitude-frequency characteristic
curves of the sensor’s two mass ball-optical fiber systems are shown in Figure 8. From Figure 8,
we determined: (1) the amplitude-frequency curves of the two mass ball optical fiber systems are
roughly the same, and when the frequency is within 0 and 15 Hz, the curve is almost parallel
to the horizontal axis, which indicates that the working range of the sensor is 0–15 Hz; (2) the
resonant frequencies of the two mass ball optical fiber systems of the sensor were 29 and 27 Hz,
which are basically consistent with the numerical simulation resonant frequencies of 29.99 and 29.74 Hz.
Moreover, the resonant frequency of the #1 mass ball optical fiber system was slightly larger than the
resonant frequency of the #2 mass ball optical fiber system, which may be caused by the deviation in
the position
Sensors 2017, 17,ofx the
FORtwo
PEERsystems’
REVIEW mass balls during assembly. 11 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure 8.8.(a)
Figure (a)Amplitude-frequency
Amplitude-frequency curves
curves of #1ofmass
#1 mass ball optical
ball optical fiber (b)
fiber system. system. (b) Amplitude-
Amplitude-frequency
frequency curves of #2 mass ball optical
curves of #2 mass ball optical fiber system.fiber system.

4.1.2. Hammering Excitation Experiments

4.1.2. Hammering Excitation Experiments
In order to further explore and verify the dynamic characteristics of the sensor, we carried out
In order to further explore and verify the dynamic characteristics of the sensor, we carried out
hammering excitation experiments on the sensor. As shown in Figure 7, the signal generator and
hammering excitation experiments on the sensor. As shown in Figure 7, the signal generator and
power amplifier are switched off, the exciter does not work and only plays the role of supporting the
power amplifier are switched off, the exciter does not work and only plays the role of supporting the
beam. Using the hammer to hit the end of the beam in the vertical direction, a tangential pulse signal
beam. Using the hammer to hit the end of the beam in the vertical direction, a tangential pulse signal
was provided to the shaft and then the shaft was free to vibrate. The torsional vibration resonant
was provided to the shaft and then the shaft was free to vibrate. The torsional vibration resonant
frequency was obtained from the response signals of the sensor. Figure 9 shows the time domain and
frequency was obtained from the response signals of the sensor. Figure 9 shows the time domain
spectrum map of the response signals of the sensor under hammering excitation. It can be seen from
and spectrum map of the response signals of the sensor under hammering excitation. It can be seen
Figure 9 that the responses of the two mass ball optical fiber systems of the sensor are good, and the
from Figure 9 that the responses of the two mass ball optical fiber systems of the sensor are good,
first-order torsional vibration natural frequency of the sensor′s #1 and #2 mass ball optical fiber
and the first-order torsional vibration natural frequency of the sensor0 s #1 and #2 mass ball optical
systems are 29.39 and 27.35 Hz, respectively, which is more accurate than the result of the exciter
fiber systems are 29.39 and 27.35 Hz, respectively, which is more accurate than the result of the exciter
excitation experiment and consistent with the theoretical value.
excitation experiment and consistent with the theoretical value.
frequency was obtained from the response signals of the sensor. Figure 9 shows the time domain and
spectrum map of the response signals of the sensor under hammering excitation. It can be seen from
Figure 9 that the responses of the two mass ball optical fiber systems of the sensor are good, and the
first-order torsional vibration natural frequency of the sensor′s #1 and #2 mass ball optical fiber
systems are 29.39 and 27.35 Hz, respectively, which is more accurate than the result of the exciter
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 12 of 16
excitation experiment and consistent with the theoretical value.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Time
Time domain
domain and
and spectrum map of
spectrum map of (a)
(a) #1
#1 mass
mass ball
ball and
and (b)
(b) #2
#2 mass
mass ball
ball optical
optical fiber
fiber systems.
systems.

4.2. Sensitivity Experiments

4.2. Sensitivity Experiments
In the experimental system shown in Figure 7, the exciter provides the torsional vibration signal
In the experimental system shown in Figure 7, the exciter provides the torsional vibration signal
for the shaft, the beam is in the horizontal position, and the distance between the excitation point on
for the shaft, the beam is in the horizontal position, and the distance between the excitation point on the
the beam and the axis of the shaft d is 305 mm. If the excitation acceleration of the exciter is a, the
beam and the axis of the shaft d is 305 mm. If the excitation acceleration of the exciter is a, the torsional
torsional vibration acceleration β would be a/d. During the experiment, the frequency of excitation
vibration acceleration β would be a/d. During the experiment, the frequency of excitation acceleration
acceleration was always kept at 2 Hz, the excitation acceleration amplitude increased from 5 to
was always kept at 2 Hz, the excitation acceleration amplitude increased from 5 to 30 m/s2 , and then
decreased to 5 m/s2 with the purpose of investigating the hysteresis of the sensor. The experimental
data were recorded every 5 m/s2 , and the experiment was repeated three times.
Figure 10 shows the time domain signal of each FBG under excitation with an acceleration amplitude
of 20 m/s2 and frequency of 2 Hz. The signals of #1FBG and #4FBG had the same phase and change trend,
and the signals of #2FBG and #3FBG had the same phase and change trend. According to Equation (21)
and as shown in Figure 11, we can obtain the change curve of ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 under the above
excitation. It can be seen from Figure 11 that the frequency of ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 is basically consistent
with the excitation frequency. Thus, the plot of ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 versus vibration angle acceleration
is shown in Figure 12. Figure 12a shows the maximum difference in the measured data between each
experiment in the same or two directions. The average value of the upper limit of ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4
in the experiment ∆λ max was 36 pm, thus the repeatability error and hysteresis error of the sensor
can be calculated as ∆Rmax/∆λmax = 5.556%, and ∆Hmax/∆λmax = 2.778%, respectively. In order to
further study the sensor characteristics of the sensor, we averaged the six sets of experimental data and
obtained the linear fitted curve shown in Figure 12b. We obtained the following data from Figure 12b:
(1) the maximum difference between the measured value and the fitted straight line ∆Lmax was 0.495, so
the linearity of the sensor ∆Lmax/∆λ max was 1.376%; (2) the fitting equation can be expressed as
∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 = 0.3604β + 0.0614, so according to Equation (21), the angular
acceleration sensitivity of the sensor was 0.3604 pm/(rad/s2 ). The average single FBG sensitivity was
0.3604/4 pm/(rad/s2 ), considering the wavelength shift of each FBG under the prestress (Table 1) and
the wavelength shift of each FBG caused by the vibration interference (which can reach the level of
gravitational acceleration). For measuring the rotation, the safety factor was chosen as 100 (one level above
the gravitational acceleration), so the measurement range was 1994/100/(0.3604/4) rad/s2 = 221 rad/s2 .
 Lmax/Δλ
0.3604β max so
+ 0.0614, was 1.376%; to
according (2)Equation
the fitting(21),
equation can beacceleration
the angular expressed as Δλ1 + Δλof
sensitivity 3 − Δλsensor
the 2 − Δλwas
4 =

0.3604βpm/(rad/s
0.3604 + 0.0614, so2 according
). The averageto Equation
single FBG (21),sensitivity
the angular wasacceleration sensitivity ),ofconsidering
0.3604/4 pm/(rad/s 2 the sensor was
the
0.3604 pm/(rad/s
wavelength shift of2). The average single FBG sensitivity was 0.3604/4 pm/(rad/s2), considering the
each FBG under the prestress (Table 1) and the wavelength shift of each FBG
wavelength
caused by theshift of eachinterference
vibration FBG under (which
the prestress (Table
can reach the1) level
and the wavelength shift
of gravitational of each FBG
acceleration). For
caused
measuring
Sensors by18,the
2018, the vibration
rotation, the
2669 interference (which
safety factor wascanchosen
reach the level(one
as 100 of gravitational
level aboveacceleration). 13For
the gravitational
of 16
measuring the
acceleration), rotation,
so the the safety
measurement factor
range waswas chosen as 100 (one
1994/100/(0.3604/4) rad/slevel
2 = 221above
rad/s2the
. gravitational
acceleration), so the measurement range was 1994/100/(0.3604/4) rad/s2 = 221 rad/s2.

Figure
Figure 10. Time
Timedomain
domain signal
signal of each
of each FBGFBG under
under the excitation
the excitation with acceleration
with acceleration amplitude
amplitude of2
of 20 m/s
Figure210.
10. Time domain signal of each FBG under the excitation with acceleration amplitude of
20
andm/s and
frequency frequency of 2 Hz.
of 2 Hz. of 2 Hz.
20 m/s 2 and frequency

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure11.11.(a)
(a)Time
Timedomain
domainandand (b)
(b) spectrum
spectrum map
map of Δλ  Δλ
of Δλ Δλ33 −− Δλ
Δλ22 −− Δλ
Δλ44 under
underthe
theexcitation
excitationwith
with

Figure 11. (a)
acceleration Time domain
amplitude of 20 and
m/s 2(b)
and spectrum map
frequency of 2 ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 under the excitation
ofHz.
acceleration amplitude of 20 m/s2 and 2frequency of 2 Hz.
with
Sensors acceleration
2017, amplitude
17, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 20 m/s and frequency of 2 Hz. 13 of 16

(a) (b)

Figure12.
Figure 12.The
Therelationship
relationshipbetween
between∆λΔλ+∆λΔλ3−− ∆λ
Δλ2 −− Δλ
∆λ44 and
and angle
angle acceleration. (a) The
acceleration. (a) The plot
plot and
and
1 3 2
(b) the linear fitted curve of Δλ   Δλ3 − Δλ2 − Δλ4 versus vibration angle acceleration.
(b) the linear fitted curve of ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 versus vibration angle acceleration.

4.3. Anti-Interference Characteristic Experiments

4.3. Anti-Interference Characteristic Experiments
In the actual measurement of the torsional vibration of a shaft, the lateral vibration of the shaft
In the actual measurement of the torsional vibration of a shaft, the lateral vibration of the
inevitably simultaneously occurs with the torsional vibration, so we needed to explore the sensor’s
shaft inevitably simultaneously occurs with the torsional vibration, so we needed to explore the
anti-interference characteristics on lateral vibration. We slightly modified the experimental apparatus
sensor’s anti-interference characteristics on lateral vibration. We slightly modified the experimental
in Figure 7 by attaching a 4507B piezoelectric acceleration sensor to the surface of the rotating shaft.
apparatus in Figure 7 by attaching a 4507B piezoelectric acceleration sensor to the surface of the
We hammered the rotating shaft in the measuring direction of the 4507B piezoelectric sensor
rotating shaft. We hammered the rotating shaft in the measuring direction of the 4507B piezoelectric
(perpendicular to the paste surface of the sensor) to provide the shaft with a transverse vibration
sensor (perpendicular to the paste surface of the sensor) to provide the shaft with a transverse vibration
signal, and acceleration of hammering should meet the condition a < g = 9.8 m/s2. Then the sensor’s
paste position was changed according to Figure 13 and the above steps were repeated.
 In the actual measurement of the torsional vibration of a shaft, the lateral vibration of the shaft
inevitably simultaneously occurs with the torsional vibration, so we needed to explore the sensor’s
anti-interference characteristics on lateral vibration. We slightly modified the experimental apparatus
in Figure
Sensors 2018,718,
by2669
attaching a 4507B piezoelectric acceleration sensor to the surface of the rotating14shaft.
of 16
We hammered the rotating shaft in the measuring direction of the 4507B piezoelectric sensor
(perpendicular to the paste surface of the sensor) to provide the shaft with a transverse vibration
2
signal,
signal, and
and acceleration
acceleration of
of hammering
hammeringshould
shouldmeet
meetthe conditionaa<<gg==9.8
thecondition 9.8m/s
m/s2.. Then
Then the
the sensor’s
sensor’s
paste position was changed according to Figure 13 and the above steps were repeated.
paste position was changed according to Figure 13 and the above steps were repeated.

Figure 13. Paste position diagram of 4507B piezoelectric acceleration sensor.

sensor.

The time-domain
The time-domain waveforms
waveforms of FBGs obtained
of FBGs obtained from
from this
this experiment
experiment were
were similar
similar to
to those
those in
in
Figure 9. According to Equation (21), the time-domain plots of Δλ 1 + Δλ3 − Δλ2 − Δλ4 and Δλ1 + Δλ3 −
Figure 9. According to Equation (21), the time-domain plots of ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 and ∆λ1 + ∆λ3
Δλ∆λ2 − Δλ4 shown in Figure 14a at four different hammering positions can be obtained. Figure 14b
− 2 − ∆λ4 shown in Figure 14a at four different hammering positions can be obtained. Figure 14b
shows the results
results of
of ∆λ
Δλ1 ++ Δλ
∆λ33 −−Δλ∆λ2 − Δλ4 at different percussion positions under multiple beats. It
shows the 1 2 − ∆λ4 at different percussion positions under multiple beats.
can be seen that Δλ 1 + Δλ3 − Δλ2 − Δλ4 changes in the range of 3 pm at different percussion positions,
It can be seen that ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 changes in the range of 3 pm at different percussion
and thereand
positions, is no significant
there difference
is no significant between
difference them,them,
between which indicates
which that
indicates the
that thesensor
sensorhas good
has good
anti-jamming characteristics for lateral vibration.
anti-jamming characteristics for lateral vibration.
Sensors 2017, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure14.
Figure 14.The
Theresults
resultsof ofanti-interference
anti-interferencecharacteristic
characteristicexperiments.
experiments. (a)
(a)Time-domain
Time-domainplots
plotsof Δλ +
of∆λ
1
Δλ3 − − Δλ   Δλ3 − Δλ2 − Δλ4 at
∆λ 3 ∆λ22 −−Δλ
∆λ4 4at
atfour
four different hammering locations.
different hammering locations.(b)
(b)The
Theresults
resultsofof
∆λΔλ
1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 at
differentpercussion
different percussionpositions
positionsunder
undermultiple
multiplebeats.
beats.

4.4. Temperature Effects Experiments

4.4. Temperature Effects Experiments
From Equations (17) and (18), we can see that the proposed sensor can compensate for
From Equations (17) and (18), we can see that the proposed sensor can compensate for temperature,
temperature, which means the measurement results are not disturbed by temperature. In order to
which means the measurement results are not disturbed by temperature. In order to verify this
verify this characteristic, we examined the temperature influences on the FBGs of the sensor.
characteristic, we examined the temperature influences on the FBGs of the sensor. Figure 15 shows the
Figure 15 shows the temperature influence testing system. A thermostat was used to control the
temperature influence testing system. A thermostat was used to control the surrounding temperature
surrounding temperature of the sensor. The experiments were performed within the range of 30 to
of the sensor. The experiments were performed within the range of 30 to 90 ◦ C and the sampling
90 °C and the sampling internal was 10 °C. After averaging three sets of experimental data, the
internal was 10 ◦ C. After averaging three sets of experimental data, the temperature response curves
temperature response curves of this sensor were created (Figure 16). The figure shows that the center
of this sensor were created (Figure 16). The figure shows that the center wavelength shift of each FBG
wavelength shift of each FBG varied linearly versus temperature, and the temperature response Δλ1
varied linearly versus temperature, and the temperature response ∆λ1 + ∆λ3 − ∆λ2 − ∆λ4 of this sensor
+ Δλ3 − Δλ2 − Δλ4 of this sensor was insensitive and had little variation from −3 to 6 pm in the range
of 30 to 90 °C, which indicates that temperature interference have been effectively compensated.
temperature, which means the measurement results are not disturbed by temperature. In order to
verify this characteristic, we examined the temperature influences on the FBGs of the sensor.
Figure 15 shows the temperature influence testing system. A thermostat was used to control the
surrounding temperature of the sensor. The experiments were performed within the range of 30 to
90 °C and the sampling internal was 10 °C. After averaging three sets of experimental data, the
Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 15 of 16
temperature response curves of this sensor were created (Figure 16). The figure shows that the center
wavelength shift of each FBG varied linearly versus temperature, and the temperature response Δλ1
was from −3and ◦ C, which indicates
+ Δλinsensitive
3 − Δλ2 − Δλ and
4 of had
this little
sensor variation
was insensitive to 6had
pm little
in thevariation
range offrom
30 to−3
90to 6 pm in the range
that to 90 °C, which
of 30temperature interference
indicateshave
that been effectively
temperature compensated.
interference have been effectively compensated.

Figure 15. Temperature influence

Sensors 2017, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW influence testing
testing system.
system. 15 of 16

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Temperature
Temperature response
response curves
curvesof
ofthis
thissensor.
sensor.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions

AA new
new type
typeofoftorsional
torsionalvibration
vibrationsensor based
sensor on on
based fiber Bragg
fiber grating
Bragg was proposed
grating was proposedin thisinpaper.
this
paper. The sensor has two mass ball optical fiber systems. In each mass ball fiber system,optical
The sensor has two mass ball optical fiber systems. In each mass ball fiber system, the fiber
the optical
was directly
fiber treated
was directly as anaselastomer
treated and aand
an elastomer mass ball was
a mass ball fixed in theinmiddle
was fixed of the
the middle ofoptical fiber.fiber.
the optical The
torsional
The vibration
torsional signal
vibration was calculated
signal by thebywavelength
was calculated the wavelengthshifts of fourofFBGs,
shifts four which
FBGs, were
whichcaused
were
by the mass balls. The difference in the two sets of mass ball optical fiber
caused by the mass balls. The difference in the two sets of mass ball optical fiber systems achieved systems achieved
anti-horizontalvibration
anti-horizontal vibration andand anti-temperature
anti-temperature interference.
interference. Moreover,Moreover,
this sensor this sensorlightweight
is small, is small,
lightweight and provides anti-electromagnetic interference. Experimental
and provides anti-electromagnetic interference. Experimental results showed that the minimum results showed that the
minimum torsional natural frequency of the sensor is 27.35 Hz and the
torsional natural frequency of the sensor is 27.35 Hz and the torsional vibration measurement sensitivitytorsional vibration
measurement
is 0.3603 pm/(rad/ssensitivity
2 ). In is 0.3603 pm/(rad/s
addition, the mass of
2). In addition, the mass of the sensor, the mass of the
the sensor, the mass of the sphere, and the length of
sphere,
the fiberand
can the length ofaccording
be adjusted the fiber can be adjusted
to different according to
requirements to different
obtain betterrequirements to obtain better
dynamic performance to
dynamic performance to measure the torsional
measure the torsional vibration in different ranges. vibration in different ranges.

AuthorContributions:
Author Contributions: J.W.
J.W.and
andR.L.
R.L.proposed
proposedthethemain
main idea,
idea, Q.L.
Q.L. and
and L.Y.
L.Y.performed
performedNumerical
Numerical Analysis
Analysis and
and
mapping, J.W.
mapping, J.W. and
and L.Y.
L.Y.performed
performed the
the experiments,
experiments, J.W.
J.W. wrote
wrote the
the paper,
paper, L.W.
L.W.reviewed
reviewedthe
themanuscript
manuscript and
and
provided
providedexperimental
experimentalfunds.
funds.

Funding: This research was funded by the Youth Science Fund Project of National Natural Science Foundation
of China under Grant 51405354, the founder of this research is Li Wei.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References
 Sensors 2018, 18, 2669 16 of 16

Funding: This research was funded by the Youth Science Fund Project of National Natural Science Foundation of
China under Grant 51405354, the founder of this research is Li Wei.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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