Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

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Precision Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precision

Monitoring method of cutting forces and vibrations by using frequency

separation of acceleration sensor signals during milling process with small
ball end mills
Junichi Kouguchi a, *, Hayato Yoshioka b
a
Beckhoff Automation K.K., Nisseki Yokohama Building 18F, 1-1-8 Sakuragi-cho, Naka-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 231-0062, Japan
b
The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Recently, there has been a further demand for precise monitoring of milling process with a machine tool by a
Machining simple and cost-effective method. One of the ways for monitoring is to install acceleration sensors to the tool
Cutting force spindle and estimate cutting forces from the model of the tool spindle structure. This method generally allows
Vibration
stable monitoring of cutting forces for tools with large diameters. However, in case of using tools with small
Acceleration sensor
Milling process monitoring
diameters, it is difficult to estimate the cutting force due to higher frequency vibrations generated near the tool
Signal analysis center point. Therefore, to solve the problem, we propose a new monitoring method by signal analysis of ac­
celeration sensors in this research. The problem is that the acceleration sensor signals contain two types of
signals, such as ‘acceleration change due to mechanical displacement of a tool spindle generated by cutting load’
and ‘high frequency self-excited and forced vibration’. In our method, we separate these two signals by using an
approximation of sequential quadratic regression. From the former, cutting forces are estimated from equation of
motions which are obtained in advance from frequency responses of the tool spindle, and from the latter, in­
tensities of vibrations due to milling are estimated. This method was tested several milling patterns such as large
cutting loads, fluctuations of cutting loads, and cutting during abnormal vibrations. As a result, we have achieved
in-process monitoring of milling process not only in the X and Y directions, but also in the Z direction with a
small radius ball end mill.

1. Introduction mounting of workpieces. Therefore, there is a demand for a simple and

In recent years, machine tools have become increasingly sophisti­
cated. One example is a precise control of a machine structure with high
rigidity to achieve high-speed and high-precision positioning, or a va­
riety of on-machine software to improve operability and convenience. In
addition, machines that meet the requirements of operation monitoring
and preventive maintenance are being introduced one after another
[1–4]. In the evolving machine tool technology, a technology to monitor
actual cutting processes in detail has long been considered important
[5–8]. The most basic thing of these is a cutting force monitoring and
estimation to achieve high-speed and high-quality machining [9–12].
The cutting force is often monitored by a dynamometer, which
provides highly reliable measurements. However, it is practically diffi­
cult to install dynamometers on all machine tools for production lines
because these themselves are expensive and there are restrictions on
cost-effective method to monitor cutting forces and conditions of mill­
ing. One method is to monitor cutting forces and vibrations during
milling by attaching acceleration sensors or displacement sensors to a
tool spindle housing. Since measured signals from the sensors are
composites of various elements, these must be analyzed and classified.
Frequency response analysis such as FFT has been used as a method for
this purpose than before [13–15].
However, the method using frequency response analysis is to
decompose signals into many different frequency sinusoidal waves.
Therefore, for signals that do not take the form of a sinusoidal wave, a
higher-order analysis is often necessary and calculation processing is
extremely difficult. In actually, the waveform of cutting force and ac­
celeration correlated with it during milling is usually quite different
from the form of the sinusoidal wave itself. Thus, a method to estimate
cutting force from acceleration sensor attached to the tool spindle

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: j.kouguchi@beckhoff.co.jp (J. Kouguchi), yoshi-ok@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp (H. Yoshioka).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2023.10.013
Received 3 February 2023; Received in revised form 30 August 2023; Accepted 22 October 2023
Available online 30 October 2023
0141-6359/© 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 1. Concept of the method for monitoring.
Fig. 2. Detail processes of monitoring method.
without using frequency response analysis has been explored. This
method has estimated cutting force from measured acceleration, ve­
locity, and displacement based on the model structure on the tool
spindle structure [16–18]. As a further application of this method, a
method for estimating cutting force from multiple sensor signals using a
Kalman filter has been proposed, even when cutting force estimation is
difficult due to resonance in the machine structure [19–21]. Although
these studies have often been utilized during milling for low rotational
speed of tools, cutting force estimation for high rotational speed of tools,
which means high frequency in one blade, also has been realized [22,
23].
Nevertheless, stable cutting force estimation from acceleration and
displacement sensors is often performed on square end mills with large
diameters of cutting tools. In the case of milling with a large-diameter
tool, the tool itself is sufficiently rigid so that high frequency vibra­
tions are hardly generated around the tool spindle, tool, and the area
around the tool center point. Therefore, the cutting force can be easily
estimated for the large tool. If the tool diameter is small relative to the
tool shaft, for example, less than 3 mm in diameter, it becomes more
difficult to estimate the cutting force due to higher frequency vibrations
which occur near the tool center point. In addition, when small-diameter
tools are used, as these are often intended for milling precise three-
dimensional shapes, ball end mills are often used in addition to square
end mills. In this case, it is important not only to estimate cutting forces
and conditions of milling in the X and Y directions, which have been
studied extensively, but also to estimate it in the Z direction. In this
research, we propose a method for estimating cutting forces and vibra­
tions from tool spindle models in small-diameter tools, for which cutting
force estimation has not widely performed. Assuming the use of a ball
end mill, the cutting forces and vibrations are estimated for the three
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
axial components of X, Y, and Z directions.
2. Monitoring method of cutting forces and vibrations
2.1. Concept of the proposed method
The concept of the method for monitoring is shown in Fig. 1. The
sensors attached to a tool spindle measure accelerations. These signals
are separated into mechanical displacements and high frequency vi­
brations by the method of signal analysis. Then, from the former the
cutting forces are estimated by using a model-based approach, and from
the latter intensities of vibrations are estimated to monitor conditions of
milling.
The detail processes of the monitoring method are shown in Fig. 2.
The accelerations of the tool spindle structure are measured from the
sensors. However, since the target of this research is a small-diameter
tool, the tool itself is thin and the rigidity is not sufficient near the
tool center point. Therefore, the acceleration signal includes a high
frequency vibration due to self-excited and forced vibration. In addition
to that, the signal also includes a mechanical displacement of the tool
spindle caused by cutting force. These two components are separated by
using an approximation of sequential quadratic regression. From the
mechanical displacement of the tool spindle, a cutting force is estimated
from a model of the tool spindle structure. From the high frequency
vibration, an intensity of the vibration is estimated. These estimated
feature values enable to achieve appropriate monitoring during the
cutting process.
Here, the reason for estimating the cutting force is that it enables
more reliable monitoring of the milling states than evaluating from the
amount of acceleration. However, the estimated cutting force is then
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
normalized and converted to feature values, because the objective is not
to estimate the absolute value of the cutting force. The feature values of
cutting forces and vibrations are calculated for monitoring the milling
states. The purpose of this research is to propose this monitoring
method.
2.2. Approximation of sequential quadratic regression for acceleration
signal
As the first step, the method of separating the signal values acquired
by the acceleration sensor is described in detail. The measured accel­
eration signal includes high frequency vibrations generated near the tool
center point in addition to changes in the acceleration of the tool spindle
structure itself. These vibrations are removed by using an approximation
of sequential quadratic regression. The approximate equation of
quadratic regression for the acceleration sensor signal a0 is shown in Eq.
(1). a0 represents the average value of the measured acceleration. Sa0 a is
the sum of deviation products, indicating the sum of the products of
deviation a0 and deviation a. By performing the quadratic regression
approximation sequentially, the component of high frequency vibration
can be removed from the signal, and the fluctuations of the acceleration
in the tooth passing period of the tool can be extracted. Actually, a
represents the approximation by quadratic regression and the acceler­
ation change of the tool spindle. As shown in Eq. (2), the component of
high frequency vibration av is also extracted by taking the difference of
the acceleration between the measured signal a0 and the fluctuations in
the tooth passing period a. Although this section described the approx­
imation for a single acceleration sensor as an example, it can be calcu­
lated for multiple sensors in the same way.
a = A + B a0 + C (a0 )2
Sa0 a Sa0 2 a0 2 − Sa0 a Sa0 a0 2 Sa0 2 a Sa0 a0 − Sa0 a Sa0 a0 2
B= ( )2 , C = ( )2 ,
Sa0 a0 Sa0 2 a0 2 − Sa0 a0 2 Sa0 a0 Sa0 2 a0 2 − Sa0 a0 2
A = a − B a0 − C a0 2 ,
∑
n ∑
n
S a0 a0 = (a0 i − a0 )2 , Sa0 a = (a0 i − a0 )(ai − a),
i=1 i=1
∑ ∑
n n
( ) ( 2 )2
S a0 a0 2 = (a0i − a0 ) a0 i 2 − a0 2 , Sa0 2 a0 2 = a0i − a0 2 ,
i=1 i=1
∑
n
( )
S a0 2 a = a0i 2 − a0 2 (ai − a)
i=1
av = a0 − a
2.3. Estimation of cutting force
The cutting force is then estimated from the fluctuation of the ac­
celeration in the tooth passing period. Here, we describe an example
where the fluctuation a calculated previously is the change of the ac­
celeration in the X direction at the structure of tool spindle. In this case,
it is shown in Eq. (3). Then, the equation of motion in the X direction can
be expressed as Eq. (4). fx [N] represents an applied cutting force in the X
direction at the tool center point. It also uses the displacement x [m],
velocity ẋ [m/s], and acceleration ẍ [m/s2] in the X direction where the
acceleration sensor is mounted. m [kg], c [N/(m/s)] and k [N/m] indi­
cate an equivalent inertia, an equivalent damping coefficient and an
equivalent stiffness coefficient, respectively. The result of the Laplace
transform for this equation of motion is Eq. (5). M, C and K are the
Laplace transformed values of the constants m, c and k. ωn [1/s] is the
natural angular frequency and ζ is the damping ratio.
ẍ = a
Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
fx = mẍ + cẋ + kx (4)
1 2 2
Xs2 K
ωn s
= 2
Fx s + 2ζωn s + ωn 2 (5)
√̅̅̅̅̅
K C
ωn = , ζ = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
M 2 MK
To obtain the parameters ωn , ζ, m, c and k, the tool center point is hit
with an impulse hammer and the impulse response on the tool spindle
structure is measured using an acceleration sensor. The parameters ωn
and ζ are identified by fitting the measured results. The parameter m is
also identified from the change in the force fx and the acceleration ẍ
immediately after hitting with an impulse hammer. From the ωn , ζ and m
identified in this way, the remaining c and k are also identified. During
the actual cutting process, ẍ can be obtained as the fluctuations of the
acceleration in the tooth passing period, by performing an approxima­
tion from the signal. The velocity ẋ and displacement x can be calculated
by integrating the acceleration ẍ. This allows the estimation of the
cutting force in the X direction using Eq. (4). Although the X direction is
used here as an example, the cutting force can be estimated in the Y and
Z directions in the same way.
2.4. Feature value of cutting force
The cutting forces estimated by the above calculation method varies
over quite short time intervals. This enables detailed monitoring of
changes in cutting force from the time the cutting edge of the tool enters
the workpiece to the time it exits. However, monitoring actual condi­
tions often requires capturing cutting conditions at much longer time
(1)
intervals. Therefore, the estimated cutting force is converted into a
feature value for the tooth passing period and used for monitoring the
cutting process.
The following is an explanation of the calculation method, using the
X direction as an example. First, a moving average fx for the tooth
passing period is calculated for the absolute value of cutting force fx in
the X direction as shown in Eq. (6). Lc is the interval over which the
moving average is calculated, which in this case is the time of the tooth
passing period. The reason for this is that the purpose of this feature
value is to monitor changes of cutting forces for each cutting edge. Then,
normalization is performed so that the values can be easily handled for
the evaluation. Specifically, fx base is defined the normalized moving
average of the cutting force in non-cutting state, and fx std is defined the
normalized moving average of the cutting force during the stable milling
under the standard cutting conditions. These are preferably set to cut­
ting conditions in use when the cutting path was created. Machine tool
(2) operators usually conduct machining experiments in advance to fix the
actual cutting conditions from the tool manufacturer’s recommended
cutting conditions. By specifying these as the standard cutting condi­
tions, comparisons can be made during actual cutting. The feature value
of the cutting force Cx is calculated using Eq. (7). For example, Cx is a
value from 0 to 1 during milling at a lower cutting force than the stan­
dard cutting conditions. It is a higher value than 1 during milling at a
higher cutting force than the standard cutting conditions. Thus, the
feature value is easy to use for monitoring.
Although the feature value of cutting force in the X direction Cx is
explained here, the feature value of cutting force in the Y direction Cy
and Z direction Cz are also calculated in the same way. Furthermore, the
cutting forces in the X and Y directions are not essentially different,
because these are depended on the direction in which the cutting process
proceeds. Therefore, their composite value Cr is calculated as shown in
Eq. (8). As a result, two feature values of cutting force will be used: Cr ,
which is the composite in the X and Y directions, and Cz in the Z
direction.
(3)
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J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

changes of vibration over long time interval. For this purpose, the root
mean square (RMS) is calculated and utilized to evaluate the intensity of
vibration. In this case, the interval time for calculating the RMS value
was set to the time for two revolutions of the cutting tool. The reason for
setting this interval longer than Lc is that changes in high frequency
vibration are more sensitive and affected by noise than changes in cut­
ting force. The longer interval time was set so that it could be properly
handled as the feature value to monitor conditions during the cutting

Table 1
Cutting condition, cutting tool and workpiece.
Cutting Method of cutting Down milling
condition Rotational speed of spindle 16,000 min− 1
Feed rate 1500 mm/min
Feed per tooth 0.047 mm
Radial cutting depth 0.1 mm
Axial cutting depth 0.45 mm
Coolant Semi dry (Oil mist)

Cutting tool Type of tool Ball end mill

Cutting flutes 2-flute
Radius of tool 1.5 mm
Effective length 8 mm

Workpiece Material overview Pre-hardened steel with high

machinability
Main material component Fe
Included material component 3 % Ni
Fig. 3. Experimental setup and mounting locations of sensors. (by weight) 1 % Al
1 % Cu
0.3 % Mo
1 0.3 % Si
fx [n] = (|fx [n]| + |fx [n − 1]| + … + |fx [n − Lc + 1]|) (6)
Lc 0.15 % C a small amount of Mn
a small amount of S
fx − fx base Hardness 37-43 HRC
Cx = (7)
fx std − fx base
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Cr = Cx 2 + Cy 2 (8)

2.5. Feature value of vibration

Following the feature value of cutting force, a new feature value is

defined for monitoring vibration during milling process. For this pur­
pose, it is used the component of high frequency vibration, which is
extracted by using the approximation of sequential quadratic regression
from the acceleration signal. The component of high frequency vibration
oscillates with a interval much shorter than the interval in tooth passing
Fig. 5. Milling path with linear motion.
period. For monitoring actual conditions, it is required capturing the

Fig. 4. System configuration of experimental setup.

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J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

Fig. 6. Separation of acceleration signals in Y direction.

Fig. 7. Components of acceleration in X direction.

Fig. 8. Separation of acceleration signals in X direction.

process. In this case, the interval time over which the cutting edge has
conducted cutting 4 times was set. This smoothing filter reduces high-
frequency noises to negligible levels.
The following is an example of a calculation method. Eq. (9) is an
equation for obtaining the RMS of vibration in the X direction vxRMS from
the component of high frequency vibration in the X direction ẍv . Lv
represents the interval time for calculating the RMS value, which in this
case is the time for two revolutions of the cutting tool, as previously
mentioned. Then, normalization is performed so that the values can be
easily handled for the evaluation. Specifically, vxbase is defined the
normalized RMS of the vibration in non-cutting state, and vxstd is defined
the normalized RMS of the cutting force during the stable milling under
the standard cutting conditions. The feature value of the vibration Vx is
calculated using Eq. (10). For example, Vx is a value from 0 to 1 during
milling with less vibration than the standard cutting conditions. It is a Fig. 9. Influence of acceleration from Y direction to Z direction.
higher value than 1 during milling with more vibration than the stan­
dard cutting conditions. Thus, the feature value is easy to use for the composite of the X and Y directions, and Vz in the Z direction.
monitoring. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Although the feature value of vibration in the X direction Vx is 1
∫ Lv
explained here, the feature value of vibration in the Y direction Vy and Z vx RMS = ẍv (t)2 dt (9)
Lv 0
direction Vz are also calculated in the same way. Furthermore, the vi­
bration in the X and Y directions are not essentially different, because vxRMS − vx base
these are depended on the direction in which the cutting process pro­
Vx = (10)
vxstd − vx base
ceeds. Therefore, their composite value Vr is calculated as shown in Eq. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(11). As a result, two feature values of vibration will be used: Vr , which is Vr = Vx 2 + Vy 2 (11)

341
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

Fig. 11. Impulse response and relationship between impact force and accel­
eration in X direction.

Fig. 10. Separation of acceleration signals in Z direction.

As mentioned above, the measured values of the acceleration sensor

were separated by the calculation processing to estimate the cutting
force. Furthermore, the calculation method of the newly defined feature
values of cutting force and vibration was described. We propose the
utilization of these feature values as a method for in-process monitoring
for milling.

3. Experimental setup for evaluation of the monitoring method

To evaluate the monitoring method, the NC milling machine was

built as the experimental setup for verification. Fig. 3 shows this Fig. 12. Cutting tool hitting with impulse hammer.
experimental setup. The system configuration is shown in Fig. 4. It has 2
axes for the table of workpieces and 1 axis on the tool spindle. The tool
spindle has a cutting tool and each axis moves for milling process. As the Table 2
drive system, the X-axis unit (Suruga Seiki, KXS18100-N10-J) is set at Model parameters in the structure of the tool spindle.
the bottom of the table side, and the Y-axis unit (same model as the X-
X direction Y direction Z direction
axis unit) is mounted on top of the X-axis unit by crossing it. These units
are composed with one ball screw and two linear guides. The Z-axis unit ωn [1/s] 4.26 × 103 3.97 × 103 1.58 × 103
0.09 0.05 0.10
(Suruga Seiki, LX3005P-L200) at the tool spindle side is composed with
ζ
m [kg] 0.90 0.65 2.34
one ball screw and one linear guide with simple feature. Piezoelectric c [N/(m/s)] 6.96 × 102 2.66 × 102 7.45 × 102
acceleration sensors (Ono Sokki, NP-3211 and RION, PV-97) were k [N/m] 1.65 × 107 1.04 × 107 0.59 × 107
attached on the tool spindle and a dynamometer (KISTLER, 9256A1) for
reference measurement of cutting force was attached on the table. The
PC controller (Beckhoff, C6920/TwinCAT) controls the axes and collects communication protocol. Measurements with the acceleration sensors
data from all the sensors. It achieves high synchronization on in-process and the dynamometer were taken at 50 kHz of sampling rate.
measurement and controlling by using EtherCAT of high-speed A cutting condition and other information are shown in Table 1. This

342
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 13. Acceleration with impulse response in X direction at tool center point.
Fig. 14. Comparing with measured and estimated cutting forces.
cutting condition, which allows stable cutting, was selected by referring
to the tool manufacturer’s recommended conditions and by conducting
cutting experiments in advance with the experimental setup. A ball end
mill with the two cutting flutes and a radius of 1.5 mm was used as the
cutting tool. Workpiece material was pre-hardened steel with high
machinability (Daido Steel, NAK55).
The locations of the acceleration sensors on the tool spindle are
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
shown in Fig. 3. Three of 1-axis acceleration sensor and one of 3-axis
acceleration sensor were used. However, the 3-axis acceleration sensor
utilized measurement data for only two of the three axes. Therefore, a
total of five accelerations were measured. Two of them were used to
measure accelerations in the X direction (X1, X2), one in the Y direction
(Y1), and the other two in the Z direction (Z1, Z2).
4. Experimental results with linear motion
4.1. Result of approximation of sequential quadratic regression for
acceleration sensor signal
For the first cutting experiment, a milling path with linear motion
was applied as shown in Fig. 5, and the monitoring method was evalu­
ated by a simple cutting. Cutting experiments were conducted five times
to confirm that there were no significant differences in the measured
cutting force and acceleration values, and to confirm that the data were
reproducible. Defining the five of measured accelerations from the
sensors as aX10 , aX20 , aY10 , aZ10 and aZ20 , the each approximate values
aX1 , aX2 , aY1 , aZ1 and aZ2 from sequential quadratic regression can be
expressed as in Eq. (12) by referring to Eq. (1).
For the Y direction, the acceleration of the mounting location, where
Sensor 1 (Y1) is attached, has been already clarified to change due to the
force received from the tool center point in the Y direction. Using this
characteristic, its acceleration applied to estimate of cutting force in the
Y direction. Fig. 6 shows the results of the approximation of sequential
quadratic regression for the acceleration from Y1 in the Y direction. It
was observed that the component of high frequency vibration was
removed from the sensor signal, and the fluctuation of the acceleration
in the tooth passing period was extracted. Furthermore, it was also seen
that the component of high frequency vibration was extracted from the
difference between the measured signal and the main fluctuations in the
tooth passing period. In addition, it is known in advance that the fluc­
tuation Y1 of the acceleration is the change of the acceleration in the Y
direction at the structure of tool spindle, which is expressed in Eq. (13).
The high frequency vibration from sensor Y1 represents the vibration in
the Y direction ÿv , which is also expressed in Eq. (13).
( )2
aX1 = AX1 + BX1 aX10 + CX1 aX10 , aX1v = aX10 − aX1 ,
( )2
aX2 = AX2 + BX2 aX20 + CX2 aX20 , aX2v = aX20 − aX2 ,
( )2
aY1 = AY1 + BY1 aY10 + CY1 aY10 , aY1v = aY10 − aY1 , (12)
( )2
aZ1 = AZ1 + BZ1 aZ10 + CZ1 aZ10 , aZ1v = aZ10 − aZ1 ,
( )2
aZ2 = AZ2 + BZ2 aZ20 + CZ2 aZ20 , aZ2v = aZ20 − aZ2
ÿ = aY1 , ÿv = aY1v (13)
Next, the acceleration in the X direction was evaluated. When the
tool spindle is subjected to a force in the X direction, the acceleration
changes in two directions, the θ and ψ directions. It is shown in Fig. 7.
The sensor X1 measures the acceleration in the X direction due to mo­
tions in both the θ and ψ directions. On the other hand, the sensor X2
measures the acceleration in the X direction only due to a motion in the
ψ direction. The signal from X2 does not contain the acceleration in the
X direction due to a motion in the θ direction, because of the sensor’s
mounting position. Therefore, by taking the difference between the ac­
celeration from X1 and X2, it is possible to extract only the change in the
acceleration in the θ direction. At this time, the mounting height of
sensor 3 (X2) was identified through experiments. It means that the
height where the acceleration does not change with the movement in the
θ direction was found by them. The frequencies which are most affected
are different in the θ and ψ directions, respectively. Then, the mounting
height of sensor 3 (X2) was gradually shifted and found the location
where the affect in the θ direction is the smallest. Addition to that, the
acceleration in θ direction of the location, where Sensor 2 (X1) is
mounted, has been already clarified to change due to the force received
from the tool center point in the X direction. Using this characteristic, its
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 15. Evaluation of cutting forces by feature values during milling with linear motion.
acceleration in θ direction applied to estimate of cutting force in the X
direction.
The equation for this case is shown in Eq. (14). aX1 and aX2 are the
approximations of sequential quadratic regression for the accelerations
from X1 and X2 respectively. ẍ represents the change in the acceleration
in the θ direction at the location where the sensor X1 is mounted. Strictly
mentioned, since the θ direction is in the circular direction, it is different
from the change in acceleration in the X direction that can be measured
by the sensor. However, the amount of change is sufficiently small that it
is assumed to be approximate. From the above, ẍ is used as the main
fluctuation in the tooth passing period in the X direction. In addition, the
first equation in Eq. (14) is the result of the dynamic characteristics in X
direction and depends on the model of the tool spindle structure. On the
other hand, the second equation in Eq. (14) is different because it is
unrelated to the model and simply used the sensor close to the tool
center point, which is assumed to be most affected by high frequency
vibration.
Furthermore, Eq. (14) in the X direction is different from Eq. (13) in
the Y direction. The reason for this is considered that the tool spindle
structure is different in the X and Y directions. However, X and Y di­
rections can be considered equivalent as in Section 2.4 and 2.5 after
calculating ẍ and ÿ, which are the main fluctuations in the tooth passing
period, and ẍv and ÿv , which are the high frequency vibrations, ac­
cording to Eq. (14) and Eq. (13). This is because Eq. (14) and Eq. (13)
allow each value to be converted to a difference only in the X and Y
direction.
ẍ = aX1 − aX2 , ẍv = aX1v (14)
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
The examples of the acceleration in the X direction are shown in
Fig. 8. From the results of X1 in the upper graph and X2 in the middle
graph, it can be observed that the approximation of sequential quadratic
regression is able to extract the fluctuations of the acceleration in tooth
passing period and the component of high frequency vibration. The
lower graph shows the main fluctuation in tooth passing period in the X
direction ẍ, which is calculated by Eq. (14). It also represents the high
frequency vibration from sensor X1, which is closer to the tool center
point, is used for the vibration in the X direction ẍv . This is shown in the
lower graph in Fig. 8.
Finally, the acceleration in the Z direction was evaluated. Since the
tool spindle structure of this experimental setup is sufficiently rigid as a
one unit, the acceleration of the stage for the Z axis has been already
clarified to change due to the force received from the tool center point in
the Z direction. Using this characteristic, Z2 on the stage for the Z axis is
used to measure the change of the acceleration in the Z direction and
applied to estimate of cutting force in the Z direction. On the other hand,
the slider and drive structure for Z axis is relatively less rigid than the
tool spindle structure. Therefore, it has been found through the prior
verification that when the acceleration in the Y direction changes near
the tool center point, the acceleration of the stage for Z axis also changes
accordingly. This is shown in Fig. 9, where Eq. (15) is the equation for
this case. aZ2 is the approximation of sequential quadratic regression for
the acceleration from Z2, and aY1 is also the approximation for the ac­
celeration from Y1. The coefficient p is identified experimentally. From
the above, z̈ is obtained as the main fluctuation in the tooth passing
period in the Z direction. In addition, the first equation in Eq. (15) is the
result of the dynamic characteristics in Z direction and depends on the
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

Fig. 16. Evaluation of vibrations by feature values during milling with linear motion.

Fig. 18. Magnitude spectrum of frequency analysis for acceleration.

Fig. 17. Detailed mounting location and way of Sensor 1.

model of the tool spindle structure. It is experimentally known to be

possible to obtain it from Sensor 4 (Z2) and Sensor 1 (Y1). In this case,
Sensor 1 (Z1) is not required, although it is the sensor in the Z direction.
On the other hand, the second equation in Eq. (15) is different because it
is unrelated to the model and simply used the sensor close to the tool
center point, which is assumed to be most affected by high frequency
vibration. Therefore, Sensor 1 (Z1) is used there.
z̈ = aZ2 − p aY1 , z̈v = aZ1v (15)
Fig. 19. Milling path in corner milling.

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J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 20. Evaluation of cutting forces by feature values in corner milling.
All results of the acceleration in the Z direction are shown in Fig. 10.
From the results of Z1 in the upper graph and Z2 in the middle graph, it
can be observed that the approximation of sequential quadratic regres­
sion is able to extract the fluctuations of the acceleration in tooth passing
period and the component of high frequency vibration. The lower graph
shows the main fluctuation in tooth passing period in the Z direction z̈,
which is calculated by Eq. (15). It also represents the high frequency
vibration from Z1, which is closer to the tool center point, is used for the
vibration in the Z direction z̈v . This is shown in the lower graph in
Fig. 10.
As described above, in the each of the X, Y, and Z directions, the main
fluctuation of acceleration in tooth passing period and the component of
high frequency vibration were successfully extracted from the acceler­
ation signals.
4.2. Result of cutting force estimation
From the main fluctuation in tooth passing period, the cutting forces
in X, Y and Z directions were estimated. First, the parameters in the X
direction indicated by Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) were identified. The tool center
point of the experimental setup was hit in the X direction with an im­
pulse hammer, and the impulse response on the tool spindle structure
was measured using the acceleration sensor. Fig. 12 shows how this was
done. To ensure proper hitting, the flank surface of the ball end mill
should be oriented in advance to the side to be hit by the hammer.
Although a small ball end mill was used this time, it had a diameter of 3
mm (radius 1.5 mm) and the hammer tip was also a plastic cylinder with
a diameter of about 6 mm, so it was able to be hit without any problem.
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
The result is shown in the upper graph of Fig. 11. The impulse response
in the X direction is obtained by taking the difference between the ac­
celerations from X1 and X2. The parameters ωn and ζ in the X direction
were identified by fitting the measured result. In this case, the fitting was
performed from the point where the force applied by hitting with an
impulse hammer was released and the acceleration changed in the
opposite direction of the hitting direction. For this reason, the force
applied by the impulse hammer should ideally be an instantaneous
square wave. However, it actually begins to apply force a little more
slowly immediately after the force is applied, and also peaks a little more
slowly when the force reaches its peak. Parameters were identified more
accurately by removing sections that were not instantaneous square
waves during the fitting. The lower graph of Fig. 11 shows the force fx
and acceleration ẍ immediately after hitting with the impulse hammer in
the X direction. The period during which both the impact force and the
acceleration in the X direction were increasing was used as the period of
evaluation, and the parameter m was identified from the amount of
change in these. The reason for this is also the same. the force applied by
the impulse hammer should ideally be an instantaneous square wave,
but it was not. Since as close to a square wave as possible should be used,
the range where both force and acceleration are changing significantly is
extracted and used to identify the parameters.
Parameters in the Y and Z directions were identified in the same way
as in the X direction. Specially, the acceleration in the Z direction was
obtained from sensor Z2 and Y1 by Eq. (15). From these results, the
parameters ωn , ζ, m, c and k in the each of X, Y, and Z directions were
finally identified for this experimental setup. They are shown in Table 2.
As an experiment for reference, an acceleration sensor was attached
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 21. Evaluation of vibrations by feature values in corner milling.
to the tool center point, and the acceleration in the X direction was
measured by hitting the tool center point in the X direction with a
hammer. The result is shown in Fig. 13. Although the effect of the mass
for the acceleration sensor attached to the tool center point cannot be
ignored exactly, it is possible to find this trend. The period of vibration is
shown in Fig. 13. In this case, the most affected vibration frequency was
quite high and around 2.5 kHz because the ball end mill with a small
diameter was used in this research. It would be preferred to monitor this
vibration directly at the tool center point during the milling process,
however, it is hard to measure it because of the attached location of
sensors. On the other hand, in the upper graph in Fig. 11, the mea­
surement result was shown at the location where the acceleration sen­
sors were actually attached. Although the frequency of 2.5 kHz was
observed at the center point, it is dampened and hardly observed in this
graph. From the period of vibration in upper graph of Fig. 11, the most
affected vibration frequency was around 666 Hz. Therefore, a one-
degree-of-freedom model at this frequency was selected for this
research. Furthermore, the response starting time just after the tool
center point was hit in the X direction was compared between ‘accel­
eration in the X direction by the sensor attached to the tool center point’
and ‘acceleration by the sensor X1’. As a result, it was found that there
was a delay time of about 0.1 ms at the location where the sensor X1
attached compared to the tool center point. This trend is matched in the
lower graph of Fig. 11. From this, it can be assumed that the spindle-tool
system of the experimental setup is not a simple one-degree-of-freedom
model, and the system behavior cannot be fully observed only by the
acceleration at the location where the sensor is attached. However, its
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
delay time is about 0.1 ms. Since the tooth passing period of the milling
condition used in this research is about 1.88 ms, it is considered that the
system can be adequately monitored even if it is taken as the one-degree-
of-freedom model.
The cutting forces in each direction were estimated using these pa­
rameters and the equations of motion, and compared with the measured
cutting forces. The results are shown in Fig. 14. In the X and Y directions,
the estimated cutting forces almost equally matched with the measured
cutting forces, which confirms that the cutting forces are properly esti­
mated. In the Z direction, it can be observed that there was in almost the
same trend of change between the estimated and measured cutting
forces. However, the phases of change are not perfectly identical, which
is an item for future work. The reason for this is that the cutting force in
the Z direction is estimated mainly by using the acceleration from Z2
mounted on the stage for the Z axis, which is far from the tool center
point.
4.3. Result of calculation for feature value of cutting force
In the previous section, it was confirmed that the cutting force can be
estimated in the X, Y, and Z directions with almost the same trend of
change in relation to the cutting force measured by the dynamometer.
Therefore, the feature values were calculated using the estimated cut­
ting forces. This calculation requires normalization. Thus, fx base was
obtained as the moving average of the cutting force in the X direction in
non-cutting state in this milling test. Addition to that, fxstd was obtained
as the moving average of the cutting force in the X direction during
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 22. Evaluation of cutting forces by feature values in corner milling inserted the arc trajectory with radius of 0.3 mm.
stable cutting in this milling test. The normalization was performed
using these values. The same normalizations were performed in the Y
and Z directions, and the feature values of cutting forces were calcu­
lated. The results are shown in Fig. 15. The upper graph shows the
feature value of cutting force in the R direction Cr , which means in the X
and Y directions, as shown in Eq. (8). The lower graph shows the feature
value of cutting force in the Z direction Cz . It can be observed that in
both R and Z directions, the feature values of measured and estimated
cutting force almost matched. Actually, the feature values of cutting
force were almost 0 in non-cutting state. Then, as the milling process
started under the cutting conditions in this test, the feature value
gradually increased and finally was stable at the value near 1. The re­
sults confirmed that the feature values of cutting forces allowed properly
monitoring of the transition from the non-cutting state to the stable
milling.
4.4. Result of calculation for feature value of vibration
Next, another feature was calculated, which was a feature value of
vibration. This calculation also requires normalization. Thus, vxbase was
obtained as the RMS for the component of high frequency vibration in
the X direction in non-cutting state in this milling test. Addition to that,
vxstd was obtained as the RMS for the component of high frequency vi­
bration in the X direction during stable machining in this milling test.
Here, vxstd was calculated after over 0.15s had passed since the start of
the cutting process. At that time, the milling had been sufficiently stable.
The normalization was performed using these values. The same
normalization was performed in the Y and Z directions, and the feature
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values of vibrations were calculated. The results are shown in Fig. 16.
The upper graph shows the feature value of vibration in the R direction
Vr , which means in the X and Y directions, and the lower graph shows
the feature value of vibration in the Z direction Vz . Focusing on it in the
R direction, the value was almost 0 in non-cutting state, but the value
rapidly rose to around 2 when the milling started under the cutting
conditions in this test. However, it gradually decreased after that, and
the value finally stabled at around 1. Although the feature value of vi­
bration in the Z direction also showed a similar trend, the change was
larger than it in the R direction. The reason for this is the mounting
location of the acceleration sensor used for calculating Vz . Fig. 17 shows
the mounting Sensor 1. It is a 3-axis acceleration sensor with a cube
shape and about 12 mm each side. Since it is mounted overhung from
the front of the spindle, which is due to the mounting way, changes in
acceleration in the Z direction are even more sensitive. Because of this
affection, Vz is considered to have slight changes in value even in non-
cutting state. The same reason is also considered for the greater
changes in value of Vz than Vr during stable milling. The results
confirmed that the feature values of vibrations allowed properly moni­
toring of the transition from the non-cutting state to the unstable milling
right after the start of cutting, and then to the stable milling.
As a summary at the linear motion of this experiment, considerations
of cutting processes that are found through the monitoring are as fol­
lows. First, the cutting process is reproduced stably in this experiment
under the state of stable milling. On the other hand, there is a difference
in the situation in the case of a significant change in cutting force, which
means that when the milling starts from the non-cutting state. At that
time, the cutting force increases. With this, the vibration increases
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

Fig. 23. Evaluation of vibrations by feature values in corner milling inserted the arc trajectory with radius of 0.3 mm.

Fig. 24. Milling in closed and opened state of tool center point.

rapidly and then gradually drops, leaving a residual vibration for a
certain period. It is considered that changes in cutting force cause vi­
brations in the cutting process.
4.5. Comparison for magnitude spectrum of frequency analysis
Here, a comparison is shown between the monitoring by the feature
value proposed in this research and the monitoring by magnitude
spectrums of frequency analysis. This comparison was made for the
milling of linear motion in the Y direction. Fig. 18 shows the results of a
normalized magnitude spectrum of frequency analysis for acceleration
in Y1. It can be observed that the largest peak occurs around 533 Hz at
the frequency of tooth passing period. By using this magnitude spec­
trum, it seemed to enable monitoring of the milling states. However,
frequency analysis generally requires a certain period of data, which
causes an inevitable delay in response. Thus, it is considered that the

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J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 25. Accelerations and cutting forces in Y direction in opened state.
Fig. 26. Cutting forces in Y direction in opened state on long time section.
feature values proposed in this research are superior to frequency
analysis in the milling of three-dimensional shapes where the cutting
state changes variously in a short period of time.
5. Experimental results in corner milling
In the previous section, the monitoring method was evaluated for the
milling path with linear motion. The next step was to evaluate the
method in corner milling. A milling path is shown in Fig. 19. From a non-
cutting state, a cutting tool approaches the workpiece and starts cutting
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
with one side of the tool by initially feeding in the X direction. On the
way, the tool enters a corner area where the cutting load increases
significantly. Then, the feed direction is changed to a perpendicular
direction, and a cutting is performed with one side of the tool by feeding
in the Y direction. Finally, the tool leaves the workpiece and become a
non-cutting state.
The feature values of cutting force in corner milling are shown in
Fig. 20. The upper graph shows the feature value of the measured and
estimated cutting force in the R direction. As in the previous milling with
linear motion, the values were near 0 in non-cutting state and increased
to around 1 when the milling started. After that, the values rose further
significantly around the corner. After passing through the corner, these
were unstable for a while, but then the milling was stable again with the
values around 1, and finally the values became near 0 in a non-cutting
state. This trend was almost the same of change with the feature value
of measured and estimated cutting force, and it was confirmed that the
cutting force was properly monitored. Then, focusing on the feature
values of measured and estimated cutting force in the Z direction in the
lower graph of Fig. 20, it was observed that the cutting force in corner
milling can be monitored properly as in the R direction. Here, a com­
parison was made between the estimated and measured values around
the corner in both the R and Z directions, where the cutting forces
increased rapidly. The two values did not exactly match, and the esti­
mated value tended to be slightly larger. It can be observed that it is still
difficult to estimate the accurate absolute value of cutting force with the
current method in a process where a large cutting load is applied rapidly,
such as the corner milling in this case. However, we assume that it is
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 27. Evaluation of cutting forces by feature values in milling condition with abnormal vibration.
sufficiently available for monitoring to detect an abnormal condition,
such as a rapid increase in cutting load.
The feature values of vibrations in the same corner milling were also
calculated. The results are shown in Fig. 21. The upper graph shows the
feature value of the vibration in the R direction. As in the previous
milling with linear motion, the value was near 0 in non-cutting state,
rapidly rose when the cutting started and decreased around 1 when it
became stable milling. After that, the value rose further significantly
around the corner. After passing through the corner, the value was un­
stable for a while, but then the milling was stable again with a value
around 1, and finally it became near 0 in the non-cutting state. This
trend was almost the same of actual cutting process. Then, focusing on
the feature value of vibration in the Z direction in the lower graph of
Fig. 21, it shows a similar trend as in the R direction. However, the
change of it in the Z direction was larger than it in the R direction.
Although there were certain differences, these results confirmed that the
feature values of vibrations allowed properly monitoring in corner
milling.
Once again, the residual vibration after passing through the corner is
considered as follows. Attention to Fig. 21, it is shown in both the R and
Z directions, the residual vibrations are observed for about 0.15s after
passing through the corner. On the other hand, attention to Fig. 20, it is
shown the feature values of cutting forces are not so large, however,
fluctuate in the same section. It is considered to be the effect of residual
vibrations. Since cutting forces are not stable in such a section, it should
not be used in that section for calculating fx std .
In this experiment, it is considered proper to monitor with Cr , Cz , Vr ,
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
and Vz of all the feature values. First, Cr and Cz are required for moni­
toring cutting loads in the radial and axial directions respectively. These
monitor changes in the following states: non-cutting, stable cutting at
the start of milling, overloaded cutting in corner milling, stable cutting
after the corner area, and finished cutting. Then, Vr and Vz are required
for monitoring vibrations in the radial and axial directions respectively.
These monitor the vibration generated when milling starts, the vibration
caused by rapid overloads, and its residual vibration.
In corner milling, another experiment was carried out. In previous
experiment of milling, the milling path was used that the feed direction
is changed to a perpendicular direction at the corner. In contrast,
another milling path was generated by inserting an arc trajectory with a
radius of 0.3 mm at the corner, and a milling test was conducted. It was
expected that this small arc will reduce cutting forces and vibrations in
corner area. To confirm it, the feature values of cutting forces were
calculated as shown in Fig. 22. In both the R and Z directions, the cutting
forces were reduced around the corner compared to Fig. 20. Also, the
feature values of vibrations were calculated as shown in Fig. 23. In both
the R and Z directions, the vibrations were significantly reduced around
the corner compared to Fig. 21. These values at the corner were
approximately equal to the values when the milling was stable before
entering the corner. These results confirmed that feature values can be
used to monitor changes in condition of cutting due to different milling
paths.
As a summary of this experiment in corner milling, considerations of
cutting processes that are found through the monitoring are as follows.
First, in corner milling, the feature value of cutting force in tooth passing
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356

Fig. 28. Evaluation of vibrations by feature values in milling condition with abnormal vibration.

Fig. 29. Cutting edge compared between new and worn tool.

period is about 2–4 times larger, and it shows a rapid increase in the
amount of cutting removal. It is considered that this rapid increase in
cutting force causes residual vibrations with a long duration of 0.2s in
the cutting process. On the other hand, it is also considered that inserting
R at the corner can prevent the increase of cutting force at the corner in
the cutting process.
6. Experimental results of milling with abnormal vibration
To further evaluate the feature values, an experiment was performed
with a condition in which a vibration was generated more frequently
than the previous experiments. Here, we focused on the case where a tip
of the ball end mill was not in contact with a workpiece and a milling
was performed with a high cutting load. The ball end mill was not
supported by the workpiece near the tool center point, and it is illus­
trated in Fig. 24. In the previous experiment, the tip of the ball end mill
was supported by the workpiece, and the cutting was performed in a
closed state as shown in the left figure. On the other hand, the figure on
the right shows an opened state where the tip of the ball end mill is not
supported by the workpiece. Here, a milling in an opened state of the

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J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 30. Accelerations and cutting forces in X direction with worn tool.
tool center point was intentionally prepared, and an experiment was
performed.
The experiment in the opened state was performed by using the
milling path with linear motion. First, we focused on the acceleration
signal which is the source data for calculating the feature values. The
upper graph in Fig. 25 shows the acceleration signal in the Y direction at
the unstable milling in the opened state after a while from the start of
cutting. It also shows the fluctuation of the acceleration in the tooth
passing period and the high frequency vibration, which were separated
from the acceleration signal by the approximation of sequential
quadratic regression. Fig. 6 shows the result in the same Y direction for
the milling in the closed state under the same cutting conditions.
Comparing Figs. 25 and 6, it can be observed that the high frequency
vibration is larger when milling is performed in opened state of the tool
center point. The lower graph in Fig. 25 shows the measured and esti­
mated cutting forces during unstable milling in opened state. It can be
seemed that the peak of the measured cutting force oscillates due to the
influence of unstable milling. Also in this situation, the estimated cutting
force approximately followed the change in the measured cutting force.
The middle graph of Fig. 14 shows the result in the same Y direction
during the milling in the closed state under the same cutting conditions.
In the comparison, it can be observed that there is a difference in the
waveform of the measured cutting force. The waveform during unstable
milling in opened state is slightly thinner and has the higher peak during
unstable milling in opened state, compared to it during stable milling in
closed state.
To check this difference more clearly, Fig. 26 shows the measured
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
and estimated cutting forces over a longer section of time than the lower
graph of Fig. 25. It can be seemed that the measured and estimated
values of cutting forces oscillated with a certain period. The time of this
oscillation period was approximately 9.4 ms, although the time of the
tooth passing period under the cutting conditions was approximately
1.88 ms. This result confirmed that the cutting force oscillates for every
five cuts with an edge of the tool.
This oscillation during the unstable milling was also monitored from
the feature value of the cutting force. Fig. 27 shows the results of
calculating the feature values of cutting force both in the R and Z di­
rection during the milling in opened state. The graph also includes, for
reference, the feature value of the estimated cutting force during the
milling in the closed state. Focusing on the feature values of both the
estimated and measured cutting force in the opened state, it can be
observed the oscillation with a certain period. The duration of the
oscillation period is approximately 9.4 ms. This is the same as the
oscillation period of the cutting force shown in Fig. 26. It is confirmed
that a state where the cutting force oscillates periodically due to un­
stable milling can be monitored by the feature value of cutting force.
However, in the lower graph of Fig. 25 which is the measured and
estimated cutting forces in the opened state, the absolute values of them
did not exactly match. It can be assumed that it is still difficult to esti­
mate the accurate absolute value of the cutting force with the current
method in a process under the oscillating milling such as this experi­
ment. On the other hand, we assumed that it is sufficiently available for
monitoring to detect an abnormal state where the cutting force oscillates
periodically due to unstable milling.
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 31. Feature values of cutting forces compared between worn and new tool.
In this case of milling, the cutting force oscillates for every five cuts
with an edge of the tool. It is assumed that it depends on specific factors
such as milling conditions, cutting tool, machine structure, etc. It may be
that it is better to tune the moving average time Lc for calculating the
feature value of cutting force based on this difference. However, even if
Lc is set to tooth passing period as in this case, the oscillation period can
still be obtained from change period of the feature value of cutting force,
as shown in Fig. 27. Therefore, in this research, Lc for the feature value of
cutting force is defined as tooth passing period and is not tuned by
milling conditions.
Next, the results of calculating the feature values of vibrations are
shown in Fig. 28. From the non-cutting state, the milling started with
contact to the workpiece, and was stable during some time. After that,
however, it became unstable, and the vibration noise of milling changed
to a loud because the tool center point had been in the opened state.
First, we focused on the feature value of the vibration in the opened state
in the R direction shown in the upper graph. The value was near 0 in
non-cutting state, rose rapidly when the cutting started, and then
became stable around 1 for some time. However, it rose to around 2
afterwards, indicating that the condition of milling became unstable.
The graph also shows, as a comparison, the feature value of the vibration
in the closed state. It shows the stable condition of milling is kept almost
the whole time, and it can be observed the difference from the opened
state. The lower graph of Fig. 28 shows the results of the feature value of
the vibration in the Z direction. Almost the same trend can be observed
compared to the feature value in the R direction.
As a summary of this experiment in opened state, considerations of
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
cutting processes that are found through the monitoring are as follows.
At the milling in the opened state, oscillations are observed in the
feature value of cutting force, and the increase is observed in the feature
value of vibration. It is considered the reason that the tool center point is
not supported by the workpiece. However, it requires further consider­
ations. As an additional information for reference, it is considered that
the cause for the oscillation in cutting force of the 9.4 ms period, which
means about 106 Hz, is on the table side. The reason for this is the
natural frequency around 106 Hz have been measured on the table side.
On the other hand, this frequency around 106 Hz has not been found in
the spindle-tool system. Therefore, it is assumed that the experimental
result in this chapter do not affect the model of the spindle-tool system
evaluated in Chapter 4. In our opinion, at least the vibration generated
at this milling experiment can be monitored by using the feature value of
vibration.
7. Experimental result of milling with worn tool
To further evaluate the feature value of the cutting force, a milling
test was carried out with a condition in which more fluctuations in the
cutting force were generated than the previous milling tests. For
example, if only one of the two tool edges wears rapidly, the milling will
be performed with a steady fluctuation in cutting force. In this case, we
created intentionally a rounded edge of a two-blade ball end mill by
shaving with an oil stone for about 30 min and used this tool for the
milling test. Fig. 29 shows an enlarged image of the cutting edge. On the
left is the sharp cutting edge of the new tool. On the right is the rounded
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
Fig. 32. Feature values of vibrations compared between worn and new tool.
cutting edge which was shaved with an oil stone. It can be seemed that
the corner of the edge was dulled. Actually, it was confirmed by mea­
surement with a tool microscope that shaving of this method formed a
shape equivalent to a flank wear width of VB over 0.08 mm.
As described above, the milling test was performed using the worn
tool with the rounded one edge. Fig. 30 shows the results of the accel­
eration and the cutting force in the X direction at that time. The upper
graph shows the fluctuations of the acceleration in tooth passing period
and the high frequency vibration in the X direction. The lower graph of
Fig. 8 showed the result in the X direction during the milling under the
same cutting conditions with a new tool. Comparing these results, it can
be observed that the waveform of the acceleration for each tooth was
stable during the milling with the new tool, whereas it varied during the
milling with the worn tool. Next, focusing on the lower graph of Fig. 30,
it shows the measured and estimated cutting forces during the milling
with the worn tool. It can be observed that the measured cutting force
fluctuated for each of the two teeth. In addition, it can be confirmed that
the estimated cutting force approximately matched with the measured
cutting force. For comparison, the upper graph of Fig. 14 showed the
cutting force in the X direction during milling under the same cutting
conditions with the new tool. There were no fluctuations in the cutting
force for each of the two teeth, confirming the difference from the
milling with the worn tools.
Next, Fig. 31 shows the feature values of the cutting forces during the
milling with the worn and new tool. A milling path with the linear
motion was used for this milling test. It started from the non-cutting
state, approached the workpiece, and began the cutting by one side of
the tool. Focusing on the feature values of the cutting forces in the R
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Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
direction in the upper graph, it can be observed that these fluctuated for
each of the two teeth during the milling with the worn tool in both the
measured and the estimated values. This trend was the same for the
feature values of the cutting forces in the Z direction during the milling
with worn tool shown in the lower graph of Fig. 31. From this result, it
can be confirmed that by using the feature value of the cutting force, it is
possible to properly monitor conditions of milling, in which a cutting
force fluctuates according to a tool with one edge worn.
In addition, Fig. 32 shows the feature values of the vibrations during
the milling with the worn and new tool. In both the R and Z directions,
the feature values of vibrations just after the start of cutting were higher
with the worn tool than with the new tool. However, after about 30 ms
from the start of cutting, the feature values of vibrations with the worn
tool and the new tool are almost the same.
As a summary of this experiment with the worn tool, considerations
of cutting processes that are found through the monitoring are as fol­
lows. In milling where only one cutting edge is worn, the difference in
cutting force occur for each cutting edge because of differences in the
sharpness of cutting. However, it is considered that even in this condi­
tion, high frequency vibration can be suppressed when the cutting
process is reproduced stably with each revolution of tool.
8. Summary of evaluation of feature value
The feature values of cutting forces and vibration have been evalu­
ated on the milling experiments conducted in Chapter 4–7. Based on the
results, the guidelines are described below for monitoring by these
features in shape milling with small-diameter ball end mills.
J. Kouguchi and H. Yoshioka
• Cutting loads during milling are monitored by the feature values of
cutting forces. An actual example is the monitoring of cutting loads
such as non-cutting state, stable cutting state, and overloaded cutting
state like corner milling. It is also possible to monitor the cutting load
to clarify whether it is due to radial or axial loading. For this purpose,
it requires the comparison between Cr and Cz of feature values.
• Vibrations during milling are monitored by the feature values of
vibrations. An actual example is the monitoring such as vibration
generated when milling starts, vibration caused by rapid overloads,
its residual vibration, and vibration from effects of natural vibration
on the machine tool. It is also possible to monitor the vibration to
clarify whether it is due to radial or axial vibration. For this purpose,
it requires the comparison between Vr and Vz of feature values.
• Conditions of tool wear are monitored by the feature values of cut­
ting forces. It can be monitored with a comparison to the feature
values for cutting loads with new tools.
According to the described above guideline, it is considered that
these feature values can be used to achieve properly monitoring for the
shape milling with small-diameter ball end mills.
9. Conclusion
In this paper, we proposed a method to monitor estimated cutting
forces and vibrations for high-speed cutting. This method used the
approximation of sequential quadratic regression to separate fluctua­
tions of accelerations in the tooth passing period and components of
high frequency vibrations from acceleration signals. Then, cutting forces
were estimated from a model-based approach. After that, two kinds of
feature value were calculated to monitor a milling process. One is a
feature value of cutting force and the other is that of vibration.
To evaluate the monitoring method, the 3-axis NC milling machine
was built. The sensors were attached on the tool spindle of it and five
accelerations were measured at 50 kHz of sampling rate. For the milling
test, the ball end mill with the two cutting flutes and the small radius of
1.5 mm was used as the cutting tool. The rotational speed of spindle was
16,000 min− 1 as the cutting condition.
Through the machining experiments, it was confirmed that this
method can be used to achieve properly monitoring on the milling with a
linear motion and corner milling. It was also confirmed that monitoring
can be achieved in the Z direction in addition to the X and Y directions.
Furthermore, problematic conditions of milling were intentionally
generated, such as vibrations during cutting and fluctuations in cutting
force due to using a worn tool. Finally, the guidelines were proposed for
monitoring cutting loads, vibrations, and conditions of tool wear in the
radial and axial directions respectively, by using feature values of cut­
ting forces and vibrations.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
356
Precision Engineering 85 (2024) 337–356
Junichi Kouguchi reports financial support was provided by Beckhoff
Automation K.K. Junichi Kouguchi reports a relationship with Beckhoff
Automation K.K. that includes: employment.
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