Design Manual: Success With Aluminium Profiles

Design manual
Design manual
Success with aluminium profiles

Cover picture: The aluminium profile on the front cover fits snugly into
the plastic casing shown above. The whole is part of the GH2 ceiling-
mounted lift produced by Guldmann A/S in Denmark. In use, the lift
facilitates the safe handling of patients. By reducing the physical exertion
demanded of care staff, it also provides a safer working environment.
The lifting unit runs in rails (also aluminium profiles) and the whole
assembly weighs only 8.7 kg. Its lifting capacity is 200 kg.
Besides low weight and high strength, aluminium profiles have many
other design advantages. The profile on the cover is 284 mm wide and
has three compartments for housing the lift motor and batteries. The
profile’s various channels are purpose-designed to guarantee the rapid
and easy fitting of all the lift’s components. Once the profile has been
extruded, the only machining required is cutting to length and the milling
of the holes for cables and the lift mechanism. The profile shown here
has a natural anodised finish.
Production: Sapa Profiler AB, Sapa Profiles Ltd and Jonsson & Lindén.
1st UK edition: 2000 copies, current as of May 2007.
This manual can be quoted from provided that the source is clearly stated.
Illustrations and pictures may only be reproduced with the consent
of Sapa Profiler AB.
Design manual
Sapa Profiles Ltd is a part of an international industrial group developing, manufacturing and marketing aluminium products
with high added value. The company has operations throughout Europe and in the USA and China. The building, automotive
and engineering industries are the company’s largest customer segments. For further details, see www.sapagroup.com.
1
CONTENTS
1. Aluminium profiles – the possibilities 4–5 Methods – MIG, TIG and robot welding 65
Welding economy 66
2. Aluminium – the properties 6–9 Filler metals 66
Physical properties of some of the most Strength 67
commonly used metals and plastics 8 Profile design with regard to
3. From bauxite to recycled metal 10 – 11 fusion welding 67
10.10 Friction Stir Welding 68 – 73
4. Environmental impact 12 – 17 An established technology 68
4.1 The environmental impact of extrusion, The principle of FSW – illustrations 69
surface treatment and machining 13 FSW welds – a comparison with MIG 70
4.2 Product examples 14 – 16 Strength, Leakproofness, Repeatability,
4.2.1 Cars 14 – 15 Corrosion resistance, Limitations 71
4.2.2 Underground railway carriages 15 – 16 Strength of FSW joints, Comparison
4.2.3 Window frames 16 – 17 with MIG and TIG
4.3 Health 17 – Reference: The Royal
Institute of Technology, Sweden 72 – 73
5. Aluminium profiles – the applications 18 – 19
Statistics – use by industry 18 11. Profile tolerances 74 – 86
Statistics – total consumption 19 Tolerances on dimensions EN 755 -9 75 – 78
Cross-sectional dimensions 75
6. Extrusion principles 20 – 21
Alloy groups 75
Solid profiles and hollow profiles 21
Tolerances on dimensions other
7. Choosing the right alloy 22 – 27 than wall thickness 76
Alloying elements, alloy codes and types 22 Tolerances on wall thickness of
At-a-glance alloy selection 24 solid and hollow profiles 77
Heat treatment recommendations 25 Length 78
Common construction alloys 26 Squareness of cut ends 78
Special alloys 27 Tolerances on form 78 – 81
Straightness 79
8. Wide profiles with tight tolerances 28 – 29 Convexity – Concavity 79
Contour 80
9. General design advice 30 – 34
Twist 80
Recommended wall thickness – guidelines 30
Angularity 81
9.1 Uniform wall thickness 31
Corner and fillet radii 81
9.1.1 Exceptions 31
EN 12020-2 82 – 86
9.2 Soft lines 31
Cross-sectional dimensions 82
9.3 Solid profiles if possible 32
Tolerances on dimensions other
9.4 Fewer cavities in hollow profiles 32
than wall thickness 82
9.5 Profiles with deep channels 32 – 33
Tolerances on wall thickness of
9.6 Heat sinks 33
solid and hollow profiles 82
9.7 Decorate! 34
Length 83
10. Jointing 35 – 73 Squareness of cut ends 83
10.1 Screw ports 35 – 36 Length offset for profiles with
10.2 Jointing – nuts and bolts 37 a thermal barrier 83
10.3 Snap-fit joints 38 – 39 Tolerances on form 83 – 86
10.4 Jointing profile to profile 39 – 51 Straightness 83
10.4.1 Longitudinal jointing 39 – 40 Convexity – Concavity 84
10.4.2 Telescoping 41 – 42 Contour 84
10.4.3 Latitudinal jointing 42 – 44 Twist 85
10.4.4 Hinges 44 – 46 Angularity 85
10.4.5 T-joints 47 – 48 Corner and fillet radii 86
10.4.6 Corner joints 49 – 51
12. Surface classes 87 – 89
10.5 Jointing with other materials 52 – 53
Visible surfaces – important information 87
10.6 Riveting 54 – 55
Review profile design carefully 88
10.7 End caps 55 – 56
The effects of surface treatment 88
10.8 Adhesive bonding 57 – 63
Handling and stocking 88
Essential knowledge 57
Surface classes 1 – 6, Area of application,
Joint design 58
Suitable Sapa alloys 89
Choice of adhesive 59 – 62
Pre-treatment operations in bonding 63 13. Thermal break profiles 90 – 91
Literature 63 Sapa’s method 90
10.9 Fusion welding 64 – 67 Single or double insulation 90
Most aluminium alloys can be welded 64 Insulated profile design 91
2
CONTENTS
14. Machining 92 – 103 17.2 How you, the purchaser,

General 92 – 93 can influence cost-efficiency 136 – 137
14.1 Stock cutting 94 17.3 Sapa’s vision 138
14.1.1 Punching/cutting 94
14.2 Stock removal 95 – 96 18. Knowledge banks 139 – 141
14.2.1 Turning 95 18.1 The Profile Academy 139
14.2.2 Drilling 96 18.2 Further sources of knowledge 140 – 141
14.2.3 Milling 96 18.2.1 Sapa Technology 140
14.2.4 Cutting to length 96 18.2.2 Colleges, industry organisations, etc. 141
14.3 Plastic forming 97 – 98
14.3.1 Draw bending 97 19. Design 142 – 163
14.3.2 Roller bending 97 19.1 General 142
14.3.3 Stretch bending 98 19.2 Design literature 142
14.3.4 Press bending 98 19.3 Key considerations in
14.4 Threading 99 aluminium design 142 – 143
14.5 Tolerances 99 19.4 Cross-sectional shape 143 – 145
Product examples – stock cutting, 19.4.1 Asymmetrical profiles
stock removal and plastic forming 100 – 101 – the shear centre 143 – 144
14.6 Hydroforming 102 – 103 19.4.2 Solid or hollow profiles? 144 – 145
The principle 102 19.5 Design using the partial
Example product 103 coefficient method – general 145
19.6 Material 145 – 146
15. Surface treatment 104 – 122 19.6.1 Material values 145 – 146
15.1 Profile design 104 19.6.2 Partial coefficients 146
15.2 Mechanical surface treatment 105 19.7 Designing 146 – 151
15.3 Anodising 106 – 109 19.7.1 General 146
Coloured oxide layers 108 19.7.2 Buckling 146 – 147
15.4 Painting 110 – 115 19.7.3 Effective thickness 147 – 148
15.4.1 Powder coating 110 – 111 19.7.4 Reinforced elements 148
Product examples – powder coating 112 – 113 19.7.5 Axial force 148 – 149
15.4.2 Decoral 114 – 115 Torsional buckling and
15.4.3 Wet painting 115 lateral-torsional buckling 149
15.5 Sapa HM-white 116 – 117 19.7.6 Bending moments 149 – 150
15.6 Screen printing 118 – 119 Lateral buckling 149 – 150
15.7 Function-specific surfaces 120 19.7.7 Transverse force 150
15.8 At-a-glance guide for choice 19.7.8 Torsion 150
of surface treatments 121 19.7.9 Combined loads
15.9 Colour guide for anodising 122 Bending instability 151
19.7.10 Concentrated force and
16. Corrosion 123 – 134 support reaction 151
16.1 Aluminium’s corrosion resistance 123 19.8 Joints 151 – 155
16.2 The most common kinds 19.8.1 General 151
of corrosion 123 – 127 19.8.2 Force distribution in joints 151
16.2.1 Galvanic corrosion 124 19.8.3 Types of failure in joints
16.2.2 Preventing galvanic corrosion 125 using fasteners 152
16.2.3 Pitting 126 19.8.4 Nuts and bolts 152 – 153
16.2.4 Preventing pitting 126 19.8.5 Self-tapping screws 153
16.2.5 Crevice corrosion 127 19.8.6 Screw ports 153 – 154
16.2.6 Preventing crevice corrosion 127 Open screw port 153 – 154
16.3 Aluminium in open air 128 Closed screw ports 154
16.4 Aluminium in soil 129 19.8.7 Tracks for nuts and bolts 154
16.5 Aluminium in water 129 19.8.8 Rivet joints 154
Corrosion at the water line 130 19.8.9 Welded joints 154 – 155
16.6 Aluminium and alkaline 19.8.10 Miscellaneous jointing methods 155
building materials 131 19.9 Fatigue 155 – 163
16.7 Aluminium and chemicals 131 19.9.1 General 155
16.8 Aluminium and dirt 131 19.9.2 Scope 155
16.9 Aluminium and fasteners 132 – 133 19.9.3 Fatigue load 155
At-a-glance guide for choosing 19.9.4 Designing for fatigue 155 – 156
fasteners 133 19.9.5 Detail types 156 – 163
16.10 Corrosion checklist 134
17. Cost-efficiency 135 – 138
17.1 How you, the designer,
can influence cost-efficiency 135 – 136
3
“It is what we remember
that makes us wise.”
Remember to keep this
manual readily to hand!
4
1. THE POSSIBILITIES
1. Aluminium profiles
– the possibilities
Aluminium profiles help designers to create unique solutions that
satisfy all expectations, hopes and demands. The tooling costs
are reasonable, there are few technical limitations and a whole
new world of possibilities is opened up for exploration.
It is at the design stage that there are so many opportunities
to incorporate features that will make the profile easier to machine
and easier to fit. Low weight combined with high strength, excellent
corrosion resistance and superb finishes are just some of the
properties the designer can fine-tune to ensure that the final
product meets all specifications.
On top of all this, aluminium is easy to recycle and the extrusion
process is simple – applying considerable pressure, a heated billet
is forced through a die. The resultant profile is shaped exactly like
the aperture in the die.
This manual is primarily intended for those who would like to
gain further insight into success with aluminium profiles.
Whenever there is a need for greater help or guidance, Sapa
is happy to provide advice and expertise. Few manufacturers can
match our depth of knowledge and experience. Contact us and
find out for yourself!
5
2. THE PROPERTIES
2. Aluminium
– the properties
After iron, aluminium is now the second most widely used metal
Low weight,
in the world. This is because aluminium has a unique combination
high strength, of attractive properties.
superior Low weight, high strength, superior malleability, easy machining,
malleability, excellent corrosion resistance and good thermal and electrical
easy machining, conductivity are amongst aluminium’s most important properties.
excellent Aluminium is also very easy to recycle.
corrosion
resistance... Weight
With a density of 2.7 g/cm3, aluminium is approximately one third as dense
as steel.
Strength
Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa.
The range for alloys used in extrusion is 150 – 300 MPa.
Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not become brittle at low
temperatures. Instead, its strength increases.
At high temperatures, aluminium’s strength decreases. At temperatures
continuously above 100°C, strength is affected to the extent that the weakening
must be taken into account.
Linear expansion
Compared with other metals, aluminium has a relatively large coefficient of linear
expansion. This has to be taken into account in some designs.
Malleability
Aluminium’s superior malleability is essential for extrusion. With the metal either
hot or cold, this property is also exploited in the rolling of strips and foils, as well
as in bending and other forming operations.
Machining
Easy to mill, Aluminium is easily worked using most machining methods – milling, drilling,
drill, cut, cutting, punching, bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during machining
punch, bend, is low.
weld, bond, Jointing
tape... Features facilitating easy jointing are often incorporated into profile design. Fusion
welding, Friction Stir Welding, bonding and taping are also used for jointing.
6
2. THE PROPERTIES
Aluminium combines low density and high strength. These properties are here being used in the decking
of a bridge.
These heat sinks exploit aluminium’s high thermal conductivity.
Aluminium has superior malleability.
7
2. THE PROPERTIES
Conductivity
Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor
weighs approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same
conductivity.
Reflectivity
Aluminium is a good reflector of both visible light and radiated heat.
Screening – EMC
Tight aluminium boxes can effectively exclude or screen off electromagnetic
radiation. The better the conductivity of a material, the better the shielding qualities.
Corrosion resistance
The oxide layer Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer of oxide.
is dense and Though it is only some hundredths of a μm thick (1 μm is one thousandth of a
provides millimetre), this layer is dense and provides excellent corrosion protection. The layer
excellent is self-repairing if damaged.
corrosion Anodising increases the thickness of the oxide layer and thus improves the
strength of the natural corrosion protection. Where aluminium is used outdoors,
protection.
thicknesses of between 15 and 25 μm (depending on wear and risk of corrosion)
are common.
Aluminium is extremely durable in neutral and slightly acid environments.
In environments characterised by high acidity or high basicity, corrosion is rapid.
Further details are given in chapter 16, “Corrosion”.
Non-magnetic material
Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid interference
of magnetic fields aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices.
Zero toxicity
After oxygen and silicon, aluminium is the most common element in the Earth’s
crust. Aluminium compounds also occur naturally in our food. For further details,
see chapter 4, “Environmental impact”.
Physical properties of some of the most commonly used metals1) and plastics
® ®
Al Fe Cu Zn Nylon Delrin
(Polyamide 6–6) (Polyacetal)
Density, g/cm3 2.7 7.9 8.9 7.1 1.1 1.4

Melting point,°C 658 1 540 1 083 419 255 175
Thermal capacity, J/kg, °C 900 450 390 390 1 680 1 470
Thermal conductivity, W/m, °C 230 75 390 110 0.23 0.23
Coeff. of linear expansion, x 10 -6/°C 24 12 16 26 70 – 100 80 – 90
El. conductivity, % I.A.C.S. 2) 60 16 100 30 – –
El. resistance, x 10 -9 7m 29 105 17 58 – –
Modulus of elasticity, GPa 70 220 120 93 3 3
1)
Table values are for commercially pure metals.
2)
100% I.A.C.S. (International Annealed Copper Standard) is the conductivity that, at 20°C,
corresponds to 58 m/7, mm2.
8
2. THE PROPERTIES
Aluminium is easy to work using most machining methods.
Aluminium has excellent resistance in neutral and slightly acid environments.
Weight and strength – aluminium is approximately one third as dense as steel. Aluminium alloys have
tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa.
9
3. THE RAW MATERIAL
3. From bauxite to
recycled metal
There is plenty of raw material for the production of aluminium.
The Earth’s In a variety of forms, aluminium compounds make up a full 8%
crust is 8%
of the Earth’s crust.
aluminium.
Bauxite
Bauxite is the main starting point in the production of aluminium. It has been
estimated that, given the present rate of aluminium production, there is enough
bauxite to last another 200 to 400 years. This assumes no increase in the use
of recycled aluminium and no further discoveries of bauxite.
Bauxite forms when certain aluminium bearing rocks decompose. Its main
constituents are aluminium oxides, iron and silicon.
The largest and most lucrative bauxite deposits are located around the
Equator. Major producers include Australia, Brazil, Jamaica and Surinam.
Alumina (Al2O3)
Normally in close proximity to the mine, bauxite is refined into alumina.
The next stage, production of aluminium by molten electrolysis of the alumina,
is concentrated in countries with good supplies of electricity.
The production of 1 kg of aluminium requires around 2 kg of alumina.
The production of 2 kg of alumina requires about 4 kg of bauxite.
The metal
Due to aluminium’s chemistry, relatively large amounts of energy (primarily
electricity) are required to reduce alumina to aluminium. Around 47 MJ (approx.
13 kWh) goes into the molten electrolysis of 1 kg of the metal. However, this
investment gives excellent dividends.
The energy expended in aluminium production is often recouped several
times over. By reducing the weight of vehicles, the use of aluminium reduces
fuel consumption (see also chapter 4). Similarly, energy losses in aluminium
power lines are comparatively small.
Recycling
Scrap aluminium is a valuable resource that is set to become even more
important. In principle, all scrapped aluminium can be recycled into a new
Aluminium scrap generation of products.
– a valuable With appropriate sorting, scrap aluminium can advantageously be recycled
raw material. to produce the same sorts of products over and over again. Furthermore,
recycling requires only 5% of the original energy input.
10
3. THE RAW MATERIAL
In today’s environment-conscious society, the recycling of used aluminium

products is becoming ever more important and ever more common.
The aluminium cycle
In the
E CT R I C A L A P P aluminium
ND EL LI C
I N GA AT I cycle, the metal
L D ON
UI S
B can be reused
THER MECHANICAL for the same
N DO AP
R TA PL
IC purposes
PO A
S over and over
TI
AN
PAC K AG I N G
ON
again. Unlike
TR
many other
materials,
aluminium
does not lose
its unique
PRODUCTS CASTING REMELTING properties.
PRIMARY
ALUMINIUM
Al2O3
Al2O3
So easy to recycle: Aluminium is the perfect “eco-metal”. Very little aluminium is lost in the remelting
process. Increased recovery, dismantling and sorting of spent products has led to even greater recycling
of aluminium.
11
4. THE ENVIRONMENT
4. Environmental
impact
All industrial activity consumes natural resources and has an
impact on the environment. The aluminium industry is no exception
to this. However, using aluminium in preference to other products
often has a positive impact.
Thus, to gain a true assessment of an aluminium product from the environmental

point of view, a life cycle analysis is essential. Several examples are given later
in this chapter.
Absolute recycling
Absolute Aluminium collected for recycling enters an almost never-ending “eco-circle”. This
recycling is because very little metal is lost in remelting. On average, losses through oxidation
– repeatable during remelting amount to a few per cent only. Furthermore, the quality of the
remelted material is so high that it can be used for the same product over and
recycling with
over again.
maintained Hence our use of the term “absolute recycling” – repeatability with maintained
quality and quality and high yield.
high yield.
Extrusion
As mentioned in chapter 3, producing aluminium from bauxite requires comparatively
large amounts of energy. The manufacture of aluminium profiles, on the other
hand, requires relatively little energy.
At the web site of EAA (the European Aluminium Association) you can obtain
further information on profile manufacturing and a number of other subjects
connected with the use of aluminium and profiles. The address: www.aluminium.org
The remelting works in Sjunnen, Sweden.
12
4.1 EXTRUSION – ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
4.1 The environmental impact

of extrusion, surface treatment
and machining
Cutting to length is the main source of noise in factories producing aluminium
profiles. This noise has been reduced by screening.
Changing the lubricants used on billet end faces has not only improved
the quality of air in workshops, but also given cleaner profiles that require less
post-extrusion cleaning.
A further measure to reduce potentially negative environmental impact is the
increased use of gas nitriding for the hardening of dies. Dies are now stored
with residue aluminium on them, thus minimising the need for cleaning. Similarly,
the mineral oil based cooling and cutting fluids previously used in the machining
of semi-finished goods have been replaced by water-based products. This has
reduced the need to use organic degreasing agents.
Sapa no longer uses trichloroethylene for degreasing. The alkaline water
solutions used today produce a semi-stable emulsion containing droplets of
grease and oil. Drawing off this emulsion extends the life of the degreasing bath
and gives a product that can be recycled as, for example, a lubricant for
machining operations.
The etching process in anodising has been improved by the use of “never-
dump” baths. These consume minimum quantities of chemicals and produce
less waste. Used etching baths are neutralised. This precipitates the aluminium
content as a hydroxide, which is then refined into chloride. To an increasing
extent, the chloride is being used as a flocking agent in water treatment plants.
Copper and cobalt salts were previously used for dyeing profiles during
anodising. Again to lessen any potentially negative impact on the environment,
these have been replaced by tin salts.
Die cleaning – a closed process producing no waste water.
13
4.2 ENVIRONMENT – ALUMINIUM IN EVERYDAY USE
4.2 Product examples

4.2.1 Cars
More and more car manufacturers are using aluminium in preference to steel. It is
perfectly possible to replace 182 kg of steel components with 82 kg of aluminium
– 100 kg less strain on the engine.
If no recycled metals are used, aluminium components require 2,740 MJ more
energy to produce than the steel parts they replace. However, with a typical lifetime
of use, the lighter car will require 640 litres less fuel. This is the equivalent of
23,000 MJ.
Furthermore, when the content of recycled metal reaches 90%, an aluminium
component actually consumes less production energy than its steel counterpart.
Environmental benefits
Assuming no recycled steel or aluminium is used:
– During the car’s lifetime, the extra energy used in producing aluminium is
recouped a good eight times over.
– Production of the aluminium components emits 100 kg more CO2 than is
the case for steel. This higher impact on the environment is made good many
times over during the car’s lifetime – the reduced petrol consumption reduces
CO2 emissions by 1,500 kg.
Total life cycle analysis

Total life cycle analyses underline the energy and environmental benefits resulting
from the use of aluminium. Car manufacturers make extensive use of such analyses.
In this sector of industry, the Swedish EPS method1) is the most widely used
analytical tool. An example is given below.
A steel car bonnet is replaced by an
The production aluminium one. This reduces the weight from
of a steel bonnet 18 to 10 kg. Applying the EPS method, the
total load on the environment presented by
presents a 60%
the steel bonnet is around 60% greater than
greater total the load presented by the aluminium bonnet.
load on the
environment 1)
EPS = Environmental Priority Strategies in product design is a practical method
than the for calculating “environmental load”. The method takes into account what happens
production of throughout the manufacture, use and eventual disposal of a product. Calculations
an aluminium are based on the following formula:
bonnet. Environmental load index x Quantity = ELU (Environmental Load Unit)
An environmental load index is a numerical value corresponding to the load on
the environment considered to be presented by a defined quantity/amount of a
substance, product or activity.
14
Space Frame
One of the modern technologies used in the manufacture of car bodies is the
Space Frame, a skeleton of aluminium profiles. Covering the frame with aluminium
sheets gives weight reductions of up to 200 kg per car. This is double the saving
cited on the previous page.
As in other applications, replacing steel with aluminium reduces weight. Here,
this leads to reductions in petrol consumption and emissions. Other plus points
are improved crash-safety, reduced risk of corrosion and decreased environmental
load.
4.2.2 Underground railway carriages
Nearly all modern underground railways use carriages with bodies constructed of
longitudinally welded aluminium profiles.
In Japan, analyses of real energy consumption have been carried out on the
Chiyoda line. The analyses compared the line’s steel-carriaged trains with those
having aluminium-bodied carriages. In the latter, 9,450 kg of steel is replaced by
4,000 kg of aluminium.
3)
Energy consumption in Aluminium 4,000 x 37.2 2) = 148,800 kWh
the production process 1) Steel 9,450 x 9.5 2) = 89,775 kWh
Difference 59,025 kWh
Energy consumption during Steel carriages 561,200 kWh

two years of operation Aluminium carriages 489,900 kWh
Difference 71,300 kWh
1)
No recycled 2)
Consumption as estimated by Sapa Technology.
metal used. 3)
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.
15
Energy savings in less than two years

Assuming no use of recycled aluminium or steel, the Chiyoda example shows that,
in less than two years, aluminium carriages represent an “energy saving”. Similar
real-life analyses in Atlanta (USA) and Germany have given figures of 3 and
1.6 years respectively as the times in which the extra energy used in production
is recouped.
When the use of recycled metals is taken into consideration, aluminium
carriages are clearly more “energy-efficient” even at the production stage. The
recycling of aluminium consumes far less energy than the recycling of steel.
4.2.3 Window frames

In Austria, there has been a study in 1991 of the environmental aspects of the
use of various materials (aluminium, PVC coated steel, wood and aluminium
clad wood) in window frames. The results obtained using the EPS method are
summarised below.
– Calculated over the entire life cycle of the product, aluminium clad wooden
frames present the lowest load on the environment.
– In the production phase, wooden frames present unquestionably the lowest
environmental load. However, this is more than nullified by the need for regular
maintenance/replacement.
– Aluminium frames are far superior to plastic coated steel frames.
– Frames of plastic coated steel present the largest load on the environment.
– The possibility of recycling aluminium with very little energy consumption is
a significant factor in aluminium’s good performance.
16
4.3 HEALTH ASPECTS
Conclusion
The use of aluminium in products such as window frames has clearly demonstrable
benefits for the environment.
4.3 Health
All normal forming and cutting of aluminium has no consequences for human
health. However, if worksite ventilation is inadequate, lengthy periods of gas welding
can have an effect on the respiratory organs. Before undertaking gas welding,
current recommendations and regulations should be studied. Local health and
safety bodies are usually able to provide help here.
Friction Stir Welding (see pages 68 – 73 of this manual) does not use filler
metals or shielding gases. This avoids the problem outlined above.
Aluminium is non-toxic
All life on Earth is adapted to its presence – aluminium has always been a natural
part of the environment. The soil contains, on average, 7% aluminium (by weight).
The use of aluminium products, whether untreated or anodised, presents no
Aluminium
health hazards. As an illustration of this, aluminium has been used for decades
in kitchen pots and pans. At one time, aluminium was cited as a possible cause in the diet:
of Alzheimer’s disease. However, the leading medical scientists of today consider 97% from
that there is no such link. foodstuffs,
It is also worth mentioning that our normal diet includes aluminium. Food 3% from food
and food additives account for roughly 97% of our daily intake of approximately preparation.
12 mg. The remaining 3% comes from aluminium products such as kitchen foil
and cooking vessels.
17
5. THE APPLICATIONS
5. Aluminium profiles
– the applications
The purpose of this manual is to give its readers an insight into
optimum design using aluminium profiles. Further details and concrete
advice are readily available from Sapa.
Whatever the field

Whatever the field of operation, it seems that aluminium profiles have something to offer.
The transport industry makes extensive use of aluminium profiles in lorries, buses,
cars, trains, ships, etc. With increasing demand for lighter vehicles that consume less
fuel and place less strain on the environment, the use of profiles is constantly rising.
The benefits are clear.
Other sectors of industry have also seen the advantages. Profiles are being used in
all types of design solutions. Examples include machine parts, a wide range of products
for everyday home and office use and equipment used in free time activities. In the
electronics industry, aluminium profiles are used in heat sinks, casings, front plates and
so on. The building industry uses aluminium profiles in, amongst other things, doors,
windows, fascias and glass roofs. The list of
Furniture/office Other
sectors and applications is long. equipment 8% 10% Transport 39%
In all sectors, the demand for recyclability is
growing ever stronger. No structural material can Building
24%
be more profitably recycled than aluminium. This
factor is sure to acquire increasing significance. Electronics Machine parts
10% 9%
Aluminium profiles will become more common
End use of the aluminium profiles
in all industries. In some respects, the use of produced in the Nordic countries
aluminium and extrusion has really only just begun. in 2000.
18
5. THE APPLICATIONS
The advantages of aluminium and extrusion

Profile use is
More and more constructors and designers are realising the advantages
of extrusion – the freedom it gives them to create precisely the shape increasing in
that solves the problem, low tooling costs, easy machining, purpose-tailored line with the
surface treatment, etc. Furthermore, extrusion technology continues to develop demand for
and new production methods such as Friction Stir Welding and hydroforming reduced energy
are adding still further to the possibilities opened up by aluminium profiles. consumption
On top of all this, aluminium has a host of unique structural properties. and minimum
Simply put, aluminium profiles facilitate the creation of efficient designs at stress on the
competitive prices – exactly the right conditions for new products on new environment.
markets.
Young metal, young industry
The electrolysis of alumina to produce aluminium was first achieved in 1886.
This was the major breakthrough that eventually led to the commercial production
of aluminium products.
By the turn of the century, world production of primary aluminium had
reached around 5,700 tons. In 2001, highlighting the importance of aluminium
in modern industrial production, the figure was approximately 24.5 million tons.
To give some idea of scale, 24.5 million tons is the combined weight of something
over 18 million Volvo S40s.
In Sweden, the first attempts to extrude aluminium were made in the middle
of the 1920’s. Still in Sweden, it was in 1937 that Metallverken, a company in
Finspång, started regular production of profiles. At the same time, Saab began
production of aeroplanes in Linköping. Over the next few years, and reaching a
peak at the end of the Second World War, Saab made extensive use of aluminium.
Since the late 1940’s, the consumption of aluminium and aluminium profiles
has risen steadily as shown in the graph below.
MIO Tonnes
30
World Production of
Primary Aluminium
25
1950 – 2002
20
15
10
0
1950 2002
19
6. EXTRUSION PRINCIPLES
6. Extrusion principles
Extrusion starts with aluminium alloy logs. These are cut into
billets, which then go into an induction furnace for heating to
the right extrusion temperature of 450 – 500°C. Next, applying
considerable pressure, each heated billet is forced through a die,
the profile emerging rather like toothpaste from a tube.
The profile emerges at a speed of 5 – 50 metres per minute
and length is normally between 25 and 45 metres. Cooling in air
or water commences immediately the profile leaves the die.
After cooling, the profile is stretched. This is both to relieve any
stress and to give the profile the desired straightness. At the same
time, all functionally important dimensions and surface quality
are checked. The profile is then cut to a suitable length or to the
exact length requested by the customer.
The final strength of the material is controlled through natural
or artificial ageing.
Dies
Dies are made of tool steel (normally SIS 2242). The die aperture, which
corresponds to the desired cross section of the profile, is produced by spark
erosion. Sapa both makes its own dies and buys in from independent
manufacturers.
Billets are heated to the right temperature in an induction furnace.
20
6. EXTRUSION PRINCIPLES
Two main classes

There are two main classes of profile – solid and hollow:
Solid profiles are produced using a flat, disc-shaped die.
Hollow profiles are produced using a two-part die.
In hollow dies, the mandrel (the part that shapes the cavity in the profile), is
supported on a bridge. During extrusion, the metal separates around the bridge.
The other part of the die shapes the outer contour of the profile.
Large and medium-sized profiles are pressed through a die with only one
aperture. Smaller profiles can be advantageously pressed through multi-apertured
dies – there may be as many as 16 apertures.
Die lifetime depends on the shape and desired surface quality of the profile.
The cost of replacement dies is covered in the price of the profile.
Dies for solid profiles. A hollow die.
A profile emerging onto the cooling table. Stretching relieves profiles of any stress or twisting.
21
7. ALLOYS
7. Choosing the
right alloy
Pure aluminium is relatively soft. To overcome this, the metal can
be alloyed and/or cold worked. Most of the aluminium reaching
the marketplace has been alloyed with at least one other element.
Sapa uses a long-established international system for
identifying aluminium alloys (see the table below). The first digit
in the four-digit alloy code identifies the major alloying element.
The European standard uses the same codes.
The table below gives the broad outline of the systems.
Alloying Alloy Alloy

element code type
None (pure aluminium) 1000 series Not hardenable
Copper 2000 series Hardenable
The 6000 Manganese 3000 series Not hardenable
series is by Silicon 4000 series Not hardenable
far the most Magnesium 5000 series Not hardenable
widely used Magnesium + silicon 6000 series Hardenable
in extrusion. Zinc 7000 series Hardenable
Other 8000 series
As cold working is the only way to increase the strength of the alloys that cannot be
hardened, most of these go for rolling. In extrusion, on the other hand, hardenable
alloys are the most commonly used.
The 6000 series, which has silicon and magnesium as the alloying elements, is
by far the most widely used in extrusion.
In Sapa’s 7021 alloy, zinc and magnesium are responsible for the hardening
effect.
Some alloys use manganese, zirconium or chrome to increase toughness.
Iron, which is found in all commercial aluminium, can have a negative effect on
toughness and finish (amongst other things) if present in high quantities.
22
7. ALLOYS
Heat treatment
Apart from 1050A, all Sapa alloys are hardenable. Their final strength is thus
determined by solution heat treatment and ageing (precipitation hardening).
Solution heat treatment is normally carried out during extrusion by carefully
controlling the temperature of the emerging profile. Precipitation hardening, which
takes a few hours, occurs afterwards in special furnaces. In some circumstances,
it may be necessary for the customer to carry out heat treatment. Sapa’s recom-
mendations in these cases are given in the table on page 25. Natural ageing is
the spontaneous hardening of solution treated aluminium at room temperature
(refer to the table on page 25).
Choosing the right alloy

Amongst the factors affecting the choice of the right alloy for an extruded
product are:
In cases
– Strength, finish, suitability for decorative anodising, corrosion resistance,
suitability for machining and forming, weldability and production costs. of doubt,
contact
The at-a-glance table on the next page should only be used as a rough guide.
In cases of doubt, contact Sapa for advice and guidance. For example, optimum Sapa for
cost-efficiency may sometimes be gained by choosing a comparatively lower advice.
strength alloy with higher extrudability.
Logs being prepared for extrusion.
23
7. ALLOYS
At-a-glance alloy selection

Relative grading: 3 = top mark
Special alloys for
High-strength
constructions
Common
conductors
anodising
Electrical
Property construction alloys
Bright
Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa
6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A 6082 7021 1050A 6101 6463
Tensile strength 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 0 1 1
Impact strength 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
Surface finish 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3
Suitability for
decorative anodising 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 3
Corrosion resistance 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3
Machinability:
cutting 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 2 2
forming 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Weldability 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Price 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Suitable alloys for anodising

Refer to 15.3, “Anodising”.
24
7. ALLOYS
Heat treatment recommendations
A
60
63
63
05
05
82
63
50
21
01
60
60
60
60
60
60
64
70
10
61
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Sa
Soft annealing: Rapid full through heating, followed
by approx. 30 min. at stated temperature. Cooling 380- 380- 380- 380- 380- 380 400- 380- 380- (380-
should be slow and, down to 250°C, preferably in a 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 450 420 420)
furnace. After that, free cooling. a) b) c)
Solution heat treatment: Rapid full through heating,

followed by 15 – 30 min. (depending on wall thickness) 510 510 530 530 530 535 460 – 530 (510
at stated temperature. Forced air-cooling (fan) if wall ±10 ± 10 ± 10 ± 10 ± 10 ± 10 ± 10 – ± 10 ± 10)
thickness under 6 mm. Water cooling where over 6 mm.
Cooling speed, 1 – 2°C per sec. d) e) c)
Natural ageing: Occurs spontaneously at room tem- 2 2 2 2 2 2 30 – 2 2

perature. Temper T4 achieved in stated number of days.
Artificial ageing: Heat to the stated age hardening 175 175 175 175 175 175 – 175 175
temperature (°C). Hold there for approx. 8 hours.
±5 ±5 ±5 ±5 ±5 ±5 f) g) ±5 ±5
After that, free cooling.
a) Cool to 220 – 230°C in a furnace. Hold at this temperature for 4 – 6 hours. After that, free cooling.
b) Coarse grain structure may form (a coarse-grained structure decreases strength and gives a poorer finish after anodising).
c) Sapa 6463 should not be soft annealed and subjected to solution heat treatment. This lessens the material’s suitability
for bright anodising.
d) To be cooled quickly (usually in water). When cooling, the material must be moved quickly from furnace to water
(approx. 10 sec.).
e) The cooling rate in the critical range, 400 – 200°C, should be at least 1°C per sec. It must not exceed 5°C per sec.
Rates above this may cause stress corrosion.
f) Artificial ageing can be 100°C (± 5°C) for 4 hours + 150°C (± 5°C) for 8 hours.
g) For maximum strength, a break of at least 72 hours between solution heat treatment and artificial ageing is required.
Heat treatment alters alloy properties. The picture above shows temperature control during
solution heat treatment.
25
7. ALLOYS
Common Construction Alloys

Alloy data as per EN-755-2
Sapa 6060 Sapa 6063 Sapa 6063A Sapa 6005 Sapa 6005A
Alloy designations
European standards:
numerical notation EN-AW-6060 EN-AW-6063 EN-AW-6063A EN-AW-6005 EN-AW-6005A
chemical notation 1) AlMgSi AlMg0.7Si AlMg0.7Si(A) AlSiMg AlSiMg(A)
USA: Aluminum Association AA 6060 AA 6063 AA 6063A AA 6005 AA 6005A
Swedish standards: SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW-
6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A
Alloy data
Temper T4 2) T6 T4 2) T6 T66 T4 2) T6 T6 T6 T6 T6
F25 Solid Hollow Solid Hollow
profile profile profile profile
Tensile strength 3)
t = wall thickness, mm
Yield strength R p0.2 , t a 25 ta3 t a 25 t a 10 t a 10 t a 25 t a 10 ta5 ta5 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 60 150 65 170 200 90 190 225 215 225 215
3< t 10 < t 10 < t 10 < t 5<t 5 <t 5<t 5<t
a 25 a 25 a 25 a 25 a 10 a 15 a 10 a 15
140 160 180 180 215 200 215 200
10 < t 10 < t
a 25 a 25
200 200
Ultimate tensile strength Rm , t a 25 ta3 t a 25 t a 10 t a 10 t a 25 t a 10 ta5 ta5 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 120 190 130 215 245 150 230 270 255 270 255
3<t 10 < t 10 < t 10 < t 5<t 5<t 5<t 5<t
a 25 a 25 a 25 a 25 a 10 a 15 a 10 a 15
170 195 225 220 260 250 260 250
10 < t 10 < t
a 25 a 25
250 250
Elongation A, % min. t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 25 t a 10 t a 25 t a 15 t a 25 t a 15
16 8 14 8 8 12 7 8 8 8 8
10 < t
a 25
5
Hardness
(for guidance)
Webster B, approx. 5 10 5 12 13 7 13 14 14 14 14
Vickers, approx. 40 60 45 70 80 50 80 85 85 85 85
Thermal conductivity
at 20°, W/m,°C 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 170 170 170 170
Density, kg/dm3 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
Alloys suitable for decorative anodising

High-strength
All alloys:
All applications All applications Certain Where high building and
Coefficient of linear
requiring the – furniture, decorative load-bearing strength is structural
expansion:
23 x 10-6/°C highest quality trims, etc. This alloy structures, essential, components,
Modulus of elasticity: finish and has good properties e.g. sailing e.g. balconies, e.g. profiles
70,000 MPa where strength in most areas. boat masts, doorways, for lorry beds
Modulus of rigidity: is not the ladders, etc. ladders, sailing and trains.
27,000 MPa crucial factor, boat masts. Can be
Poisson's ratio: 0.33 anodised.
e.g. picture
frames,
exclusive
furniture.
Temper codes: Version 7

F As extruded T4 Hardened and naturally aged
O Annealed T6 Hardened and artificially aged
T66 Hardened and artificially aged
26
7. ALLOYS
Special Alloys
Alloy data as per EN-755-2
Sapa 7021 Sapa 1050A Sapa 6101 Sapa 6463 Sapa 6082
Alloy designations
European standards:
numerical notation EN-AW-7021 EN-AW-1050A EN-AW-6101 EN-AW-6463 EN-AW-6082
chemical notation 1) AlZn5.5Mg1.5 Al99.5(A) AlMgSi AlMg0.7Si(B) AlSi1MgMn
USA: Aluminum Association AA 1050A AA 6101 AA 6463 AA 6082
Swedish standards: SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW-
7021 1050A 6101 6463 6082
Alloy data
Temper T6 F 4) T6 T4 T6 T4 2) T6 T6
Solid Hollow
Tensile strength 3) profile profile
t = wall thickness, mm
Yield strength R p0,2 , t a 50 t a 50 t a 50 t a 25 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 310 20 170 75 160 110 250 250
5 <t 5 <t
a 25 a 15
260 260
Ultimate tensile strength Rm , t a 50 t a 50 t a 50 t a 25 ta5 ta5
MPa, min. 350 60 200 125 195 205 290 290
5 <t 5 <t
a 25 a 15
310 310
Elongation A, % min. t a 50 t a 50 t a 50 t a 25 ta5 ta5
10 25 8 14 10 14 8 8
5 <t 5 <t
a 25 a 15
10 10
Hardness
(for guidance)
Webster B, approx. 16 10 7 10 11 15 15
Vickers, approx. 110 60 50 60 65 95 95
Thermal conductivity
at 20°, W/m,°C 145 235 190 190 190 170 170 170
Density, kg/dm3 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
All alloys: When choosing Good Good Specifically High-strength

Coefficient of linear this high- conductivity conductivity intended for building
expansion: strength alloy, (approx. 60% (approx. 55-60% chemical and structural
23 x 10-6/°C Sapa should be I.A.C.S. at I.A.C.S. at 20°C) bright components,
Modulus of elasticity: contacted for 20°C) and low and good anodising, e.g. trailer profiles
70,000 MPa further details. mechanical mechanical e.g. for lorries and floor
Modulus of rigidity: Applications strength. strength. decorative profiles.
27,000 MPa
include car Applications Applications trims, Unsuitable for
Poisson's ratio: 0.33
bumpers and – conductor – tubes for reflectors, decorative
motorway rails, etc. transformer etc. anodising.
safety barriers. stations, etc.
Version 7
1) The designations must start with EN-AW, e.g. EN-AW-AlMgSi.
2) Stated tensile strength is attained with a minimum of 72 hours
natural ageing after extrusion.
3) Stated tensile strength applies to sections with a wall thickness

of up to 25 mm. For further information, contact Sapa.
4) Sapa 1050A is a non-hardenable alloy – its mechanical

properties cannot be improved by heat treatment.
27
8. PROFILE DESIGN – WIDE PROFILES WITH TIGHT TOLERANCES
8. Wide profiles with

tight tolerances
30
30
300
400
500
620
28
8. PROFILE DESIGN – WIDE PROFILES WITH TIGHT TOLERANCES
The illustration shows max. profile Weight

dimensions for our largest press 1) Sapa can extrude profiles
Max width: 620 x 50 mm. Max square: weighing from as little
300 x 300 mm. Max round: 320 mm diam. as 0.1 kg/m to as much
Profile weight: max 65 kg/m. as 65 kg/m 1).
1) 2006, press P1, Belgium
143,7
220
300
320
50
Important
We continuously develop
techniques and processes
and invest in new production
equipment. It is therefore
important to contact Sapa
before finally deciding
measurements and exact
shape of your profile.
Version 7
29
9. PROFILE DESIGN – GENERAL ADVICE
9. General design
advice
Wall thickness
When deciding how thick the walls of a profile should be, strength and optimum
cost-efficiency are two of the main considerations.
Profiles with a uniform wall thickness are the simplest to produce. However, where
necessary, wall thickness within a profile can easily be varied. For example, a profile’s
bending strength can be increased by concentrating weight/thickness away from the
centre of gravity.
Cost-efficient production
To optimise cost-efficiency, a profile’s design should always be as production-friendly
as possible. To achieve this, the profile should:
– have a uniform wall thickness
– have simple, soft lines and radiused corners
– be symmetrical
– have a small circumscribing circle
– not have deep, narrow channels.
Recommended wall thickness – guidelines

Amongst the factors having an effect on wall thickness are extrusion force and speed,
the choice of alloy, the shape of the profile, desired surface finish and tolerance
specifications.
5
4.5
4
3.5
Min. wall thickness
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Version 1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Circumscribing circle, mm
6082 hollow profiles

6005A/6063F25 hollow profiles and 6082 solid profiles
6060/6063 hollow profiles and 6005A/6063F25 solid profiles
6060/6063 solid profiles
30
9.1 Uniform wall thickness 9.2 Soft lines
It is often acceptable However, a profile Extrusion cannot Corners should be

to have a large with uniform wall achieve razor-sharp rounded. A radius of
range of wall thickness is easier corners. 0.5 – 1 mm is often
thicknesses within to extrude. sufficient.
a single profile.
A design may This is easily

sometimes demand solved by incorporating
sharp internal angles, a hollow moulding.
e.g. a profile to
Here, the profile’s It is an advantage enclose a box shape.
internal and external if internal and
walls have different external walls are of
dimensions. the same thickness.
This decreases die
stress and improves
productivity.
9.1.1 Exceptions As far as possible, Tips should, therefore,

sharp tips should be also be rounded.
avoided. The tip can
easily become wavy
and uneven.
It is, of course,
perfectly acceptable Following
for a profile to have extrusion, a Always use
walls of different profile with soft lines!
thicknesses. For large variations
example, for strength in wall thickness
reasons, it may be cools unevenly.
best to concentrate This gives rise
weight/thickness to a visible
away from the structural
centre of gravity. unevenness
that is
particularly
marked after
anodising.
31
9.3 Solid profiles if possible 9.5 Profiles with deep channels
For profiles with pockets

or channels, there is a
basic rule that the width
to height ratio should be
approximately 1:3.
This ensures that the
strength of the die is
not jeopardised.
Solid profiles reduce die
costs and are often easier
to produce.
9.4 Fewer cavities in

hollow profiles By using large radii at the
opening of the channel,
and a full radius at the
bottom, the ratio can be
increased to 1:4.
NB! Where channel width is under 2 mm, or where a profile’s

design is complex, permissible channel depth must be
determined on a case-by-case basis.
This hollow profile is By replacing the hollow

extremely complex to profile on the left with two
produce. telescoping profiles, the
product is considerably
easier to produce.
Is it essential In many cases, reducing

for this profile the number of cavities It may be possible to Here, a holder has to enclose
to have two in a hollow profile makes increase radii and a slide. Redesigning the holder
cavities? it easier to extrude. This opening dimensions on the left gives a more
increases die stability. without compromising extrusion-friendly profile and
functionality. improved functionality.
32
9.6 Heat sinks

The use of cooling fins on profiles greatly
increases the heat dissipating area. This can
A profile can be
extruded “open”...
be further increased by giving the fins a wavy
surface.
Where there is forced air-cooling
longitudinally along the profile, it is better to
leave the fins smooth. This helps to avoid the
problem of eddy formation.
... and then rolled to
its final shape.
Waviness here
increases the
area by 10 – 15%.
An undulating surface increases the heat
dissipation area of fins.
The solution above gives a narrow, deep channel

and an extrusion-friendly profile.
Reduced channel depth using a step. The step is This profile exemplifies technical development at Sapa:
removed during rolling. A large profile with deep channels – yet tight tolerances
are respected and there is a high quality surface finish.
33
9.7 Decorate! Masking of imperfections

Decoration has several advantages:
– Design
– Masking of imperfections
– Protection against damage during handling
and machining.
Design advantages
Where a profile has, Using decoration, the

for example, arms and heat zones can be
screw ports, there may completely masked.
be process induced
shadowing (heat zones)
opposite such features.
Protection against damage
A decorative pattern can make a plain aluminium surface

more attractive.
The consistent use of a pattern on all a product’s
component profiles can help make it uniquely identifiable.
There are endless possibilities for creating unique designs.
A joint can be elegantly hidden by making it part of a Well designed decoration can also protect profiles from
fluted design. handling and machining damage.
34
10.1 JOINTING – SCREW PORTS
10. Jointing
10.1 Screw ports
60°
The screw port can be threaded in the normal way for Here, a component is being fitted by screwing through a port
machine screws. at right angles to the profile. In such cases, the port should
have a shoulder (see illustration).
Most commonly, screw ports are used directly for self-

tapping screws. In these cases, the screw ports will
have projections to centre the screws.
Port diameters for self-tapping screws

Closed screw ports: Where the design requires a more robust
Screw Port Wall thick- Screw head screw (e.g. M8), the screw port can be closed. The port is to be
no. diam. D ness t, min. 1) clearance dimensioned for thread cutting or for self-tapping metric screws.
ST 3.5 (B6) 3.1 ± 0.15 1.5 4.2
ST 4.2 (B8) 3.8 ± 0.15 1.5 5.0
ST 4.8 (B10) 4.2 ± 0.2 1.5 5.8
ST 5.5 (B12) 4.9 ± 0.2 2.0 6.6
ST 6.3 (B14) 5.6 ± 0.2 2.0 7.4
1)
For further information on wall thickness, refer to
chapter 19.
Placing screw ports at corners saves material. To ensure

that the screw head does not protrude beyond the contours
of the profile at outer corners, pay special attention to screw
head diameter.
35
10.1 JOINTING – SCREW PORTS
A screw port along the length of a profile facilitates “stepless

fastening”, i.e. screw joints can be made at any point along
the profile. Suitable dimensions are given in the table below.
Solutions with special screws that fill the screw head

clearance hole are common in, for example, the furniture
industry.
Screw port dimensions

– screws at 90° to the profile
Screw Channel width
no. w
ST 3.5 (B6) 2.6
ST 4.2 (B8) 3.1
ST 4.8 (B10) 3.6
ST 5.5 (B12) 4.2
ST 6.3 (B14) 4.7
One way of avoiding step drilling and visible holes is to
replace the hollow profile with two snap-fit profiles.
This solution is often used in handrails.
Upper joint: A hollow profile joined to another profile via a

screw port. To avoid unwanted flexing in the joint, the screw
is driven directly through the bottom of the hollow profile.
A single screw is sufficient – the hollow profile’s flanges
stabilise the design. After step drilling, the hole through which
the screw is introduced can be hidden using a plastic plug. This placement of the
Lower joint: The same solution, but without a hollow profile. screw ports increases
The U-profile has tracks for the insertion of, for example, a bending strength.
metal or foil laminate strip.
36
10.2 JOINTING – NUTS AND BOLTS
10.2 Tracks for

nuts or bolt heads
Continuous tracks enable stepless fastening with

no need to machine the profile. Dimensions for various
nuts and bolt heads are given below.
W
Using special nuts/bolts, fastening can take place without
having to slide the nut/bolt in from the end of the track.
There are no accepted standards, but various solutions are
G available from screw and fastener manufacturers.
Dimensions – nut/bolt tracks

Size Width, W Width, W Height, Gap,
(ISO) (DIN) H G
M4 7.3 ± 0.15 4.0 4.4

M5 8.3 ± 0.15 5.5 5.4
M6 10.3 ± 0.2 6.0 6.4
M8 13.4 ± 0.2 8.0 8.5
M10 16.5 ± 0.3 17.5 ± 0.3 9.5 10.7
M12 18.5 ± 0.3 19.5 ± 0.3 12.0 12.7
If a set c/c distance between the bolt holes is required,
M14 21.7 ± 0.4 22.7 ± 0.4 14.0 15.0 a flat bar with precut threads can be put in the track.
M16 24.7 ± 0.4 16.0 17.0
If a standard bolt is too long, it is not always necessary

to find a shorter bolt. The track for the nut can easily be The profile can be stamped to fix fasteners longitudinally
designed/extruded as shown above. in position.
37
10.3 JOINTING – SNAP-FIT JOINTS
10.3 Snap-fit joints

Aluminium’s elasticity is highly suited to snap-fit
joints. These give far quicker assembly than,
for example, screw or welded joints.
Snap-fit joints are widely used in a range of
industries.
If a design cannot accommodate hooking arms of sufficient

length, the sprung part of the profile should be replaced
by plastic clips or similar. The same applies if the joint is to
be repeatedly opened. Aluminium’s fatigue properties do not
permit frequent changes in loading.
In openable snap-fit joints, the hook angle isA=45°.

In permanent snap-fit joints, the hook angle isA= 0°
(or negative).
The length of the snap-fit joint has an effect on design.
If a snap-fitting is difficult to assemble/disassemble,

punching a section out of the hooking arm may be
the solution.
A permanent snap-fit joint.
Dimensions and tolerances must be decided

on a case-by-case basis.
The length of the hooking arm should
not be under 15 mm. In some cases, long
hooking arms may have to be extruded Amongst other factors, the design of the joint is determined
pre-stressed. This can eliminate the need for by whether or not it is to be openable. This joint can be
special tolerances. opened using, for example, a screwdriver in the outer track.
38
10.4 JOINTING – PROFILE TO PROFILE
10.4 Jointing – profile to profile

10.4.1 Longitudinal jointing
Examples of snap-fit joints.

Joining with a standard
flat bar.
B
Reinforcement to avoid
Plate A has a punched, rectangular hole. Mounting deformation of visible
profile B is pushed into the hole until a snap-fit joint is surface areas.
formed. Lamella profile C is then pushed into profile B
to form another snap-fit joint. Exploiting the space under
the plate makes it possible to have sufficiently long
hooking arms.
The hinge profile A

(cut from a longer
profile) forms a
snap-fit joint with
main profile B. B
c
d Joining with a fluted,

sprung profile in
purpose-designed
Punched hole c also provides longitudinal locking. channels.
Sufficient spring is generated in the hooking arm by
springing the main profile at d.
39
Torsionally stiff
tube joint with
wall reinforcement
to accommodate
a thread.
Longitudinal joining via asymmetrically located screw ports

and a pre-drilled spacer. The profiles are turned so that
the screws do not foul each other.
A sprung inner section that compresses to allow

assembly. For easy entry, the inner profile (A) is bevelled
and cut parallel to the main profiles. Tolerances are not
critical in this solution. The result is a play-free joint.
Longitudinal joining via longitudinal screw joints.

A gap slightly longer than the length of the screw is
milled in the screw port.
Anchoring joined profiles by welding – the illustration shows Longitudinal jointing using the spring and friction in
solutions with a solid profile and a hollow profile respectively. a snap-fit design.
40
10.4.2 Telescoping
Height adjustment where the outer profile has a fixed

thread (blind rivet nut) and the bolt clamps the inner profile
in position.
To ensure smooth and silent operation, plastic components

are often used in telescoping designs. This design
features stepless height adjustment using a nut (a
threaded flat bar could also be used) that runs freely in
its track. Tightening the fasteners locks the height and
removes any play in the joint.
Telescope solution with stepless clamping.
Telescope solution with spring locking.

Height adjustment where the inner profile has a fixed
thread (blind rivet nut) and the outer profile has a
punched or extruded channel.
41
10.4.3 Latitudinal jointing

Sapa can extrude wide profiles with tight tolerances. Larger
cross-sectional areas can be economically created by joining
a number of profiles together. This solution is often chosen
because it is easier to machine smaller profiles individually
rather than a single construction as a whole.
Where a play-free joint is essential (e.g. a single leg stand),

plastic gauge blocks are used.
Mechanical joints, adhesive bonding, fusion welding

and, as illustrated above, Friction Stir Welding, can all be
used for latitudinal jointing.
Adhesive bonding is examined in chapter 10.8, fusion
welding in 10.9 and FSW in 10.10.
The examples below are of mechanical joints.
Plastic is often an excellent solution where components

have to be able to slide. A plastic profile can be a part of
a telescoping assembly.
Plastic wheels used as part of the fastening in the Using a flat bar, bracket or similar to join profiles together
outer profile serve as spacers and give smooth, play-free gives good flatness.
telescoping.
42
Latitudinal jointing using screw ports.
Latitudinal jointing with a clamp.
Locking using a splined dowel pin.
Latitudinal jointing with a snap-fit.
Locking using a tubular spring pin.
Latitudinal jointing with a snap-fit.
43
10.4.4 Hinges
Jointing using an end plate that holds the sections

together.
A simple hinge – the ball’s diameter should never be
less than 5 mm.
If the hinge has a screw port, it can be easily locked

longitudinally using plastic inserts and self-tapping
screws.
Jointing by stamping (creates visible deformations).
Latitudinal jointing using dovetail tracks. Note the

shape – to achieve acceptable precision, sharp-tipped A hinge with approximately 110 degrees opening.
corners must be avoided.
44
Up to approx. 270 degrees opening using three profiles.
Two profiles with 180 degrees opening.
Self-locking with approx. 180 degrees opening.

Complex hinging for securing lorry tarpaulins. The hinge
is made from three profiles joined together.
Chamfering the ball enables hinge disassembly as Both parts of this hinge are made from a single profile.
shown above.
45
Three-part hinge made from a single profile.
A longitudinally adjustable hinge.
Two-part hinge made from a single profile and with

identical machining.
Hinges can be made from other materials than aluminium.

The illustration shows a solution where a plastic or rubber
profile can be used.
A pin in each end gives wide opening and a cost-efficient

solution.
46
10.4.5 T-joints
To avoid flexing in the joint, the screws are driven directly

through the inner wall. The outer clearance holes are plugged
with standard plastic caps.
A simple T-joint using screw ports.
Fitting to a wall or another profile: The end fastener is cut

A strong joint with flanges to take up torsional stress. from a longer profile and secured with screws.
Joining of a round tube and a transverse profile: The

transverse tube comprises two profiles held together by
a snap-fit joint. This fastening avoids troublesome mating
Screw ports used to join tubular and rectangular profiles. of the contours.
47
The Sapa tie, stocked by Sapa, is a simple and stable In the furniture and interior decoration industry, special
solution for T and corner jointing of square tubes. fasteners are used where joints must be easy to take apart.
The fasteners often run in a nut track and there is thus a
stepless fit with the mounting profile.
Examples of other special fasteners.
Expansion locking using

a wedge shape.
A simple T-joint using nut tracks, right-angled brackets

and bolts.
Expansion locking using

splined pins.
48
10.4.6 Corner joints

Channel for
stamping
Screw
ports
There are various types of brackets that are extremely

suitable for corner joints where the strength and rigidity
requirements are high. The brackets are usually cut from
long aluminium profiles.
Brackets are usually designed to allow several fitting
methods. The corner bracket above has both screw ports
(for side screws) and channels for stamping. Fitting method
can then be chosen to suit equipment, series size, etc.
In picture frames and other light constructions, the corner
joint comprises two flat right-angled brackets, one of them
with threaded holes.
Stamping
tool (punch)
This corner joint for square tubes uses self-tapping screws

in the transverse screw ports.
A special machine or an excentric press is used in

the stamping method of connecting profiles. The
method is particularly common in long production runs.
Cast metal and plastic ties are a solution that is especially

common in long runs and where jointing has to be provided
in more than two directions. Various ties are available in
standard formats.
49
Tie using sprung steel clips. A simple corner joint using a relatively easily machined
standard profile and a special profile cut at 90 degrees.
Ties are often rectangular. The main profile’s contours

are, of course, immaterial as long as there is an inner, This stable corner joint, which has precise angles and
rectangular chamber. good design, involves relatively easy machining only.
The flanges of the corner profile are bolted to the insides

of the frame profiles. The frame profiles need only be cut
A torsionally rigid joint using a single screw. As shown, at 90 degrees to ensure a snug fit. Where corners are
one of the profiles has flanges. This type of corner joint is visible, a large radius (as shown by the broken line) gives an
used in, amongst other things, TV stands. attractively rounded design.
50
A corner joint that can be used in, for example, a table.

The plate and joint combination represents a very stable
solution.
These frame profiles have screw ports and, to give a

snug fit, need only be cut at 90 degrees when used
with the corner profile shown in the illustration. The
flanges of the corner profile create channels for the fitting
of an outer profile (free choice of radius). Plastic caps are Reinforcement
used to cover the ends.
A U-section with a punched or sawn cut. The saw cut

should go down into the base of the profile. This can then
be folded to give a frame with slightly rounded corners. Corner joint using pre-mounted bolts in two of the profiles.
The frame is locked using a joint on either a long or a The bolts are tightened from above using a special tool.
short side.
51
10.5 JOINTING WITH OTHER MATERIALS
10.5 Jointing with

other materials
Glass and metal plates, etc. can be locked in place using

Printed circuit boards, metal sheets and other plates can be a sprung, special plastic profile (the yellow profile).
fitted in channels in the profile. A small deformation (catch)
in the plate or the channel ensures good locking.
A snap-fit joint can be used with formed plates.
Protrusions punched into the profile/plate ensure radial

locking.
A standard method of glazing windows and doors: Rubber

Rattle-free locking through having the profile’s arms profiles, which form snap-fits with the aluminium profiles, act
actively grip the plate/sheet. as spacers for the glass. This method can also be used for
other plates.
52
10.5 JOINTING WITH OTHER MATERIALS
The “Christmas tree model” is a simple solution when

jointing with wood.
Short snap-fit brackets can be screwed/nailed

into wood strips.
A snap-fit using a track in the wooden board.
A snap-fit joint between aluminium and plastic profiles.
To deal with high local surface loads and reduce wear

Special screws with “snap-fit heads” can be used when (e.g. from a rolling steel wheel), a steel strip can be inserted
jointing with wood or metal plates. in profiles.
53
10.6 JOINTING – RIVETING
10.6 Riveting
Press nuts: These are fitted from the back using, for example,
an excentric press.
Examples of blind rivet nuts and press nuts.
In a long profile, it is
often uneconomic to Sliding pop riveting in a longitudinal profile channel.
build in extra thickness
simply to provide
longer threads.
Using blind rivet nuts

or press nuts, all that is
required is a hole.
The blind rivet nut is

fitted from the outside
using a special rivet gun. Pop riveting at the end of a screw port.
54
10.7 JOINTING – END CAPS
10.7 End caps

End caps are manufactured in many different
ways and from many different materials. They
are screwed, pressed, bonded, snapped or
welded in place.
Self-punching rivets countersink and join in a single

operation.
Screws and screw ports are the most common method of

securing metal or plastic end caps to box profiles.
If the end cap and the profile have the same nominal outer
dimensions, any departures from tolerance specifications
Riveting without rivets: This method, which is highly are clearly visible. The places where metal has been cut
suitable for long runs, can join different materials of become particularly prominent if the profile is surface treated.
different wall thicknesses. A crimping press is used. One solution is to make the end cap slightly bigger
than the main profile.
55
10.7 JOINTING – END CAPS
An end cap with sprung arms – the cap is removable.
If the main profile is long, it is more cost-efficient not to have

screw ports in this but in a purpose-designed end cap.
Slight displacement of the holes in the main profile
(relative to the screw ports) ensures that a force is set up
pulling the end cap into the main profile.
This plastic end cap is held in

place by stamped catches in the profile.
Cast metal or plastic end caps are suitable for long runs
where the shape of the main profile is complex or where a
highly rounded end cap is required.
This end cap wedges into the main profile. There is a strong
press-fit between the end cap’s arms and the channels
in the main profile.
Two end caps can be held together using long screws or draw
bars. Screw ports with adequate clearance are a suitable way
Channels in the main profile for the fitting of an end cap of guiding the screws. The result is one end cap with no
with a sprung arm. visible screws. This is a good solution in, for example, fascias.
56
10.8 JOINTING – ADHESIVE BONDING
10.8 Adhesive bonding

After steel, aluminium is the metal that is most frequently bonded. Though, for
example, far more cars are produced than aeroplanes, the adhesive bonding of
aluminium in the aero-industry has attracted the most detailed research.
Aeroplanes have used bonded joints since the mid 40’s. Nowadays, the bonding
of aluminium is even used for load-bearing components in aircraft.
Of course, there are many more down-to-earth examples of the use of bonded
aluminium joints. Volvo’s roof rack rail is just one of these.
Many different adhesives, pre-treatments and bonding methods have been

developed. Selecting the right one is not always easy. Nor is it risk-free to simply
start bonding without adequate information.
Essential knowledge
The intermolecular forces that determine whether bonding is possible exert their
pull over a maximum range of 0.5 nm (one half of a millionth of a millimetre).
If the surface is contaminated or is made up of low strength oxides exceeding For good and
this critical “thickness”, there will be no attraction between the adhesive and the consistent
aluminium profile. bonds, the joint
For good and consistent bonds, the joint surface must be known, reproducible surface must
and clean. be known,
The adhesive must wet the entire surface that is to be bonded. To do this, it reproducible
has to have a lower surface tension than the material being bonded. Otherwise,
and clean.
the adhesive will form droplets rather than spread evenly over the surface.
All adhesives wet aluminium. To bond aluminium to another material, the
adhesive must be able to wet this material too. If the other material is a plastic,
it can sometimes be difficult to find an adhesive with a lower surface tension.
57
Traditional tongue and groove.
Tongue and groove with a channel into which the “locking hook”
can be hammered or rolled.
A variant of the “adhesive trap” and “locking hook” method.
Joint design
Adhesive bonding involves the formation of a plastic or rubber load-carrying
Adhesives element. The material in the cured adhesive bond is not as strong as the aluminium.
This can be compensated for by designing profile solutions that provide large contact
cope best
surfaces.
with shearing Aluminium profiles can be easily worked into a wide range of shapes. Where
forces. tongue and groove type bonded joints are a possibility, they may be the best solution.
The illustrations above give some ideas and guidance on joint design.
Adhesives cope best with shearing forces. Joints subjected to tensional forces are
often unsuitable for high loads. Peeling and cleaving forces concentrate stress on a
small part of the joint and should be avoided whenever possible.
58
Choice of adhesive
Bonded joints distribute stress relatively well. However, very rarely is stress evenly
distributed across the entire surface area of a bonded joint. As a rule, stress is
greatest at the edges of the joint.
The stiffer the chosen adhesive, the greater the concentration of any subsequent
stress. This leads to (sometimes unnecessarily) high stress on the adhesive and the
surface that has been bonded to.
Thus, never choose an adhesive that is stiffer than necessary. Thicker bonded
joints also reduce the concentration of stress at the edges of the joint.
The choice of adhesive is determined by the way in which the adhesive works and
what is required of the bonded joint (filling/sealing, heat resistance, toughness, etc.).
To be able to mould itself to the surface structure of the profile, the adhesive
must have good liquid properties. It must also harden into a material that can transfer
stress in the environment where it is used. Furthermore, it is important that the
adhesive has time to mould itself to the surface’s micro-profile. Fast setting,
high-viscosity adhesives rarely permit this. In such cases, it may be advisable to Stress distribution in a
first apply a low-viscosity primer. simple overlap joint as
The change from liquid to solid is effected in three different ways. seen using tension
spectrometry.
Drying Cooling Curing by
Solvent The adhesive – Mixing
or water is liquid when – Heating
vaporisation. it is hot. – Exposure to moisture
– Illumination (UV or blue light) Never a stiffer
– In the absence of oxygen
– Contact between adhesive adhesive than
and hardener (without is necessary.
preliminary mixing).
Drying
Solvents and water vaporise. Thus, adhesives containing solvents or water are
unsuitable where:
– gap filling is required Strength data
– both the materials are unable to let the solvent escape.
for a structural
Double-sided PSA tape should be regarded as a drying adhesive that never dries.
The material forming the joint is the same as that in the roll. However, if the stress PSA tape:
is low, double-sided structural PSA tape may prove suitable for joining aluminium Creep strength:
profiles together. 0.1 N/mm2
(100 kg/dm2)
Double-sided PSA structural tapes formed entirely of the adhesive substance
1 week at 22°C.
itself are available in thicknesses from 0.1 to 6 mm.
There are also double-sided PSA tapes that can be heat cured. The tape holds Peel strength:
90°: 2 N/mm
the components even during curing – other forms of clamping are unnecessary.
(at 22°C).
Testing of a simple overlap joint has shown a strength after curing of around
10 N/mm2.
Cooling
Some thermoplastic adhesives have good plasticity when hot. Hot-melt adhesives
are the most widely used. However, the thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives usually
set too quickly on aluminium. This results in poor contact with the aluminium
surface. Hot-melt adhesives also have very low creep and heat strengths. Many
thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives become brittle in cold environments.
Moisture-curing hot-melts are applied at lower temperatures and, compared to
thermoplastic hot-melts, have excellent properties after curing. They are used for,
amongst other things, applying foil coatings to aluminium profiles.
59
Heat-reactivated adhesive is also used when coating aluminium profiles with

foil. An adhesive solution or a water-based adhesive is applied to the material and
left to dry completely. In the bonding process, so that it wets the opposite surface,
the adhesive is heated.
Moisture-curing hot melts and heat-reactivated adhesives can both give strong,
durable bonds.
Curing
Curing adhesives make up the large group of structural adhesives. They cure (often
with negligible contraction) in one of the following ways:
Curing by mixing of the components

Typical of this group are the epoxy and polyurethane adhesives. They have very
good gap filling properties. In principle, they can be cast. Modified acrylic adhesives
are now also becoming more common.
There are both stiff and elastic, 2-component, epoxy and polyurethane based
adhesives. Epoxy adhesives with an elongation at fracture of up to 120% are
now available. Elastic epoxy adhesives normally give a bond that is relatively
heat-sensitive.
Using epoxy adhesives, higher strength bonds and improved durability are
achieved by curing at elevated temperatures. The curing times are also
considerably reduced – the curing time halves for each 10°C rise in temperature.
Two-component polyurethane elastomers give “rubber-like” joints that remain
elastic even at low minus temperatures (°C).
There are also 2-component silicon adhesives that cure relatively quickly at
room temperature.
Curing by contact between hardener and adhesive

(adhesive on one surface – hardener on the other)
These types of adhesives are usually referred to as SGA adhesives. They have
excellent peel and impact strengths, but are not particularly suitable where a
gap filling adhesive is required. These adhesives have been largely replaced by
modified acrylic adhesives, which are mixed direct from their packaging and can
be used to form thick joints.
Acrylic adhesives of this type that adhere to untreated polyolefines (e.g. PE
and PP) are now also available.
Curing by heating
Here, the most common adhesives are the 1-component epoxies. These require
heat curing at a minimum of 100°C. With induction heating of aluminium profiles,
curing times of approx. 60 seconds are possible.
The aero-industry makes extensive use of heat-hardening adhesive films.
These require at least 30 minutes to harden at a minimum of 125°C.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can be heat cured at 70°C – 90°C
(in 10 – 30 minutes).
60
Curing by contact with moisture

Cyanoacrylate adhesives harden very quickly in contact with moisture. A bond
between two aluminium surfaces takes longer to harden than a bond between
aluminium and plastic or rubber materials.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives are best suited for small joint surfaces and thin bonds.
Normally, they have low peel and impact strengths. However, there are “rubber-filled”
(black) cyanoacrylate adhesives with good peel and impact properties. Colourless,
elastic cyanoacrylates are also available, but these are not particularly suitable as
structural adhesives for metal.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives may be suitable where, for example, a plastic is to be
bonded to an aluminium profile.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can also be cured by the humidity
of the air. This type of adhesive is used in, for example, the bonding of car windows
and, on a large scale, for aluminium profiles in container and vehicle body
manufacturing. Curing is comparatively slow (hours) and dependant on relative air
humidity and joint geometry.
Heat-curing polyurethane elastomers have been mentioned above. There
are also polyurethane elastomers that harden both with moisture and heat.
Two-component type polyurethane elastomer adhesives are also available.
As an alternative to polyurethane elastomers, there are the so-called
MS polymers. These also harden with moisture. Two-component MS polymers
are primarily chosen for work environment considerations.
Curing in UV light
There have long been 1-component acrylate adhesives that cure in tenths of
a second when exposed to UV light (wavelength approx. 350 nm) or blue light
(wavelength > 400 nm). Acrylate adhesives are often limpid and very suitable for
bonds between aluminium profiles and glass (most of them perform less well with
transparent plastics).
Epoxy adhesives that harden in UV light have also been developed. There are
many types of these - limpid, filled, low-viscosity, hard, elastic, etc. Some of these
adhesives can be irradiated prior to bonding and will then cure relatively quickly.
Curing in the absence of oxygen

Such adhesives cure on contact with active metal ions. They are normally referred
to as anaerobic adhesives (or “locking fluids”). They are not particularly suitable for
aluminium. Aluminium surfaces should be regarded as passive. An activator has to
be used in such cases. This gives a lower strength bond.
Variants of these adhesives that do harden without an activator on aluminium
surfaces are now available.
Temperature limits
With many adhesives, the practical maximum temperature at which stressed bonded
joints can be used is between 60 and 80°C. The highest heat-resistance (approx.
150 – 250°C) is achieved with heat-curing adhesives and heat-curing adhesive
films. However, silicon adhesives can give heat-resistance of around 250°C without
heat curing.
61
Long-term strength
Bonds to aluminium are as strong and durable as the aluminium oxides with
which the bond is formed. Aluminium that has had no surface treatment has
a large percentage of magnesium in its surface. Aluminium surfaces should
normally always be treated in some way.
Used in a dry environment, an untreated aluminium profile can give an
excellent bond. The same bond outdoors in a coastal climate may have a far
shorter life.
Aluminium surface at Bond lifetime depends on the synergistic effects of stress, temperature and
x 25,000 magnification environment.
(the red bar is 1 μm).
Normally, the problem is not the degradation of the adhesive or the failure
of adhesion, but the effects of changes in the underlying aluminium.
Any good microscope will show that there are no completely flat or even
surfaces. Highly viscous (slow flowing) and fast setting adhesives will, therefore,
most probably only come into limited contact with the surface. This results in a
bond with in-built weak points (air pockets) where the adhesive’s properties are
not being exploited. In humid environments, this air will eventually be replaced
by water. Where the water is salty, the need for surface treatment is even greater.
Aluminium’s durability can be improved by, for example, anodising.
Basic principles for long-lasting bonds

The basic principles for long-lasting bonds are well filled joints and resistant oxides.
A large number of pre-treatment processes have been developed for aluminium.
Some of the most common (and some of the more unusual) are presented here.
Choice is determined by the environment where the aluminium is to be used, likely
stresses and costs.
Full details of the processes and any risks to the work environment should,
of course, be obtained before starting any form of treatment.
The main purpose of priming prior to the bonding of aluminium is to fill (seal)
the surface when high-viscosity and/or fast setting adhesives are to be used.
Priming becomes more important where the aluminium is to be used in a
corrosive environment and no surface treatment that improves corrosion resistance
(e.g. anodising) is contemplated. Primer also “impregnates” and strengthens
porous oxides, e.g. after chromating.
Requirement specification
It is advisable to draw up a requirement specification for the properties of the
final bond and the use-related aspects of the adhesive. This helps crystallise the
demands really being placed on the adhesive. It also makes it easier to specify
exactly what is required to the adhesive manufacturer.
62
Pre-treatment operations in bonding
Process Result Use (max.)
Cleaning/ Minimum requirement for For moderately stressed joints

degreasing ensuring a clean and defined in dry surroundings.
bonding surface.
Fine grinding/ Removes weak surface layers Highly stressed joints in dry
blast cleaning e.g. oxides. Safer than environments. Unstressed
degreasing. joints in fresh water.
Alkaline Removes weak surface layers Highly stressed joints in dry

pickling e.g. oxides. Safer than environments. Unstressed
degreasing. joints in fresh water.
Boiling water for Gives resistant, but moderately Lightly stressed joints using
5 – 10 min. strong oxides. flexible adhesives in humid,
after pickling corrosive environments.
Phosphating/ Corrosion resistant, but weak, Lightly stressed joints using elastic
chromating porous oxides. or very low-viscosity adhesives in
corrosive environments.
Hydrochloric acid Quick, can impart a dark-colouring Moderately stressed joints, even
at 20°C for to the aluminium surface. in corrosive surroundings. Relatively
30 seconds uncommon process.
Etching in Thin, strong oxides. Long used Highly stressed joints outdoors.
chrome/ in the American aero-industry. However, cannot withstand strongly
sulphuric acid corrosive environments.
Anodising in Thick very resistant oxide. Lightly stressed joints in corrosive

sulphuric acid environments. Best with elastic
adhesives.
Anodising in Medium-thick, strong oxide. Highly stressed joints, even in

chromic acid Used in the European aero-industry corrosive environments.
since the 40’s.
Anodising in Porous, very resistant oxide. Is used Optimum pre-treatment for highly
phosphoric acid together with low-viscosity primer. stressed joints in corrosive
environments.
Literature
Limning av aluminium, Sapa Technology – 2001. Readily available publication on aluminium bonding. Includes
examples of adhesives and bonded joints (28 pages). In Swedish.
Limhandboken, Casco Nobel, Helsingborg – 1991, ISBN 91-630 0608-1. Easy-to-read introduction to bonding
(108 pages). In Swedish.
Industrial Adhesives Handbook, Casco Nobel, Helsingborg – 1992, ISBN 91-630 1007-0. Easy-to-read introduc-
tion to bonding (108 pages).
Adhesion in Bonded Aluminium Joints for Aircraft Construction, W. Brockman, O-D Henneman, H. Kollek and C.
Matz, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, volume 6, no. 3, July 1986. Discusses the phenomena
associated with stressed bonds to aluminium in corrosive environments (28 pages).
Handbook of Aluminium Technology and Data, J. Dean Minford, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, Basel, Hong
Kong, ISBN 0-8247 8817-6. Collated findings and data on aluminium bonding. Contents include 4,686 references
(744 pages).
Härdplaster, AFS 1996:4, Arbetarskyddsstyrelsens Författningssamling, Publication service, Solna. Regulates the
use of hardening plastics and adhesives in Sweden (78 pages). In Swedish.
63
10.9 JOINTING – FUSION WELDING
10.9 Fusion welding

Aluminium is eminently suitable for welding. Although many welding methods
are possible with aluminium, only a few are used in practice.
Refinements in welding machines, equipment and materials have resulted
in welding acquiring increasing importance as a jointing method.
Oxide formation
When welding aluminium, the metal’s reaction with oxygen, and the oxide rapidly
generated therein, have to be taken into account. The oxide is strong, has a high
melting point (approx. 2,050°C) and can easily cause welding defects. The oxide
is heavier than the weld pool and may form inclusions. Thus, before all welding
of aluminium, it is important to remove oxides from the joint surfaces. This may
suitably be done using a stainless steel wire brush.
Thoroughly cleaned, oxide-free joint surfaces are a basic requirement for
faultless welded joints.
Weld porosity formation

The risk of void formation must also be taken into account. The hydrogen
contained in moisture and contaminants on or in the welding materials, work
piece or air is highly soluble in molten aluminium. It loses this solubility almost
completely when the metal solidifies. As the weld pool sets, the hydrogen forms
bubbles that may become trapped and form voids.
Most aluminium alloys can be welded
Highly Sapa Chemical Swedish

weldable designation standard
alloys EN-AW SS-EN-AW
All types of unalloyed
aluminium, e.g. 1050A Al99.5(A) 1050A
Most of the non-hardenable – AlMn1 3103

alloys, e.g. AlMg2.5 5052
AlMg4.5Mn0.7 5083
Certain hardenable 6063 AlMg0.7Si 6063

Most alloys, e.g. 6063A AlMg0.7Si(A) 6063A
6005 AlSiMg 6005
aluminium 6005A AlSiMg(A) 6005A
alloys can 6082 AlSi1MgMn 6082
be welded. 7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5 7021
6101 AlMgSi 6101
64
Methods
Nowadays, gas arc welding methods, MIG and TIG in particular, dominate.
Argon (Ar) and helium (He) are used as the shielding gases in the MIG and
TIG welding of aluminium. Argon and helium are inert gases and do not, therefore,
form chemical compounds with other substances.
Where there is a high penetration requirement, e.g. in a fillet weld or when
welding very thick work pieces, an argon-helium mixture can be used in MIG
welding. The economic threshold for using mixed gases is a material thickness
of 10 – 12 mm.
As welds in aluminium are prone to the formation of oxide inclusions and
voids, the shielding gas must also meet certain purity requirements. The minimum
requirement is 99.5% argon or helium.
Besides playing a part in the electrical processes in the arc, the gas also has
the jobs of protecting the electrode and the weld pool from oxidation and of
cooling the electrode.
MIG welding
As a rule, MIG welding is used for material thicknesses from 1 mm upwards. In
special cases, thicknesses under 1 mm can be welded using a pulsed MIG arc. MIG:
Filler metal is added in the form of a wire fed through the welding torch. From 1 mm
MIG welding can be performed in any position and for all joint types. upwards.
A higher current density than in TIG welding gives higher welding speeds.
The high welding speed has a positive effect on distortion and shrinkage
(narrower heat-affected zone).
TIG welding
TIG welding is suitable for material thicknesses down to under 1 mm. In practice,
TIG:
there is an upper limit of around 10 mm, but edge preparation is then necessary.
Filler metal is normally used and is introduced from the side. Materials under
TIG welding can be performed in any position and, when performed correctly, 1 mm thick.
gives the most fault-free welds.
The welding speed is relatively high, and even higher in mechanical TIG
welding.
TIG welding can be recommended where the gap width varies.
Robot welding
Robotised MIG welding can be used with advantage in long production runs.
This method noticeably increases productivity and is also advantageous from
a work environment point of view.
The position of the work piece is easy to control. This facilitates welding from
the optimum position and gives good results.
Certain problems may arise with very thin materials and uneven gap widths.
65
Welding economy
Measured on cost per length, MIG welding is normally cheaper than TIG welding.
Equipment costs are identical.
Filler metals
The table below gives recommendations for appropriate filler metals. AIMg5
generally gives the greatest strength. AISi5 is more stable as regards cracking and
easier to use when welding hardenable alloys.
If the welded assembly is to be anodised, Si alloyed filler metals cannot be
used. When anodising, the silicon is precipitated and imparts a dark grey, almost
black, colour.
In order not to compromise weld quality, filler metals should be stored so that
the risk of oxidation and the formation of other coatings is avoided.
Parent metal A
Swedish
standard Chemical
Sapa
SS-EN- designation Recommendations for
EN-AW
AW choice of filler metals
1090 Al99.90 Al99.8 Where several filler metals are listed
1080A Al99.8(A)
1070A Al99.7(A)
in the same box, any of them can be
used for all the alloys in question.
1050A 1050A Al99.5(A) Al99.5 Al99.5
1200 Al99.0 Al99.5Ti Al99.5Ti
3103 AlMn1 Al99.5Ti Al99.5Ti AlMn1
AlMn1 AlMn1 AlSi5
5005 AlMg1(B) AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg3
5251 AlMg2 AlMg5
5052 AlMg2.5
5754 AlMg3
5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg52) AlMg5 AlMg5
AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn
6060 6060 AlMgSi AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMg3 AlMg5 AlSi51)
6063 6063 AlMg0.7Si AlMg51) AlMg4.5Mn AlMg3
6063A 6063A AlMg0.7Si(A) AlMg5
6005 6005 AlSiMg
6005A 6005A AlSiMg(A)
6082 6082 AlSi1MgMn
7021 7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn AlMg4.5Mn
AlMg5 AlMg5 AlSi5 AlMg5
AlMg5
AlMg4.5Mn0.7
AlZn5.5Mg1.5
AlMg0.7Si(A)
AlSi1MgMn
AlSiMg(A)
AlMg0.7S
AlMg1(B)
1080A Al99.8(A)
1050A 1050A Al99.5(A)

1070A Al99.7(A)
AlMg2.5
Al99.90
Chemical
AlMgSi
AlSiMg
AlMg2
AlMg3
AlMn1
Al99.0
designation
Parent EN-AW
metal B
6063A
6005A
Swedish standard
5005
5052
5083
6060
6063
6005
6082
1090
1200
5251
7021
3103
5754
SS-EN-AW
6063A
6005A
6060
6063
6005
6082
7021
Sapa
1) Unsuitable where there is 2) Less suitable material combinations. However,

to be subsequent anodising. TIG welding with stated filler metal is possible.
66
Strength
Solution heat treated zone
In welding, the heat treatment to which the material is
aged zone,
Unaffected
structure
annealed
Artificially
subjected affects the structure locally around the weld.
500°C
300°C
130°C
Weld
zone,
zone
The illustration is a schematic
Soft
representation of how strength
and hardness vary with distance
from a weld in a hardenable alloy. N/mm2
With aluminium profiles,
it is easy to compensate for fu
300
decreased joint strength by
increasing the wall thickness
200
locally. Furthermore, f wu
edge preparation can be 100 r = 0,6
directly incorporated into
the profile’s design.
Profile design with regard to fusion welding

Appropriately designed profiles can greatly simplify welding.
Edge preparation, material compensation, in-built fastening, integral root backing and
the minimisation of the number of welds required are all examples of proactive aluminium
profile design.
In many cases, aluminium profiles can be designed in a way that reduces the required
number of welds. Sometimes, welds can also be located in a low stress section of the
cross-sectional area. This will mean fewer welds and improved strength.
Edge preparation integrated into profile design

– the illustration also features material compensation
for strength reduction in the weld zone.
Placing of welds in lower stress

sections of the cross sectional area.
This results in fewer welds, and butt
rather than fillet welds.
Permanent root backing.
Number of welds reduced from 12 to 4 – butt welds rather than the weaker
In-built fastening – used in dry fillet welds (which are also harder to x-ray). Fewer components, reduced welding
environments. (consequently fewer heat-affected zones) and straightening minimised.
67
10.10 JOINTING – FRICTION STIR WELDING
10.10 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) exploits aluminium’s ability to withstand extreme
plastic deformation at temperatures that are high, but not above the melting
point. In FSW, the clean metal surfaces of the profiles that are to be joined are
heated by friction generated by a rotating tool and pressed together at very
high pressures. This forms a new, homogeneous structure.
Compared with fusion welding, FSW gives:

– Increased strength.
Increased – Increased leakproofness – entirely void-free, impermeable joints of
strength and a higher strength than fusion welded joints.
leakproofness. – Joints that are, in principle, flush with
the surface.
Reduced
– Reduced thermal deformation – only
thermal low thermal stress in the material,
deformation. hence the flat surfaces.
– Increased repeatability – production
has few variables and these are easily A heat sink panel – using FSW, profiles have
controlled; the result is tight tolerances. been joined to form a flat, 530 x 1,290 mm
panel.
An established technology
FSW is an established technology. It was developed by The Welding Institute
(TWI) in Cambridge, England. Sapa has actively participated in the process of
converting theory and laboratory experimentation into full-scale production.
Sapa started series production using FSW in 1996. We are now the world
leaders in the use of FSW and can supply FSW joined panels up to 3 metres
wide and 14.3 metres long.
Several leading classification societies have, after extensive testing,
approved FSW as a jointing method for demanding uses in railway and marine
applications.
A cross-section of a joint – x 13 magnification. The homogeneous crystal structure

in the centre section of an FSW joint
– x 220 magnification.
68
Using FSW rather

than traditional fusion
welding to join panels
together gives, amongst
much else, increased
flatness and
straightness. Strength
is also increased
(see the Royal Institute
of Technology’s tests,
pages 72 – 73).
The Sapa panel below
is 3 x 14.3 metres.
A rotating tool is pressed into the metal and moved along the line of the joint. No filler metals
or shielding gases are used. FSW takes place at a temperature below the metal’s melting
point. The results include very little thermal deformation, hence the flat surfaces.
The void-free weld.

The joint is, in principle, flush with the surface and the FSW weld is, to all intents and purposes,
completely void-free. The strength properties are also very good.
69
The FSW weld – homogenous and void-free with no oxide inclusions

To paint a clearer picture of FSW, we have chosen to compare it with the most
commonly used method of welding – fusion welding. At the same time, we
must stress that, in our production of added-value aluminium profiles, we often
use fusion welding (MIG). The old does have its place alongside the new.
Fusion welding, MIG for example, uses filler metals and shielding gases.
The filler metal and the parent metal are melted and produce a weld bead that
has a solidification structure different from that of the rest of the metal.
In MIG and TIG welding, attention has to be paid to the metal’s reaction
with oxygen. The oxide rapidly formed in this reaction can cause weld failure.
The oxide is heavier than the weld pool and may form inclusions. There is also
Homogenous a risk of void formation.
and void-free FSW uses no filler metals or shielding gases. The joint is formed under
the influences of friction generated heat and extreme plastic deformation.
with no
The material being joined never reaches its melting point, but the profiles weld
inclusions. together in a way entirely analogous to the extrusion of hollow profiles.
The result is a homogenous and void-free weld with no inclusions.
FSW stands out in having only a few variables. These can be easily controlled
to ensure the same results from one weld to the next.
Fusion welding is a more complicated process. Consequently, results
often vary.
MIG FSW
Precipitation in a MIG weld. Precipitation in an FSW weld.

50 μm 50 μm
7.4 mm 4.7 mm
The MIG weld rises above the surface. The FSW weld is, in principle, flush with
Furthermore, its chemical composition the welded material. No filler metals
differs from that of the welded material. are used.
To give a fair
comparison,
the adjacent
pictures are
of very high
quality fusion
welds.
A MIG weld viewed from above. An FSW weld viewed from above.
70
Strength
Experience and extensive testing have shown that an FSW weld is usually stronger
than a fusion weld. The table below shows the standardised values for arc welded
butt joints as per SS-EN 288-4 (see also the tests carried out by the Royal Institute
of Technology, pages 72 – 73).
The values given for FSW joints are based on a large number of measurements
and should be regarded as guideline values.
Since there are, as yet, no standards for FSW joints, the values for fusion welded
joints are used in calculating the strength of standardised designs.
Weld factor for the ultimate tensile strength of butt welds, ALMgSi alloys
Condition of parent Ageing after Rm (w)

welding T=
metal before welding Rm (pm)
Ultimate tensile strength, Rm (w),
Arc FSW 2)
welding 1) of the welded test rod normally
T4 Natural ageing 0.9 0.9 has to satisfy the following:
Rm (w) = Rm (pm) x T,
T4 Artificial ageing 0.7 0.9
where Rm (pm) is the prescribed
T5-T6 Natural ageing 0.6 0.7 minimum ultimate tensile
strength of the parent metal and
T5-T6 Artificial ageing 0.7 0.8
T is the joint’s weld factor.
1) For example, MIG or TIG. 2) Guideline values only.
Leakproofness
The pictures on the right are of heat sink units based on solid
profiles that are then CNC machined by Sapa. The machined
interior is closed with a cover, welded in place by FSW.
Helium leak testing was used to assess leakproofness.
The result was no loss of impermeability owing to weld failures.
FSW joints have also been tested using the water pressure test.
The results are unambiguous – FSW gives a joint that can be used
in components with the severest demands for leakproofness.
Repeatability
The experience Sapa has gained in series production since
1996 shows:
– Very small variations from joint to joint throughout a production cycle.
– Very small variations from joint to joint in repeat customer orders.
This is true of all variables – the joint’s structure, its strength,
leakproofness and flatness.
Corrosion resistance
The chemical composition of the material in the joint is identical
to that of the original material. Thus, in principle, corrosion
resistance is unaltered.
Limitations
FSW requires the work piece to be held securely in place. This All 25,000 units passed helium
means, amongst other things, that repair welding of finished testing for leakproofness.
constructions is rarely possible with FSW. Repairs can, of course,
be carried out using traditional methods.
71
Strength of FSW joints

Higher Comparison with MIG and TIG – Reference:
fatigue The Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
strength than FSW welds have higher fatigue strength than MIG and TIG welds. This is the
MIG and TIG finding documented by Mats Ericsson, graduate engineer, and Rolf Sandström,
welds. professor, (both of the Institution for Materials Science at Sweden’s Royal
Institute of Technology) in the December 2001 research report, Influence of
Welding Speed on the Fatigue of Friction Stir Welds and Comparison with
MIG and TIG.
Test material and test methods
This extract from the report gives values for extruded profiles in alloy
SS-EN AW 6082 (AlSi1MgMn) – temper T6, material thickness 4 mm. The
dimensions of the test pieces were as per SS-EN 284-4.
FSW was carried out by Sapa in a plant used for series production. Test
materials welded at two different speeds were included in testing.
To the same high quality standards as those applying in the aero-industry,
fusion welding was carried out by CSM Material Technology. TIG and pulse MIG
welding were used.
Vickers hardness was measured with a load of 10 kg. Fatigue testing was
carried out with a stress ratio (Smin/Smax) of 0.5, the main direction of stress being
across the weld.
Hardness profile
110
100
Hardness (HV 10)
90
80
70
60
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from the weld centre (mm)
The graph shows the variations in Vickers hardness across a cross section
of an FSW joint (green) welded at a speed of 1,400 mm/min. and across
a MIG weld (grey).
Comments: In both welds, hardness in the heat-affected zone decreases.
This is clearly more marked in the MIG weld. Hardness is lowest (just under
60 HV) around the centre of the MIG weld. This is because fusion welding
involves higher working temperatures, “foreign” filler metals and a less
favourable structure in the weld.
More heat is supplied in TIG welding than MIG welding. Consequently, the
HAZ is a little wider.
No significant difference was observed between the HAZs of the two
FSW welds carried out at different speeds.
72
Mechanical properties Fractures under the microscope
Yield Tensile
SS-EN AW strength strength Elongation Reference
6082 R p0,2 (MPa) R m (MPa) A 50 mm (%)
T6, parent metal 291 317 11.3 ME, RS 1)
Min. values 250 295 6 SS-EN

for profiles 755-2
t < 5 mm
Pulsed MIG 147 221 5.2 ME, RS 1)
TIG 145 219 5.4 ME, RS 1)
FSW, MIG weld: This SEM micrograph (x 25 magnification)

speed A 2) 150 245 5.7 ME, RS 1) shows the fracture surface. Fatigue fracture developed
at several points in the root (to the right).
FSW,
speed B 2) 150 245 5.1 ME, RS 1)
1) Mats Ericsson and Rolf Sandström, averages of the results in the report
in question.
2) Speed A, 700 mm/min. Speed B, 1,400 mm/min.
Fatigue strength
120
110
Stress range (MPa)
100
Same MIG weld as above (x 2,500 magnification):
90 Fatigue striation in the area close to the root edge.
80
70
60
50
0 1 • 10 5 1 • 10 6 1 • 10 7
Number of cycles to failure
The graph above shows the results of fatigue tests

on MIG welds (grey), TIG welds (blue) and
FSW welds (green). FSW: Fracture surface through the fine-grained
section of an FSW weld (root to the right). Fracture
Comments: The FSW weld shows the best probably developed close to the root.
values throughout. In the study, TIG welds gave
considerably better results than MIG welds.
For failure at 500,000 cycles, the stress ranges
were: MIG approx. 60 MPa, TIG approx. 70 MPa,
FSW approx. 90 MPa at 700 and 1,400 mm/min
(a shade higher at 1,400 mm/min).
Literature
A. Kluken, M. Ranes, Aluminium bridge constructions – welding technology and fatigue properties,
Svetsaren, vol 50, no. 3, pages 13 – 15, 1995.
P.J. Haagensen, O.T. Midling, M. Ranes, Fatigue performance of friction stir butt welds in a 6000 series
aluminium alloy, Computional Mechanics Publications (USA), pages 225 – 237, 1995.
73
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES
11. Profile tolerances

The range of profiles that can be produced by extrusion is almost endless.
For this reason, there are no general rules detailing potential solutions and
applicable tolerances.
Profile design, wall thickness and alloy are some of the crucial factors
directly affecting tolerances. In this connection it is important to mention
that tighter tolerances can affect productivity and, consequently, price.
This should be borne in mind during the design stage.
Some profile manufacturers have standard tolerances of their own.
Others use national standards for their production.
CEN, the European Committee for Standardisation, has prepared
European standards. These EN norms will gradually replace the different
national norms. In the dialogue between the customer and the supplier
it is therefore in each case important to clarify which norm that applies.
Below you find extracts of the profile norms EN 755-9 and
EN 12020-2.
74
11. PROFILE TOLERANCES – EN 755-9
EN 755-9
Tolerances on dimensions Alloy groups, EN AW

Group I
Cross-sectional dimensions 1050A, 1070A, 1200, 1350
General 3003, 3103

5005, 5005A
The tolerances on the dimensions listed below
6101A, 6101B, 6005, 6005A, 6106,
(see Figure 1) are specified in the relevant 6008, 6060, 6063, 6063A, 6463
Tables 1 to 7.
Group II
A wall thicknesses except those enclosing
2007, 2011, 2011A, 2014, 2014A,
the hollow spaces in hollow profiles; 2017A, 2024, 2030
B wall thicknesses enclosing the hollow 5019 1), 5051A, 5251, 5052, 5154A,
spaces in hollow profiles, except those 5454, 5754, 5083, 5086
between two hollow spaces; 6012, 6018, 6351, 6061,
6261, 6262, 6081, 6082
C wall thicknesses between two hollow
7003, 7005, 7020, 7022, 7049A, 7075
spaces in hollow profiles;
E the length of the shorter leg of profiles 1) EN AW-5019 is the new designation
with open ends; for EN AW-5056A.
H all dimensions except wall thickness.
E H E
B
C
B
A
H
H
H
H
Figure 1: Definition of dimensions A, B, C, E, H
Note: All dimensions in this chapter are in millimetres.
Version 1 75
Tolerances on dimensions other than wall thickness

The tolerances on dimensions shall be as specified in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1: Tolerances on Table 2: Tolerances on

cross-sectional dimensions cross-sectional dimensions
of solid and hollow profiles of solid and hollow profiles
– Alloy group I – Alloy group II
Dimension H Tolerances on H for Tolerances on H for

circumscribing circle CD circumscribing circle CD
Over Up to CD 100 200 300 500 CD 100 200 300 500
and a 100 < CD < CD < CD < CD a 100 < CD < CD < CD < CD
including a 200 a 300 a 500 a 800 a 200 a 300 a 500 a 800
– 10 ± 0.25 ± 0.30 ± 0.35 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 ± 0.55 ± 0.60 ± 0.70
10 25 ± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 ± 0.60 ± 0.70 ± 0.50 ± 0.70 ± 0.80 ± 0.90 ± 1.1
25 50 ± 0.50 ± 0.60 ± 0.80 ± 0.90 ± 1.0 ± 0.80 ± 0.90 ± 1.0 ± 1.2 ± 1.3
50 100 ± 0.70 ± 0.90 ± 1.1 ± 1.3 ± 1.5 ± 1.0 ± 1.2 ± 1.3 ± 1.6 ± 1.8
100 150 – ± 1.1 ± 1.3 ± 1.5 ± 1.7 – ± 1.5 ± 1.7 ± 1.8 ± 2.0
150 200 – ± 1.3 ± 1.5 ± 1.8 ± 2.0 – ± 1.9 ± 2.2 ± 2.4 ± 2.7
200 300 – – ± 1.7 ± 2.1 ± 2.4 – – ± 2.5 ± 2.8 ± 3.1
300 450 – – – ± 2.8 ± 3.0 – – – ± 3.5 ± 3.8
450 600 – – – ± 3.8 ± 4.2 – – – ± 4.5 ± 5.0
600 800 – – – – ± 5.0 – – – – ± 6.0
Table 3: Additions to the tolerances on cross-sectional

dimensions H of solid and hollow profiles with open ends
– Alloy groups I and II
Dimension Additions to the tolerances

E on H in Tables 1 and 2
for dimensions across
Over Up to the ends of
and open ended profiles
including
– 20 –
20 30 ± 0.15
30 40 ± 0.25
40 60 ± 0.40
60 80 ± 0.50
80 100 ± 0.60
100 125 ± 0.80
125 150 ± 1.0
150 180 ± 1.2
180 210 ± 1.4
210 250 ± 1.6
250 – ± 1.8
76 Version 1
Tolerances on wall thickness of solid and hollow profiles

The tolerances on wall thickness of solid and hollow profiles shall be specified in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Table 4: Tolerances on wall thickness Table 5: Tolerances on wall thickness

for profiles with a circumscribing circle up to for profiles with a circumscribing circle
and including 300 mm – Alloy group I over 300 mm – Alloy group I
Nominal wall Tolerances on wall thickness Tolerances on wall thickness

thickness Circumscribing circle Circumscribing circle
A, B or C A B 1) C A B 1) C
Over Up to CD 100 CD 100 CD 100 300 500 300 500 300 500
and a 100 < CD a 100 < CD a 100 < CD < CD < CD < CD < CD < CD < CD
including a 300 a 300 a 300 a 500 a 800 a 500 a 800 a 500 a 800
– 1.5 ± 0.15 ± 0.20 ± 0.20 ± 0.30 ± 0.25 ± 0.35 ± 0.25 – – – – –
1.5 3 ± 0.15 ± 0.25 ± 0.25 ± 0.40 ± 0.30 ± 0.50 ± 0.35 ± 0.40 ± 0.60 ± 0.80 ± 0.75 ± 1.0
3 6 ± 0.20 ± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.60 ± 0.50 ± 0.75 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 ± 0.80 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.2
6 10 ± 0.25 ± 0.35 ± 0.60 ± 0.80 ± 0.75 ± 1.0 ± 0.45 ± 0.55 ± 1.0 ± 1.2 ± 1.2 ± 1.5
10 15 ± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.80 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.2 ± 0.50 ± 0.60 ± 1.2 ± 1.5 ± 1.5 ± 1.9
15 20 ± 0.35 ± 0.45 ± 1.2 ± 1.5 ± 1.5 ± 1.9 ± 0.55 ± 0.65 ± 1.7 ± 2.0 ± 2.0 ± 2.5
20 30 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 ± 1.5 ± 1.8 ± 1.9 ± 2.2 ± 0.60 ± 0.70 ± 2.0 ± 2.5 ± 2.5 ± 3.0
30 40 ± 0.45 ± 0.60 – ± 2.0 – ± 2.5 ± 0.70 ± 0.80 ± 2.2 ± 2.7 ± 2.7 ± 3.3
40 50 – ± 0.70 – – – – ± 0.80 ± 0.90 – – – –
1) For seamless hollow profiles the tolerances given for wall thickness C shall apply.
Table 6: Tolerances on wall thickness Table 7: Tolerances on wall thickness

for profiles with a circumscribing circle up to for profiles with a circumscribing circle
and including 300 mm – Alloy group II over 300 mm – Alloy group II
Nominal wall Tolerances on wall thickness Tolerances on wall thickness

thickness Circumscribing circle Circumscribing circle
A, B or C A B 1) C A B 1) C
Over Up to CD 100 CD 100 CD 100 300 500 300 500 300 500
and a 100 < CD a 100 < CD a 100 < CD < CD < CD < CD < CD < CD < CD
including a 300 a 300 a 300 a 500 a 800 a 500 a 800 a 500 a 800
– 1.5 ± 0.20 ± 0.25 ± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.35 ± 0.50 ± 0.35 – – – – –
1.5 3 ± 0.25 ± 0.30 ± 0.35 ± 0.50 ± 0.45 ± 0.65 ± 0.45 ± 0.50 ± 0.70 ± 0.90 ± 0.90 ± 1.2
3 6 ± 0.30 ± 0.35 ± 0.55 ± 0.70 ± 0.60 ± 0.90 ± 0.60 ± 0.60 ± 0.90 ± 1.0 ± 1.2 ± 1.3
6 10 ± 0.35 ± 0.45 ± 0.75 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.3 ± 0.65 ± 0.70 ± 1.2 ± 1.5 ± 1.5 ± 1.9
10 15 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 ± 1.0 ± 1.3 ± 1.3 ± 1.7 ± 0.70 ± 0.80 ± 1.5 ± 1.8 ± 1.9 ± 2.3
15 20 ± 0.45 ± 0.55 ± 1.5 ± 1.8 ± 1.9 ± 2.2 ± 0.75 ± 0.85 ± 2.0 ± 2.5 ± 2.5 ± 3.1
20 30 ± 0.50 ± 0.60 ± 1.8 ± 2.2 ± 2.2 ± 2.7 ± 0.80 ± 0.90 ± 2.5 ± 3.0 ± 3.1 ± 3.7
30 40 ± 0.60 ± 0.70 – ± 2.5 – – ± 0.90 ± 1.0 ± 3.0 ± 3.2 – –
40 50 – ± 0.80 – – – – ± 1.0 ± 1.1 – – – –
1) For seamless hollow profiles the tolerances given for wall thickness C shall apply.
Version 1 77
Length
If fixed lengths are to be supplied, this shall be stated on the order.
The tolerances on fixed length shall be specified in table 8.
Table 8: Tolerances on fixed length
Circumscribing
circle diameter Tolerances on fixed length L
CD
Over Up to L 2 000 5 000 10 000 15 000
and a 2 000 <L <L <L <L
including a 5 000 a 10 000 a 15 000 a 25 000
– 100 +5 +7 + 10 + 16 + 22
0 0 0 0 0
100 200 +7 +9 + 12 + 18 + 24
0 0 0 0 0
200 450 +8 + 11 + 14 + 20 + 28
0 0 0 0 0
450 800 +9 + 14 + 16 + 22 + 30
0 0 0 0 0
If no fixed length is specified in the order, profiles may be delivered

in random lengths.
The length range and the tolerances on the random length shall
be subject to agreement between purchaser and supplier.
Squareness of cut ends

The squareness of cut ends shall be within half of the fixed length
tolerance range specified in Table 8 for both fixed and random length,
e.g. for a fixed length tolerance of + 100 mm, the squareness of cut
ends shall be within 5 mm.
Tolerances on form
General
Tolerances on form for O and T x 510 tempers shall be subject to
agreement between purchaser and supplier.
78 Version 1
Straightness
Deviations from straightness, hs and ht , shall be measured as shown in Figure 2 with
the profile placed on a horizontal baseplate so that its own mass decreases the deviation.
The straightness tolerance ht shall not exceed 1.5 mm/m length. Local deviations hs
from straightness shall not exceed 0.6 mm/300 mm length.
W1
Key Key
hs
30 0 mm 1 Baseplate 1 Baseplate
F1
2 2 Ruler
ht
F
L 1 W
1
Figure 2: Measurement of deviation from straightness Figure 3: Measurement of convexity – concavity
Convexity – Concavity
The convexity – concavity shall be measured as shown in Figure 3. The maximum allowable
deviation on convexity – concavity for solid and hollow profiles shall be as specified in Table 9
as a function of profile thickness width W and thickness t.
Table 9: Convexity – concavity tolerances

Deviation F
Width W
Hollow profiles 1)
Sold
Over Up to Wall Wall profiles
and thickness thickness
including ta5 t5
– 30 0.30 0.20 0.20
30 60 0.40 0.30 0.30
60 100 0.60 0.40 0.40
100 150 0.90 0.60 0.60
150 200 1.2 0.80 0.80
200 300 1.8 1.2 1.2
300 400 2.4 1.6 1.6

In the case of solid and hollow
profiles with a width W of least
400 500 3.0 2.0 2.0
150 mm, the local deviation F1 ,
500 600 3.6 2.4 2.4 shall not exceed 0.7 mm for any
600 800 4.0 3.0 3.0 100 mm of width W1 .
1) If the profile has varying wall thicknesses in the measurement range,

the thinnest wall thickness shall be used.
Version 1 79
Contour Table 10:

Contour tolerances
For profiles with curved cross sections, the deviation at any
point of the curve from the theoretically exact line as defined Width W
of the Contour
by the drawing, shall not be greater than the appropriate contour tolerance
tolerance C specified in Table 10. Considering all points on = diameter
Over Up to C of the
the curve, a tolerance zone shall be defined as the zone and tolerance
including circle
between two envelopes running tangentially to all circles
of diameter C which can be drawn with their centres lying – 30 0.30
along the theoretically exact line; this is shown in Figure 4 30 60 0.50
(a and b).
X 60 90 0.70
C
90 120 1.0
4a 120 150 1.2
150 200 1.5
200 250 2.0

W
250 300 2.5
300 400 3.0

C
400 500 3.5

X
500 800 4.0
4b NOTE Contour tolerances can be

checked by placing a section of the
profile on a 1:1 scale projection of
the drawing with the contour tolerance
Figure 4a and b: Definition of contour tolerances indicated on the drawing. Another
recommended method is the use of
suitable gauges (min./max.).
Twist Table 11: Twist tolerances

Twist T shall be measured as shown in Twist tolerance T for length L
Width W
Figure 5 by placing the profile on a
On total profile length L
flat baseplate the profile resting under Per
Over Up to 1 000 Over 1 000 Over 6 000
own mass, and measuring the maximum and of and
distance at any point along the length including length 1) including
6 000
between the bottom surface of the profile
– 30 1.2 2.5 3.0
and the baseplate surface. Tolerances
shall be as specified in Table 11 30 50 1.5 3.0 4.0
as a function of the 50 100 2.0 3.5 5.0

width W and 100 200 2.5 5.0 7.0
the length L
200 300 2.5 6.0 8.0
of the
300 450 3.0 8.0
profile. 1.5 x L
450 600 3.5 9.5 (L in
L metres)
1 600 800 4.0 10.0
Key
1 Baseplate 1) Twist tolerances for lengths less than 1,000 mm shall be subject
to agreement between purchaser and supplier.
T
Figure 5: Measurement of twist
80 Version 1
Angularity Table 12: Angularity

The deviation from a specified angle shall be measured tolerances for right angles
as shown in Figures 6 and 7. Width W
Maximum
allowable
The angularity tolerances for right angles shall be as deviation,
specified in Table 12 as a function of profile width W. Over Up to Z from
and a right
The maximum allowable deviation A in an angle other including angle
than a right angle shall be ± 1°.
– 30 0.4
In the case of unequal side lengths the tolerance on
angularity shall apply to the shorter side of the angle, i.e. 30 50 0.7
it is measured starting from the longer side. 50 80 1.0
Z 80 120 1.4
A 120 180 2.0
180 240 2.6
240 300 3.1
300 400 3.5

W
Figure 6: Measurement of Figure 7: Measurement of

angularity in a right angle angularity in an angle other
than a right angle
Corner and fillet radii

Sharp corners and fillets may be slightly rounded unless otherwise indicated on the drawing.
The maximum allowable corner and fillet radii shall be as specified in Table 13.
When a corner or fillet radius is specified, the maximum allowable deviation from this
radius shall be as specified in Table 14.
Table 13: Maximum allowable corner Table 14: Maximum allowable deviation
and fillet radii from specified corner and fillet radii
Maximum
allowable Maximum
Wall radius Specified allowable
thickness radius deviation
A, B or C 1) mm from specified
Alloy Alloy radius
group I group II 2)
a5 0.6 0.8 a5 ± 0.5 mm
>5 1.0 1.5 >5 ± 10 %
1) Where varying wall thicknesses are involved,

the maximum allowable radius in the
transition zone is a function of the greater
wall thickness.
2) These tolerances only apply to 6xxx series
alloys in group II. The maximum allowable
radii for the other alloys in group II shall be
subject to agreement between purchaser
and supplier.
Version 1 81
EN 12020-2
The information below applies only to the alloys EN AW-6060 and EN AW-6063.
Note: All dimensions in this chapter are in millimetres.
E
A
Cross-sectional dimensions
General
The tolerances of the following dimensions B
(see Figure 1) are specified in the relevant A
C
Tables 1 and 2.
H
A wall thicknesses except those enclosing B
the hollow spaces in hollow profiles; H
A
B wall thicknesses enclosing the hollow
A
spaces in hollow profiles, except those
between two hollow spaces;
C wall thicknesses between two hollow H
spaces in hollow profiles;
Figure 1: Definition of dimensions A, B, C, E, H
E the length of the shorter leg of profiles
with open ends;
H all dimensions except wall thickness. Tolerances on wall thickness
of solid and hollow profiles
Tolerances on dimensions The tolerances on wall thickness (see Figure 1)
other than wall thickness of solid and hollow profiles shall be as specified
in Table 2.
The tolerances for dimension H shall be
as specified in Table 1. Table 2: Tolerances on wall thickness
Tolerances on wall thickness
Table 1: Tolerances on cross-sectional dimensions Nominal
wall thickness A B and C
Tolerances on H A, B or C
Dimension H Tolerances Circumscribing circle
on H (open ends)
(except Over Up to CD 100 CD 100
Over Up to open E 60 < E and a 100 < CD a 100 < CD
and ends) a 60 a 120 1) including a 300 a 300
including
– 1.5 ± 0.15 ± 0.20 ± 0.20 ± 0.30
2)
– 10 ± 0.15 ± 0.15
1.5 3 ± 0.15 ± 0.25 ± 0.25 ± 0.40
2)
10 15 ± 0.20 ± 0.20
3 6 ± 0.20 ± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.60
2)
15 30 ± 0.25 ± 0.25
6 10 ± 0.25 ± 0.35 ± 0.60 ± 0.80
30 45 ± 0.30 ± 0.30 ± 0.45
10 15 ± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.80 ± 1.0
45 60 ± 0.40 ± 0.40 ± 0.55
15 20 ± 0.35 ± 0.45 ± 1.2 ± 1.5
60 90 ± 0.45 ± 0.45 ± 0.65
20 30 ± 0.40 ± 0.50 – –
90 120 ± 0.60 ± 0.60 ± 0.80
30 40 ± 0.45 ± 0.60 – –
120 150 ± 0.80 ± 0.80 ± 1.0
150 180 ± 1.0 ± 1.0 ± 1.3 When, for functional reasons, tolerances are
specified for both the outside and inside
180 240 ± 1.2 ± 1.2 ± 1.5
dimensions of hollow sections, then the
240 300 ± 1.5 ± 1.5 ± 1.8 deviations given in Table 2 shall not apply as a
wall thickness tolerance, but as a tolerance on
1) Tolerances for values of dimension E over 120 mm shall be
subject to agreement between purchaser and supplier. the difference in wall thickness. This difference
2) Shall be subject to agreement between purchaser and shall be determined by measuring the maximum
supplier. and minimum wall thickness in the same plane.
82 Version 1
Length Table 3: Tolerances on fixed length
If fixed lengths are to be supplied, this Circumscribing Tolerances on fixed length L

circle CD
shall be stated on the order. The fixed
length tolerances shall be as specified Over Up to L 2 000 5 000 L
and a 2 000 <L <L 10 000
in Table 3. including a 5 000 a 10 000
If no fixed or minimum length is +5 +7 + 10
– 100
specified in the order, profiles may
agreement
0 0 0
Subject to
be delivered in random lengths. The 100 200 +7 +9 + 12
0 0 0
length range and the tolerances on
200 300 +8 + 11 + 14
the random lengths shall be subject 0 0 0
to agreement between purchaser and
supplier.
Squareness of cut ends

The squareness of cut ends shall be within half of the fixed length tolerance range specified
in table 3 for both fixed and random lengths, e.g. for a fixed length tolerance of + 100 mm the
squareness of cut ends shall be within 5 mm.
Length offset for profiles

with a thermal barrier 1
Length offset K, see Figure 2, Key 2
1 Length of profile
for profiles with a thermal 2 Profile 1 3
barrier shall be within the 3 Thermal barrier
tolerance range for the fixed 4 Profile 2 4
length specified in Table 3, e.g. K
for a fixed length tolerance of Figure 2: Length of offset K
+ 10 mm the length offset
shall be within 10 mm.
Key
Tolerances on form
hs
mm 1 Baseplate
300
2 2 Ruler
Straightness
Deviations from straightness, hs and ht ,
ht
shall be measured as shown in Figure 3

with the profile placed on a horizontal
L 1
baseplate so that its own mass
decreases the deviation. Figure 3: Measurement of deviation from straightness
The straightness tolerance ht shall
be as specified in Table 4. Table 4: Straightness tolerances
The local deviation from straightness hs
Straightness tolerances ht for specified length L
shall not exceed 0.3 mm per 300 mm
length. L 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 L
a 1 000 < L <L <L <L < L 6 000
a 2 000 a 3 000 a 4 000 a 5 000 a 6 000
0.7 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5
Version 1 83
Convexity – Concavity Table 5: Convexity – concavity

tolerances
The convexity – concavity shall be
measured as shown in figure 4. Width W
Maximum
The tolerances shall be as specified allowable
Over Up to deviation
in Table 5. and F
including
Key: W = Width, F = Deviation, W1 = 100 mm,
F1 = 0.5 mm maximum – 30 0.20
30 60 0.30
W W
F
60 100 0.40
F 100 150 0.50
150 200 0.70
200 250 0.85

F1
W1 250 300 1.0
In the case of profiles with a

F
width W of at least 200 mm,

W the local deviation F1 shall
Figure 4: Measurement of convexity – concavity not exceed 0.5 mm for any
100 mm of width, W1 .
Contour
Table 6:
For profiles with curved cross sections, the Contour tolerances
deviation at any point of the curve, from
Width W Contour
the theoretically exact line as defined by of the tolerance
the drawing shall not be greater than the contour = diameter
C of the
appropriate tolerance C specified in Table 6. Over Up to tolerance
and circle
Considering all points on the curve, a including
tolerance zone shall be defined as the zone
– 30 0.30
between two envelopes running tangentially
to all circles of diameter C which can be 30 60 0.50
drawn with their centres lying along the 60 90 0.70

theoretically exact line ; this is shown in 90 120 1.0
Figure 5 (a and b).
120 150 1.2
X 150 200 1.5
C
200 250 2.0
5a 250 300 2.5
NOTE Contour tolerances can be

checked by placing a section of the
W
profile on a scale projection of the
drawing with the contour tolerance
indicated on the drawing. Another
recommended method is the use of
C
suitable gauge (min./max.).

X
5b
Figure 5a and b: Definition of contour tolerances
84 Version 1
Twist
Twist T shall be measured as shown in
Figure 6 by placing the profile on a flat Key
baseplate, the profile resting under its 1 Baseplate
own mass and measuring the maximum
distance at any point along the length
between the bottom surface of the profile 1 L
and the baseplate surface. Tolerances
shall be specified in Table 7 as a function
of the width W and the length L of the Figure 6:
profile. Measurement of twist
T
W
Table 7: Twist tolerances
Width W Twist tolerances T for specified length L
Over Up to L 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 L

and a 1 000 <L <L <L <L <L 6 000
including a 2 000 a 3 000 a 4 000 a 5 000 a 6 000
– 25 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
25 50 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.0
50 75 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.0 Subject to agreement
75 100 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.5
100 125 1.0 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0
125 150 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0
150 200 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5
200 300 1.8 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Angularity
The deviation from a specified angle shall be measured Table 8: Angularity
tolerances for right angles
as shown in Figures 7 and 8.
The angulary tolerances for right angles shall be as Width W
Maximum
allowable
specified in table 8 as a function of profile width W. deviation,
The maximum allowable deviation A for angles other Over Up to Z from
and a right
than a right shall be ± 1° (see Figure 8). including angle
In the case of unequal side lengths the tolerances on
– 30 0.3
angularity shall apply to the shorter side of the angle, i.e.
it is measured starting from the longer side. 30 50 0.4
50 80 0.5
Z
80 100 0.6
A
100 120 0.7
120 140 0.8
140 160 0.9

W
160 180 1.0
180 200 1.2
200 240 1.5

Figure 7: Measurement of Figure 8: Measurement of
angularity in a right angle angularity in an angle other
than a right angle
Version 1 85
Corner and fillet radii

Sharp corners and fillets may be slightly rounded, unless otherwise
indicated on the drawing. The maximum allowable corner and fillet
radii shall be as specified in Table 9.
When a corner or fillet radius is specified, the maximum
allowable deviation from this specified radius shall be as specified
in Table 10.
Table 9: Maximum allowable corner Table 10: Maximum allowable deviation

and fillet radii from specified corner and fillet radii
Wall Maximum
thickness Maximum
allowable Specified allowable
A, B 1) or C 1) radius deviation
corner
and fillet mm from specified
Over Up to radius
and radii
including
a5 ± 0.5 mm
– 3 0.5 >5 ± 10 %
3 6 0.6
6 10 0.8
10 20 1.0
20 40 1.5
1) When varying wall thicknesses

are involved, the maximum allowable
radius in the transitionzone is a
function of the greater wall thickness.
CEN – the European Committee for Standardisation

CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.
You can buy the complete European standard from your national CEN member.
These extracts based on DS/EN 755-9:2002 and DS/EN 12020-2:2001. All rights of exploitation in
any form and by any means are given by The Danish Standards Association.
86 Version 1
12. SURFACE CLASSES
12. Surface classes

Surface quality
The surface quality of an extruded aluminium profile depends on,
amongst other things, the condition of the die, production conditions
and choice of alloy.
Sapa has a well proven classification system for evaluating
surface quality (finish). The six classes have been devised to satisfy
the standard requirements of different product groups. Always
contact Sapa for advice on which class is best suited to a product.
Various types of surface defects are recognised. Stripes, for
example, are formed by the extrusion process itself (when the profile
emerges from the die) and are always to be expected. They occur,
to greater or lesser extents, in all surface classes.
Sapa’s production standards minutely detail the requirements
applying to each surface class.
Visible surfaces – important information
Information on a profile’s visible surfaces is important. Besides being used in
surface evaluation, surface specifications are also vital in the construction of dies
and when preparing profiles for anodising or painting. Incorrect or incomplete
information may increase production costs.
Profile drawings must always indicate visible, less visible and invisible
surfaces.
Visible surface:
Less visible surface:
Invisible surface: (no marking)
Less visible surfaces are those which are not normally exposed in the final product.
Examples include the returns on door and window frames, the underneaths of
table surfaces and the backs of cabinets. Surface
A profile’s surface class relates to its visible surfaces. Less visible class relates
surfaces are classed one step lower and invisible surfaces two steps lower to visible
(though never higher than surface class 5). Profiles with no visible surfaces surfaces.
at all are classified as surface class 6.
Any changes in surface class requirement must be clearly stated when
ordering. In some cases, it is impossible to achieve a higher surface class using
the specified die. Always contact Sapa for advice.
87
12. SURFACE CLASSES
Review profile design carefully

Even at the design stage, it is possible to reduce the risk of surface defects.
Sharp transitions between thick and thin areas of material may give rise to heat
zones. These, in turn, can affect surface finish in a way that is particularly visible
after anodising. A large radius also reduces the risk of surface defects. Consult
Sapa for advice on profile design.
Specimen profiles are not representative as regards surfaces and material
properties. They should only be used for checking dimensions, etc.
If possible, the profile’s area of application should be stated. This information is
important not only when evaluating surface class, but also in all other production
phases.
The effects of surface treatment
Anodising results in a general improvement of surface quality. With chemical
or mechanical treatment (grinding, brushing and/or polishing) before anodising,
material supplied as surface class 2 can be brought up to surface class 1.
Bright anodising emphasises any surface defects. Consequently, it lowers
surface class one step compared to the untreated material as extruded.
Handling and stocking

Where it is important to maintain the decorative finish of products in surface
classes 1 – 5, the following should be borne in mind:
– When handling aluminium that has not been surface treated, special attention
should be paid to the metal’s poor scratch resistance. To protect the profile
against sweat-initiated corrosion, gloves should always be worn.
– Aluminium which has not been surface treated is to be stocked dry, preferably
indoors, so that it is not exposed to corrosive forces.
88
12. SURFACE CLASSES
Surface Suitable Viewing

class Area of application, etc. Sapa alloys distance
Normal eyesight
(at delivery)
in normal lighting
Profiles with extremely high surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 0.6 m
1 Radios/TVs, lighting fixtures, decorative trims, ornaments.

Max. delivery length, 2.4 m unless otherwise agreed.
This surface class can only be achieved with material extruded as
6463
surface class 2 and then treated chemically or mechanically (grinding,

brushing and/or polishing) before finally being anodised.
Production requires individual handling and inspection as well as
a large labour input in all phases.
Profiles that have visible surfaces on all sides cannot be produced in
this surface class (except where the profile is also to be ground on all sides).
Individual packaging/protection required during transport.
Profiles with very high surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 1 m
2 Furniture, fittings, radios/TVs, picture frames, ornamentation and

profiles that are to be brought up to surface class 1.
Max. delivery length, 2.4 m unless otherwise agreed.
6463
Production requires individual handling and inspection as well as

a large labour input in all phases.
Highest surface class for bright anodising.
Profiles that have visible surfaces on all sides cannot be produced
in this surface class.
Profiles in this class must, as a rule, be anodised.
Individual packaging/protection required during transport.
Profiles with high surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 2 m
3 Furniture, light fittings, fridge-freezers, bathroom fittings and equipment,

shower cubicles and decorative trims.
As a rule, profiles that have visible surfaces on all sides cannot be
6463
produced in this surface class.

Profiles in this class are usually anodised.
Profiles with ordinary surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 3 m
4 Structural systems, facades, windows, doors, balustrades. Also products

for use in public facilities: Furniture, shop fittings, showcases, shower
cubicles, machine casings, heat sinks.
6463
Profiles in this surface class are usually anodised/painted.
Profiles with low surface quality requirements 6060, 6063, approx. 5 m
5 Structural systems, balconies, roofs, doorways, awnings, railing posts,

sailing boat masts, ladders, goalposts, etc.
Standard sections in Sapa 6063 alloy, body sections.
6063A, 6005,
6005A, 6082,
6101, 6463
Profiles with no surface quality requirements All approx. 8 m
6 Load-bearing structures, guide rails, conducting rails, scaffolding,

components in mechanical systems, brackets, industrial railings,
fencing posts.
Standard profiles in Sapa 6082 alloy, trailer profiles for lorries and
floor profiles.
Profiles with no visible surfaces.
Profiles in Sapa 7021 and Sapa 1050A alloys can only be extruded
to this surface class.
Version 1
89
13. THERMAL BREAK PROFILES
13. Thermal break profiles

Why insulated profiles? Because aluminium’s good thermal
conductivity leads heat out and lets cold in. This can be a problem
in, for example, facades, windows and doors designed with
uninsulated profiles. Sapa’s solution is to connect the internal and
the external sections of a profile via plastic insulation strips.
Sapa’s method
Glass fibre reinforced polyamide (nylon) strips
In Sapa’s solution, rolling is used to join two aluminium profiles via glass fibre
reinforced polyamide strips.
– Insulating strip width is normally 14 – 30 mm. Sapa keeps the most common
widths in stock (check with Sapa).
– Rolling can be used on lengths from 4.5 – 7.5 m.
– Degree of insulation depends on strip width and profile design.
Produced in three steps

The production equipment is purpose-designed. The three steps are:
1. Machining (knurling) of the track to ensure durability.
2. Joining of the aluminium profiles by sliding in the polyamide strips.
3. Rolling – the aluminium channels are closed around the polyamide strips.
During production, random sampling is used to check the strength of the rolling.
1. Knurling of the profile. 2. Joining of the profiles. 3. Rolling.
Single or double insulation

Two insulation strips are always recommended where lack of space does not leave single
insulation as the only possibility. Strength properties and tolerances are considerably
better with two strips.
90
13. THERMAL BREAK PROFILES
Insulated profile design

Besides normal design rules, the following also apply:
– To provide the necessary support during rolling, the sides have to be minimum
5 mm and perpendicular to the plastic strips.
– Regarding the handling of aluminium profiles in the rolling equipment, Z profiles
must be modified so that they do not tilt. The rolling surfaces should be centred
and at 90° to the insulation strips. A certain degree of imbalance can be handled
by special supports (contact Sapa for advice).
– The minimum distance between insulation strips is 16 mm.
– Both insulation strips should normally be of the same width.
Examples of insulated door profiles.
91
14. MACHINING
14. Machining
At the design stage, it is possible to create a profile that needs
a minimum amount of post-extrusion machining. However, some
form of further processing is often necessary after extrusion.
Machining aluminium profiles is, comparatively speaking,
inexpensive. The metal’s malleability means that die costs are,
as a rule, highly competitive.
The cutting speeds attainable with aluminium are far higher
than those with steel.
Machining can take place both before or after anodising.
The choice is determined by the demands made on the product.
“Protective anodising” is a good way of preventing damage to
profiles during machining.
92
14. MACHINING
High-speed machining
In recent years, machines and equipment for machining aluminium have seen
relatively rapid development. High machining speeds have made it possible to
achieve reduced wall thicknesses and tighter tolerances. This has further increased
aluminium’s competitiveness.
As regards the high-speed machining of aluminium, it is cutting speeds of
3,500 m per minute and over that are most interesting. At this point, the cutting
forces diminish and, with increased cutting speed, fall to a very low level. This
allows feed speeds to be increased. As a result, machining times are reduced.
Lower cutting forces also reduce burr formation and increase tool service life.
Machines capable of exploiting these higher feed speeds require significantly
improved dynamics, and considerably more efficient control systems, than
conventional machines.
Shorter lead times
In today’s market, there is a constant demand for ever shorter lead times. Amongst
other things, this has led to the development of the “product workshop” concept
of production.
The demand for shorter lead times makes it highly desirable to avoid transfers
of materials between independent machining centres and areas of responsibility.
The solution is a concept in which operations are integrated – there is a single centre
of responsibility and, very often, a single supplier.
Series sizes
The size of a product series is often a crucial factor in deciding which production
methods are to be used. Thus, as early as possible, it is vital that an assessment
is made of the series sizes of all the necessary parts.
Scrap – a valuable raw material

For Sapa, production scrap is a valuable raw material that can be immediately
exploited for transformation into new profiles. This is an important consideration.
Machining methods
Machining methods are classified by the way in which they give shape to the work
piece – plastic deformation, stock cutting and stock removal. The following
pages examine some of the methods that are suitable for machining aluminium.
93
14.1 MACHINING – STOCK CUTTING
14.1 Stock cutting

14.1.1 Punching/cutting
Cutting using a punch and a die is commonly referred to as punching.
The bottom part of the punch and the upper edges of the die present a cutting
profile corresponding to the contours and cavities of the part to be cut. Usually,
the punch is mobile and the die is fixed.
Punch
Material
Die
The punch penetrates the material. Deformation is at first elastic and then plastic.
This is followed by fracture initiation, first at the punch edges and then at the die
edges. Cutting is completed by these fractures propagating through the material
and then joining.
94
14.2 MACHINING – STOCK REMOVAL
14.2 Stock removal

Extruded aluminium is easy to cut. Thanks to high cutting speeds, and the high
feed speeds this makes possible, machining costs are low and production rates
are high.
If care is not taken, problems such as build-up on the cutting tools, chip
blockages, burr formation and difficulty in meeting tolerances can arise. The right
cutting settings and tool geometry are important.
Broadly speaking, cutting tools for extruded aluminium are characterised by
positive cutting angles and ample space for chips. Up to
PKD tools (tools with diamond inserts) very often give good results. Sapa has,
500,000
on occasions, drilled up to 500,000 holes using the same tool. Titanium coated,
hard metal blades are a further example of a class of cutting tool with a long holes with
service life. the same
In long production runs, machining can often be streamlined by, for example, cutting
having automated transport between machines and using a line system. tool.
14.2.1 Turning
Turning in automatic lathes is only possible with alloys that produce short chips.
As a rule, an alloy should be worked at its highest possible temper. Furthermore,
if possible, a hardenable alloy should be chosen.
With the metal in a soft condition, problems such as build-up on the blade, long
chips, chip blockages, extreme burr formation and difficulty in meeting tolerances
may arise.
It is important to choose the correct cutting settings (e.g. cutting speed and
feed) so that, amongst other things, the chips fall away from the point of cutting.
Cutting fluid (mineral oil or, in some cases, a water-based emulsion) is used
to cool the cutting tool and wash chips away.
Cutting tools are most usually made of hard metals or high-quality high-speed
steel. To give good turning results and surface quality, the cutting tool should have
high surface fineness and a good edge.
In CNC lathes with several tool arms, drilling, tapping and milling can be
carried out at the same time as turning.
95
14.2 MACHINING – STOCK REMOVAL
14.2.2 Drilling
Drill bits suitable for extruded aluminium have a tip angle of around 130°, a spiral
angle of approx. 40° and provide ample room for chips.
Recommended settings for cutting

Diameter: High-speed steel Hard metal
10 mm. Cutting speed, v 70 – 150 m/min. 150 – 1,000 m/min.
Depth: Feed, s 0.1 – 0.4 mm/rotation 0.1 – 0.7 mm/rotation
30 mm.
Time: The cutting speed depends on the drill’s speed (rpm) and the speed at which the
approx. 0.3 sec. bit is fed into the material. With the right equipment and settings, a 10 mm wide,
30 mm deep hole can be drilled in 0.3 seconds.
14.2.3 Milling
Extruded aluminium can be milled in everything from simple milling machines to
high-speed machines.
High-speed machining makes it possible to achieve very good tolerances,
surface finishes and processing speeds.
Sapa has high-speed machines that operate from 20,000 to 40,000 rpm.
Milling. Cutting to length.
14.2.4 Cutting to length

Circular saw speed should be around 3,000 rpm and blade diameter between
200 and 800 mm.
Saws especially designed for cutting aluminium can cut the work piece so
neatly that, for most purposes, there is no need for further processing of the cut.
Radial saws can cut profiles that are up to 500 mm wide.
96
14.3 MACHINING – FORMING
14.3 Plastic forming

14.3.1 Draw bending
Draw bending is the most commonly used bending method. It is suitable for tight
radii and has a high degree of repeatability.
Using an adjustable clamping jaw, the work piece is fixed against a rotating
die. The clamping jaw and the tool are shaped to reproduce the profile’s cross For high
section. quality
The work piece rotates with the die. This stretches the material on the outside of surfaces,
the profile and compresses that on the inside. To prevent scratches and clamping
bend before
marks on the profile, the tools are usually made of plastic.
Anodised profiles: Being hard and brittle, the oxide layer forms many fine anodising.
cracks during bending. If a high quality surface is required, it is recommended that
anodising is left until after bending.
Draw bending. Roller bending.
14.3.2 Roller bending

Roller bending is used for forming large radii in the work piece.
The work piece is rolled between two drive rollers and a pressure roller. The
shape presented by the rollers corresponds to the profile’s cross section. Vertical
adjustment of the upper roller (the pressure roller) alters the radius of the bend.
Thus, in CNC machines, a number of different radii can easily be pressed into a
single work piece.
As rollers are most usually made of steel, lubrication is often required to prevent
cutting and scratching of the profile.
97
14.3 MACHINING – FORMING
14.3.3 Stretch bending

Stretch bending gives very high three-dimensional shape accuracy.
The work piece is fixed between two clamping jaws and then gradually
stretched over a shaping block. The shape presented by the block corresponds
to the profile’s cross-section.
The metal is stretched to its upper elastic limit and spring-back is thus
negligible.
As the tooling investment is relatively high, stretch bending is best suited
to large series production.
Very high
three-
dimensional
shape
accuracy.
Stretch bending.
14.3.4 Press bending

Press bending (point bending) is suitable for simple bending of large series.
The work piece is formed using compressive force. An upper and a lower
die are contoured to give the work piece the desired shape. Pressure is applied
by some form of excentric or hydraulic press.
Depending on the exterior of the part to be pressed, dies can be steel or
plastic.
Press bending.
98
14.4 – 5 MACHINING – THREADING, TOLERANCES
14.4 Threading
Cutting and forming methods can both be used to make threads. When cutting
using taps, a chipping angle of 35 – 40º is recommended. Cutting speed should
be 30 – 40 m/min.
When producing a thread by rolling, the so-called oil groove method is
recommended. Speed should be 40 – 70 m/min.
The milling of threads gives good results all the way down to, in some
cases, M3.
Thread
14.5 Tolerances milling
even down
Machining is normally to ISO 2768-1 (middle), but tighter tolerances normally
to M3.
present no problem.
In high-speed machining, channels and holes can be milled to, for example,
H7. This does away with the need for subsequent reaming.
99
14. MACHINING – EXAMPLE PRODUCTS
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100
14. MACHINING – EXAMPLE PRODUCTS
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101
14. MACHINING – HYDROFORMING
14.6 Hydroforming
Our starting point is an extruded aluminium pipe. Hydroforming allows us to
Complex shape it three-dimensionally in a single operation. The process offers as yet
unexplored possibilities.
parts with
All, or parts, of a profile’s cross section can be tailored using hydroforming.
very good In a single operation, complex parts can be created with very good dimensional
dimensional accuracy.
accuracy. In a single hydroforming operation, it is also possible to make local changes
such as domes or holes. By eliminating several machining operations, lead times
can be shortened.
Hydroforming of aluminium profiles is a competitive choice at yearly volumes
of around 20,000 units upwards.
The principle
The profile is placed in a die that has an inner geometry exactly replicating
the shape of the finished component. The die is locked securely in position and
hydrostatic pressure is then set up in the pipe (profile). As the profile is pressed
against the die, it takes up the shape of the die.
The automotive industry – Research and series deliveries

Since the end of the 90’s, along with Volvo and Ford, Sapa has been involved in
research projects on, and prototype production of, vehicle side beams hydroformed
from extruded aluminium profiles.
Today, Sapa has world-leading and unique expertise and experience in the
hydroforming of long aluminium beams.
In the autumn of 2001, Sapa began series deliveries to Volvo.
Simulation, using the FE method,

to study the critical points in the
forming process.
The shaped component.

Note the cross-sectional changes throughout its length.
102
14. MACHINING – HYDROFORMING
Example product:
Side beam for a Space Frame
.
pipe
inium
alum
ded
xtru
an e
om
ts fr
star
ction
rodu
1. P
gh
hrou
g oes t
hen
pe t .
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2. aw b
dr profile can fit into a narrow passage.
In order to make a hole during the hydroforming

process, a punch is included in the tooling. Punching
extends process time by a few seconds only. The hole
nt.
pone is precisely positioned and no further machining is
d com required.
she
fini
he
3. T
The result – very good dimensional

accuracy and exactly the geometry
required by the product and production.
Compared with traditional steel/plate bodies,

hydroforming gives weight savings of around 50%.
Profile design, dimensions and tolerances

In discussions, Sapa has contributed advice in respect of a wide range of designs
for, amongst others, the automotive, furniture, electronics and engineering industries.
In design discussions, it has become clear that hydroforming opens the way to
unique solutions for a wide range of design problems. Thus, it would not be easy to
here give simple rules for profile design, dimensions and tolerances. Contact Sapa’s
hydroforming department in Vetlanda, Sweden, for further details.
103
15. SURFACES
15. Surface treatment

Even before surface treatment, the appearance and surface quality
of extruded aluminium profiles is perfectly satisfactory for many
applications.
Thanks to good corrosion resistance, surface treatment is rarely
necessary simply to provide corrosion protection. However, there
Suitable are many other reasons for treating the surfaces of profiles.
surface
Examples of attributes that can be changed by surface treatment
treatment can
enhance a
include:
range of – surface structure
attributes that – colour
are important – corrosion resistance
for appearance – hardness
and/or – wear resistance
function. – reflectivity
– electrical insulation.
The untreated surface
Surfaces do no always need treatment after extrusion. Load-bearing structures
and machine parts are examples of products where the surface quality is satisfactory
without any treatment.
15.1 Profile design

Lines and extrusion stripes
that would be noticeable on
visible surfaces can easily be
hidden using decoration. Such
patterns or optical effects are
an integral part of the profile
solution created at the design
stage. Refer also to “Decorate”,
page 32.
Sailing boat mast – Sapa delivers profiles in 12.4 metre lengths.

Seldén Mast joins these to form 20 – 25 metre high masts.
104
15.2 SURFACES – MECHANICAL SURFACE TREATMENT
15.2 Mechanical surface treatment
Grinding
Grinding is one of the methods used for improving surface quality. The process
leaves a fine striation in the direction of grinding. The resultant surface can be
“very fine”, “medium” or “coarse”.
Grinding is most commonly used for furnishing and interior design products.
Ground surfaces are often anodised. Grinding before painting can further
improve the surface finish.
Polishing
Polishing smoothes the surface. Quality and gloss are determined by customer
specifications. Polished surfaces normally go on to be anodised. To achieve a
high-gloss finish, polishing is followed by bright anodising.
Tumbling (barrel polishing)

Tumbling is mainly used for deburring. Determined by the polishing medium used
in the drum, surfaces range all the way from matt to gloss.
Bottle openers – deburred by tumbling, anodised Deburring by tumbling.

in short lengths and screen printed.
A B C
Ground surfaces – A: “very fine”, B: “medium”, C: “coarse”.
105
15.3 SURFACES – ANODISING
15.3 Anodising
The reasons for anodising

Anodising, one of the most common surface treatments, is used to (amongst
other things):
– maintain a product’s “as-new” appearance.
– enhance corrosion resistance.
The – create a dirt repellent surface that satisfies stringent hygiene requirements.
advantages – create a decorative surface with durable colour and gloss.
of anodising. – create a “touch-friendly” surface.
– create function-specific surfaces, for example, slip surfaces, abrasion-resistant
surfaces for use in machine parts, etc.
– give surfaces an electrically insulating coating.
– provide a base for the application of adhesives or printing inks.
Recommended layer thicknesses when anodising
Layer thickness Area of application
25 μm Where surfaces are exposed to severe stress in the form of corrosion or abrasion.
20 μm Great or normal stress outdoors (e.g. transport and construction industries).
Indoors – great stress arising from the use of chemicals (e.g. the foodstuffs industry).
15 μm Severe abrasion, indoors and outdoors in dry and clean atmospheres.
10 μm Normal stress indoors.
3 – 5 μm Protective anodising before machining, short period of etching.
Choice of alloy when anodising
Sapa alloy 6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A 6082 7021 1050A 6101 64633)
Decorative anodising
(natural, coloured, Hx)1) x x x x x
Protective anodising
2)
(natural) x x x x x x x x (x)
1) Using the same anodising process, gloss and shade vary between different alloys.
2) Anodising should be avoided as it contaminates the process bath.
3) Specifically intended for bright anodising (prior protective anodising should be avoided).
The anodising process
There are normally four stages in the process: pre-treatment, anodising, colouring
(where required) and sealing.
The most frequent type of anodising is natural anodising. The electrolytic
process takes place once the metal surface has received the appropriate
mechanical or chemical pre-treatment and has been thoroughly cleaned.
106
The profile is connected to a direct current source and becomes the anode
(hence anodising). An electrolytic cell is formed. Dilute sulphuric acid at room
temperature is normally used as the electrolyte. During electrolysis, the surface
of the metal is oxidised. The process continues until the desired layer thickness
(usually 5 – 25 μm) is reached.
Sealing
The oxide layer contains a large number of pores, approx. 1011/cm2 (i.e. around
a hundred billion). The diameter of the pores is between 120 and 330 Å.
To obtain an impermeable surface, the pores have to be sealed. Sealing is
achieved by treating the surface in de-ionised water at 95 – 98°C. This changes
the aluminium oxide into bohemite, the attendant increase in volume closing
the pores.
Sealing.
The oxide layer formed in natural anodising is transparent. Coloured oxide
layers are also possible (see pages 108 and 109). Natural anodised profiles
are delivered with matt or semi-matt surfaces.
Maintenance – cleaning
The anodic oxide layer has good corrosion resistance in most environments.
With the proviso that the surface is cleaned, anodised profiles are virtually
maintenance-free. The surface cleans easily in both water with a little neutral
detergent and in white spirits. Although solvents do not affect aluminium, strong Virtually
alkaline solutions should be avoided. maintenance-
Resistance to corrosion, discoloration and abrasion increases with layer free.
thickness. Recommendations for suitable thicknesses are given in the table on
the previous page.
As the anodic oxide layer has poor cold formability, forming should take
place before anodising. Cutting and drilling can be carried out after anodising
but the exposed surfaces will, of course, be untreated. Welding is to be carried
out before anodising.
Properties of anodised aluminium

Corrosion resistance is very good, especially where pH is between 4 and 9. In
contact with strongly alkaline substances, surfaces can stain and be damaged. Very good
Thus, it has to be borne in mind that aluminium should be protected against lime, corrosion
cement and gypsum (e.g. on building sites). Visible surfaces can be protected
resistance.
using tape.
The hardness of the oxide layer depends on the anodising process used.
Generally, the layer is harder than glass and as hard as corundum.
The oxide layer is transparent. Whether natural or coloured, its appearance
depends on the viewing angle.
At temperatures above 100°C, fine cracks form in the oxide layer. From an
aesthetic point of view, this may be an undesirable effect.
107
The reflectivity of bright etched aluminium is high. The gloss value is 90 units
(ISO 7599, 60° viewing angle). This decreases slightly with anodising.
The oxide layer is an electrical insulator. A sealed, 15 μm oxide layer has a
breakdown voltage of 500 – 600 V.
An anodised profile can be recycled with no pre-treatment. Before remelting,
painted profiles must first have the paint removed.
Coloured oxide layers

Dyeing
Natural anodised, unsealed aluminium can be coloured using organic or inorganic
pigments (dyes). Profiles are sealed after dyeing.
Electrolytic Hx colouring
Like the dyeing process, electrolytic colouring is also a separate stage after
anodising.
Under the influence of an alternating current, pigment is precipitated at the
bottom of the oxide layer’s pores. The pigmenting agent is tin salt and the colour
scale ranges from champagne to black. The colours, designated from Hx 10 to
Hx 50, are highly resistant to fading. After colouring, profiles are sealed.
Outdoor colourfastness
The colourfastness of an anodised layer depends on the pigments and colouring
Colourfastness technique used.
depends on Dyeing: Some coloured layers have limited outdoor colourfastness.
the pigments Electrolytic Hx colouring: Limited choice of colours, very good lightfastness,
and colouring suitable for outdoor use.
technique
used. Sapa’s colour designations
See the colour guide on page 122.
All colours are delivered with a matt or semi-matt finish.
108
Colour guide
on page 122.
1 2
1 Reflector panels emerging from the anodising bath. This profile, produced for Infrarödteknik AB,
is GD-20-l, semi-matt anodised.
2 Combined casings-heat sinks for compact modules using hybrid technology from Ericsson Components.
Protective anodising before treatment, then BL-20-I, semi-matt anodising in short lengths.
109
15.4 SURFACES – PAINTING
15.4 Painting
Painting offers a limitless choice of colours and very good colour matching
(repeatability). Powder coating is now easily the most widespread method of painting
aluminium profiles.
GSB certification
Since 1994, Sapa Lackering has been certified to the German GSB standards. It is
the only company in Sweden to have this certification. To qualify for certification, our
products and processes must meet stringent requirements. Continued compliance is
monitored by inspectors who make a number of unannounced visits every year.
Besides continous checks during production, we have also undertaken to,
amongst other things, carry out some 15 tests a day in shielded rooms. To ensure
Chrome-free, traceability, the tests are archived for 5 years.
GSB approved
alternative. Pre-treatment
To ensure the right adhesion for the paint, it is important that pre-treatment, paint
application and subsequent curing are all carried out correctly.
As maximum adhesion and durability are prime goals, pre-treatment is of crucial
importance. Pre-treatment normally comprises degreasing and pickling of the
surface, followed by a chemical treatment.
The chemical treatment (chrome-free or chrome-based) gives good adhesion
and effective corrosion resistance. The chrome-free titanium based process is GSB
approved and is now our standard method. It has undergone extensive testing.
Rinse water from the chromating process is treated in efficient cleaning plants.
The sludge is drawn off and sent away for appropriate disposal.
Pre-treatment is the same for both powder coating and wet painting.
15.4.1 Powder coating

Broadly speaking, there are absolutely no limits to the choice of colour. Besides the
RAL and NCS S colour systems, we also work to customers’ own colour definitions.
Standard gloss is 77 units (ISO 2813, 60° viewing angle).
Powder coatings are applied and cured without solvents. This gives a good work
98% is used,
environment and has no negative impact on the external environment.
the rest is In a wet coating plant, half the paint is lost through evaporation and the waste
recycled. involved in over-spraying. In Sapa’s powder coating plant, up to 98% of the powder
is used. Powder that does not adhere to the product is recirculated via a reclamation
system.
Powder coating qualities
The prime qualities of powder coating and powder coats are:
– No risk of running or blistering.
– High repeatability.
– Powder coatings withstand knocks and abrasion far better than
wet paint coatings.
– Good formability (e.g. can be formed after coating).
– Suitable for outdoor use – good resistance to UV and corrosion.
110
Coating thickness is normally 60 – 140 μm. In some designs, the thickness of the
coating has to be taken into consideration when determining profile dimensions
and tolerances.
Structural, metallic, clear and Decoral coatings

Sapa works with all the kinds of coatings requested by customers. In addition to
the traditional powder coatings, this includes structural, metallic and clear coatings.
Decoral, a development of powder coating, gives patterned surfaces (see also
15.4.2).
Sapa has a number of powder coating plants, each of them specialising in different products. We also
have a Decoral production unit and one for wet painting. The picture shows a vertical powder coating
line – profiles up to 7 metres long are suspended vertically rather than horizontally, thereby giving a
manifold increase in capacity.
Left: Powder coatings are applied via triboelectric (friction) or electrostatic charging.
Profiles emerging from the powder box.
Right: Profiles on their way to the curing oven (temperature is approx. 180°C).
Curing takes about 15 minutes, the time depending on the design of the profile.
Both these pictures are taken from one of our horizontal coating lines.
111
Exact colour
matching easy
with paint.
Picture 1.
DHL Worldwide 1
Express, Helsinki’s
Vantaa airport
– powder coating
in a red colour to
match that specified
in DHL’s manual
(Pantone colour
scale).
Picture 2.
The profiles in this
grille (Scania 4 series)
are powder coated.
Picture 3.
Shower cubicle from
IDO – white powder
coating in a special
tint to blend with 2 3
IDO’s other ranges.
Picture 4.
Renault roof rail
– a special
anthracite-grey,
powder coating.
Picture 5.
Outdoor play
equipment from
Kompan – powder
coated handles. 4 5
112
No risk of
running or
blistering.
Picture 6.
Detail of a glass facade
– light-oak Decoral in
combination with a
powder coating.
Picture 7.
Stockholm II folding
stool, designed by Hans
Ehrich of A & E Design
9 and produced by Lectus
Office – powder coated.
Picture 8.
Aluminium doors
replacing worn out
wooden doors – Decoral
light-oak finish.
Picture 9.
Interior from the Bo01
home exhibition, Malmö
– powder coated window
frames.
Picture 10.
Cables and leads hidden
by Thorsman’s FrontLine
installation system
8 10 – powder coated.
113
15.4.2 Decoral
A development of powder coating that gives patterned surfaces

The technique: A special composition powder coating is first applied. The pattern
is then transferred to the profile. The original pattern, most usually a photographic
image of wood or stone, is copied onto a film that holds the pigments forming
the decorative design.
Deep The depth of penetration is crucial for the results – a shallow pattern is subject
penetration. to comparatively large stresses. The Decoral technique ensures deep penetration.
The result is a surface with all the properties of a traditional powder coating (see
“Powder coating qualities”, page 110).
Key properties
Test Method Result

Thickness ISO 2360 Min. 60 μm on visible surfaces
Adhesion ISO 2409 Cross-cut 0 1)
Buchholz hardness ISO 2815 Min. 80
Erichsen ISO 1520 Min. 3 mm
Bending 2) ISO 1519 Ø 8 mm
Kesternich (SO2) ISO 3231 24 cycles < 1 mm
Boiling water Pressure cooker, 1 hour No defects or blisters
Mortar resistance ASTM D 3260 Meets base requirements
Damp resistance DIN 50017, 1,000 hours < 1 mm
Salt spray ISO 9227 < 1 mm
Impact 2 ASTM D 2794 > 22 inch-pounds
All tests carried out on decorated plates and profiles.

1) Evaluation is on a scale of 0 – 5 where 0 is best.
2) Test carried out on 1 mm thick, AA 5005 H 24 aluminium alloy plates.
Before After
The Decoral system has
been used in series
production since 1996.
This has given us a wealth
of experience regarding
how Decoral surfaces work
in practice in, amongst other
countries, Italy and Germany.
Extensive testing in
laboratories has also
provided comprehensive
documentation.
114
Example patterns – choose from a wide range, or create your own.
Design and construction advantages of Decoral

Without being any thicker than normal powder coatings, Decoral can add the look of solid wood to
a profile's durability, “create” marble with the same density as aluminium... When it comes to patterns
and colours, there are no limitations.
15.4.3 Wet painting

Sapa uses many different types of paint and can, of course, offer water-based paints.
Alkyd paints are often used in wet painting. However, they have low formability and cannot be
used for products that are to be formed after painting. Resistance to solvents and oils is poor.
115
15.5 SURFACES – SAPA HM-WHITE
15.5 Sapa HM-white

The perfect complement to both
anodising and powder coating
Sapa HM-white is produced by electrophoresis (Honnystone Method).
An anodised and unsealed profile is dipped into a tank where, using direct
current, the paint is applied – electrophoretic deposition. The paint (an acrylic
based melamine) is then hardened in an oven at around 180°C.
Total coating thickness is approximately 30 μm.
This method offers a range of advantages:

– A UV-resistant white.
– Very good gloss retention and resistance to chemicals.
– Very good corrosion resistance.
– The coating penetrates into the pores of the anodised surface and sticks there.
This gives very good adhesion.
– The surface is impermeable and dirt-repellent.
– The values for hardness, impact and abrasion resistance are almost identical
to those for powder coatings. However, as regards abrasive wear, it must be
borne in mind that HM-white has a surface thickness of 30 μm compared to
powder coating’s 60 – 140 μm.
– Surface thickness is the same for the entire surface.
– There is no build-up of coating at the edges. This is perfect for structural profiles
that have to be mated with each other and for snap-fit and telescopic designs.
Perfect for
structural
profiles.
HM-white coating at approx. x 20,000 magnification. A hinge – HM-white has a great advantage here as
One third of the coating is the anodic oxide layer, the coating thickness is even on all profile surfaces
2/3 is the paint itself. This picture was taken by and there is thus no build-up at the edges.
a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
116
15.5 SURFACES – SAPA HM-WHITE
Good chemical
resistance,
very good
corrosion
resistance and
an impermeable,
dirt-repellent
surface.
1
2 3
Pictures 1 and 2, HM-white in use. Picture 3. Coloured profiles emerging from the process bath.
Sapa HM-white – examples of the standards

to which the coating is quality tested
Test Method Result
Thickness ISO 2360 30 μm
Gloss ISO 2813 (60° viewing) 85 ± 5
Adhesion ISO 2409 Cross-cut 01)
Buchholz hardness ISO 2815 > 100
Pencil hardness – destructive/abrasive INTA 160 30 5H–3H
Kesternich (SO 2 ) ISO 3231 24 cycles
Salt spray test ISO 3768 1,000 hours
Machu < 0.5 mm
Boiling water BS 4842 5 hours
Mortar resistance ASTM C 207 C, 24 hours No adhesion
1) Evaluation is on a scale of 0 – 5 where 0 is best.
117
15.6 SURFACES – SCREEN PRINTING
15.6 Screen printing
Screen printing (formerly silk-screen printing) is an ancient printing method.

The original design is reproduced on a transparent film that is then placed on a
fine-meshed screen (usually nylon nowadays). This is then exposed and
developed photographically. The screen is next fitted into a frame. Either manually
or automatically, a squeegee is dragged along the screen to transfer the design onto
the printing surface.
Initial costs (production of the nylon screen, etc.) are low – often less than
Often
EUR 100.
under
EUR 100. Tampon printing
Tampon printing is a technique that makes it possible to use screen printing on
both concave and convex surfaces.
Natural and coloured anodising

on the same profile
Using screen printing, a profile’s surfaces can combine natural anodising and
colouring.
Anodising is interrupted when the oxide layer has formed. The profile areas
that are not to be printed are then coated with a special masking ink. After printing,
the profile is sealed in the normal way.
Unanodised surfaces on
anodised profiles
A masking technique is also used when parts of a profile are to emerge unanodised
from the anodising process. This preserves the surface’s electrical and thermal
conductivity (the anodic oxide layer is insulating).
118
15.6 SURFACES – SCREEN PRINTING
Screen
printing can
also be used
on painted
and HM-
white
surfaces.
119
15.7 SURFACES – FUNCTION-SPECIFIC SURFACES
15.7 Function-specific surfaces

We define a function-specific surface as one where certain function-related
properties are of critical importance.
Whatever you require of your function-specific surfaces, have a word with
Sapa!
Slip, friction and sealing surfaces
Here, the surface roughness (i.e. the Ra values, axially and radially) is of the
utmost importance. Sapa can meet even the most severe demands. Cylinder
tubes are an example. Direct from the press, we can deliver tubes where the
insides have Ra values as low as 0.6 axially and 1.2 radially.
The Ra values can, of course, be further improved by machining.
Abrasion-resistant surfaces
These surfaces have to be anodised.
Four height adjustable legs made from telescoping aluminium profiles – slip surfaces direct
from the press (no machining). The product: Control cabinet lift columns from MPI.
120
15.8 SURFACES – AT-A-GLANCE GUIDE
15.8 At-a-glance guide for choice of surface treatments
Process Result Use
Profile Design Patterning. Design purposes. Covering lines and

extrusion stripes. Increasing friction
(grip).
MECHANICAL
SURFACE
TREATMENT
Embossing Patterning. Design purposes. Marking.
Grinding Improved surface quality. Wherever an exclusive appearance

Superior appearance. at a reasonable price is the goal.
Polishing Improved surface finish. Furnishing and interior design products.

Superior appearance. Finish and gloss as specified by the
customer.
Tumbling Smoothing of cut edges. Deburring. Matt to gloss
surfaces depending on tumbling medium. Primarily deburring.
ANODISING
General Very good corrosion protection. The surface Both indoors and outdoors.
retains its “as-new” appearance, is dirt-repellent A base for application of adhesives
and resistant to mechanical abrasion. Colour and or printing inks.
gloss resist fading. An electrically insulating coating.
Bright anodising Intense gloss, high reflectivity. Where there are high demands as
regards surface finish.
Colour anodising
Colouring Huge choice of colours, some of them with Primarily indoors – some outdoor
very high lightfastness. applications.
Hx Limited choice of colours – champagne to black. Primarily outdoors.

Very high lightfastness.
PAINTING Unlimited choice of colours. A range of painting Both indoors and outdoors.
systems to meet different requirements. Very good
corrosion resistance.
ELECTROPHORESIS UV-resistant colour with a more durable gloss than Both indoors and outdoors.
Sapa HM-white traditional paints. Very good corrosion resistance.
Coating thickness the same over the entire surface.
SCREEN PRINTING
Printing on the surface Wide choice of colours. Limited abrasion resistance. Design purposes. Logos.
121
15.9 SURFACES – COLOUR GUIDE FOR ANODISING
15.9 Colour guide for anodising
Sapa’s standard colours
Max Max
Designation length Designation length
(mm) (mm)
Natural 5-25 μm NA-5 – NA-25 12,400 Violet LI-25-I 2,400

Hardoxal LI-30-I 2,400
Champagne Hx-10 7,500
Brown olive BO-20-I 2,400
Light amber Hx-20 7,500 (x)
BO-35-I 2,400 (x)
Amber Hx-30 7,500
Dark amber Hx-40 7,500 (x) Black SV-50-U 2,400
Black Hx-50 7,500
Gold GD-20-I 7,800

Bright anodising (alloy Sapa 6463)
GD-30-I 7,800
GD-30-U 7,800 Nature NA-5-GI 2,400
GD-40-I 7,800 Gold GD-20-GI 2,400
Yellow YW-20-GI 2,400
Yellow YW-40-U 2,400
Orange OR-35-GI 2,400
Orange OR-35-I 2,400 Red RD-25-GI 2,400
Red cerise RC-30-GI 2,400 (x)
Red RD-15-I 2,400
Green GN-40-GI 2,400
RD-25-U 2,400
Blue BL-20-GI 2,400
Red cerise RC-30-I 2,400 Blue grey BG-30-GI 2,400
Violet LI-30-GI 2,400
Green GN-40-I 2,400
Brown olive BO-20-GI 2,400 (x)
Blue BL-20-I 2,400 BO-35-GI 2,400 (x)
BL-30-U 2,400 (x) Black SV-50-GI 2,400
Blue grey BG-10-I 2,400

BG-30-I 2,400
(x) Certain restrictions apply to colours
marked (x) – see below
Explanation of RD-25-U, GD-30-I, etc.

Sapa’s colour designations have Amongst the many factors influencing All colours can be delivered with
three parts: the perceived appearance of a matt or semi-matt finish.
Colour – intensity – properties. anodised surfaces are: Gloss finishes are also available.
– Profile shape The table above lists the colours that
RD = red 25 = intensity
can be delivered with a gloss finish.
U = outdoor use – Viewing light and angle
For colours marked with (x) there are
GD = gold 30 = intensity – Surface structure
some restrictions – please ask Sapa
I = primarily indoor use – Thickness of the anodising layer for further details. Furthermore these
The intensity scale runs from 0 to 50. – Choice of alloy. colours might have a greater variation
Taken all together, this means that than other colours.
aluminium is truly a “living” material.
122
16. CORROSION
16. Corrosion
16.1 Aluminium’s
corrosion resistance
Untreated aluminium has very good corrosion resistance in most
environments. This is primarily because aluminium spontaneously
forms a thin but effective oxide layer that prevents further oxidation.
Aluminium oxide is impermeable and, unlike the oxide layers
on many other metals, it adheres strongly to the parent metal. Corrosion
If damaged mechanically, aluminium’s oxide layer repairs itself rates
immediately. – aluminium
(μm/year)
This oxide layer is one of the main reasons for aluminium’s
good corrosion properties. The layer is stable in the general 2500
2000
pH range 4 – 9. In strongly acid or alkaline environments, 1500

1000
aluminium normally corrodes relatively rapidly. 500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Corrosion resistance in common profile alloys The graph shows

corrosion rates (i.e.
Between Sapa’s most widely used alloys, there is little variation in corrosion the average depth
of corrosion) for
resistance. However, alloys containing more than 0.5% copper generally have aluminium at
poorer resistance. Therefore, they should not be used unprotected in different pH values
environments with a high chloride content (e.g. where there is road salt or near (pH adjustment using
sea water). hydrochloric acid and
sodium hydroxide).
16.2 The most common kinds of corrosion

The most common types of corrosion are:
– galvanic corrosion
– pitting
– crevice corrosion
Stress corrosion, which leads to crack formation, is a more special type of
corrosion. It occurs primarily in high-strength alloys (e.g. AlZnMg alloys) where
these are subjected to prolonged tensile stress in the presence of a corrosive
medium.
This type of corrosion does not normally occur in common AlMgSi alloys.
123
16. CORROSION
16.2.1 Galvanic corrosion

Galvanic corrosion may occur where there is both metallic contact and an electrolytic
bridge between different metals.
The least noble metal in the combination becomes the anode and corrodes. The
most noble of the metals becomes the cathode and is protected against corrosion.
In most combinations with other metals, aluminium is the least noble metal. Thus,
aluminium presents a greater risk of galvanic corrosion than most other structural
materials. However, the risk is less than is generally supposed.
Aluminium Steel Steel Aluminium
A small cathode surface and a large anode In the reverse situation (large cathode,
surface results in negligible corrosion. small anode), attack can be serious in difficult
environments.
Galvanic corrosion and aluminium

Galvanic corrosion of aluminium occurs:
– Only where there is contact with a more noble metal (or other electron
Both conductor with a higher chemical potential than aluminium, e.g. graphite).
– While, at the same time, there is an electrolyte (with good conductivity)
conditions
between the metals.
have to Galvanic corrosion is often attributable to unsuitable structural design.
be met! Galvanic corrosion does not occur in dry, indoor atmospheres. Nor is the risk
great in rural atmospheres. However, the risk of galvanic corrosion must always be
taken into account in environments with high chloride levels, e.g. areas bordering
the sea. Copper, carbon steel and even stainless steel can here initiate galvanic
corrosion.
Problems can also occur where the metallic combination is galvanised
steel and aluminium. The zinc coating of the galvanised steel will, at first, prevent
the aluminium being attacked. However, this protection disappears when the steel
surface is exposed after the consumption of the zinc.
As it has a thicker zinc coating than electroplated material, hot dip galvanised
material gives longer protection. Thus, in combination with aluminium in aggressive
environments, hot dip galvanised material should be used.
Close-up of galvanic corrosion in an

aluminium rail post (25 year’s use).
The rectangular hollow profile was held
in place by a carbon steel bolt. The
contact surfaces between the steel and
the aluminium were often wet and attack
was aggravated by wintertime salting.
124
16. CORROSION
16.2.2 Preventing galvanic corrosion

The risk of galvanic corrosion should not be exaggerated – corrosion does not occur
in dry, indoor atmospheres and the risk is not great in rural atmospheres.
Electrical insulation
Where different metals are used in combination, galvanic corrosion can be prevented
by electrically insulating them from each other. The insulation has to break all
contact between the metals.
The illustration shows a solution for bolt joints.
Insulation
Aluminium
Steel
Breaking the electrolytic bridge

In large constructions, where insulation is difficult, an alternative solution is to
prevent an electrolytic bridge forming between the metals. Painting is one way
of doing this. Here, it is often best to coat the cathode surface (i.e. the most
noble metal).
A further solution is to use an insulating layer between the metals.
Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection can be gained in two ways. The most common is to mount
an anode of a less noble material in direct metallic contact with the aluminium Cathodic
object to be protected. The less noble material “sacrifices” itself (i.e. corrodes) for
protection
the aluminium. It is thus referred to as a sacrificial anode.
For the above to work, there also has to be liquid contact between the surface can be
to be protected and the sacrificial anode. gained in
Zinc or magnesium anodes are often used for aluminium. two ways.
Another way of obtaining cathodic protection is to connect the aluminium
object to the negative pole of an exterior DC voltage source.
The illustration below shows the cathodic protection of an outboard motor.
Sacrificial
anode
125
16. CORROSION
16.2.3 Pitting
For aluminium, pitting is by far the most common type of corrosion. It occurs only in
the presence of an electrolyte (either water or moisture) containing dissolved salts,
usually chlorides.
The corrosion generally shows itself as extremely small pits that, in the open air,
reach a maximum penetration of a minor fraction of the metal’s thickness. Penetration
may be greater in water and soil.
As the products of corrosion often cover the points of attack, visible pits are rarely
evident on aluminium surfaces.
16.2.4 Preventing pitting

Pitting is primarily an aesthetic problem that, practically speaking, never affects
Rinsing with strength.
Attack is, of course, more severe on untreated aluminium. Surface treatment
water is often
(anodising, painting and coating with HM-white) counteracts pitting.
sufficient. Cleaning is necessary to maintain the treated surface’s attractive appearance
and its corrosion protection. Rinsing with water is often sufficient. Alkaline
detergents should be used with care. Mild alkaline detergents are now available.
These are used in, amongst other areas, the industrial cleaning of aluminium.
Pitting can be prevented by cathodic protection (see previous page). It is also
important to design profiles so that they dry easily.
Avoid angles and pockets Instead, use a shape that promotes

in which water can collect. draining.
The risk of dirt build-up is Stagnant water is avoided by suitably inclining

reduced with radiused corners. the profile and/or providing drain holes
(min. Ø 8 mm, or 6 x 20 mm, so that capillary
forces do not prevent the water running off). The
ventilation of “closed” constructions reduces
the risk of condensation.
126
16. CORROSION
16.2.5 Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion can occur in narrow, liquid-filled crevices. The likelihood of this
type of corrosion occurring in extruded profiles is small.
However, significant crevice
corrosion can occur in marine
atmospheres, or on the exteriors of
Film of liquid vehicles.
During transport and storage,
water sometimes collects in the
crevices between superjacent
aluminium surfaces and leads to
superficial corrosion (“water staining”).
The source of this water is rain or condensation that, through capillary action, is
sucked in between the metal surfaces. Condensation can form when cold material
is taken into warm premises. The difference between night and day temperatures
can also create condensation where aluminium is stored outdoors under tarpaulins
that provide a tight seal.
16.2.6 Preventing crevice corrosion

Using sealing compounds or double-sided tapes before joining two components
prevents water from penetrating into the gaps.
In some cases, rivets or screws
can be replaced by, or combined with,
Sealing adhesive bonding. This counteracts
compound
the formation of crevices.
127
16. CORROSION
16.3 Aluminium in open air

The corrosion of metals in the open air depends on the so-called time of
wetness and the composition of the surface electrolytes. The time of wetness
Excellent
refers to the period during which a metal’s surface is sufficiently wet for
durability corrosion to occur. The time of wetness is normally considered to be when
in normal rural relative humidity exceeds 80% and, at the same time, the temperature is above
atmospheres 0°C (e.g. when condensation forms).
and moderately In normal rural atmospheres, and in moderately sulphurous atmospheres,
sulphurous aluminium’s durability is excellent.
atmospheres. In highly sulphurous atmospheres, minor pitting may occur. However,
generally speaking, the durability of aluminium is superior to that of carbon steel
or galvanised steel.
The presence of salts (particularly chlorides) in the air reduces aluminium’s
durability, but less than is the case for most other construction materials.
Maximum pit depth is generally only a fraction of the thickness of the
material. Thus, in marked contrast to carbon steel, strength properties remain
practically unchanged.
Field exposure tests by Weight losses after 8 years

the Swedish Corrosion Institute
1,000
Marine atmosphere
In a range of outdoor atmospheres, the South-west Sweden
Swedish Corrosion Institute has carried out (bar chart on the right)
field exposure tests on untreated metals. Al 7 g/m2 800
For plates that had received no surface Cu 57 g/m2

Zn 133 g/m2
treatment, the weight losses after eight Fe 933 g/m2 600
year’s exposure are given here.
After the eight years, the average pit Urban atmosphere
Stockholm
depth in the aluminium plates was 70 μm 400
Al 2 g/m2
(0.07 mm). Cu 31 g/m 2
The bar chart shows that aluminium’s Zn 61 g/m2

Fe 676 g/m2 200
weight loss near the sea was:
– approx. 1/100th that of carbon
steel (Fe). 0
Al Cu Zn Fe
– approx. 1/10th that of galvanised
steel (see Zn in the bar chart).
The rate of corrosion decreases rapidly with distance from the sea.
Approximately 1 km from the sea, aluminium behaves more or less the same
as it does in a rural atmosphere. The corrosion rate of the pits decreases
with time.
The picture shows an untreated sample after

20 years off the south-west coast of Sweden.
UV radiation, sulphuric acid and nitric acid in
combination with chlorides have not left any
deep marks. After 22 years in a marine
atmosphere, examination of an untreated
aluminium sample (alloy AA 6063) showed that
corrosion attack was so limited (max. depth
approx. 0.15 mm) that strength was not affected.
128
16. CORROSION
16.4 Aluminium in soil

Soil is not a uniform material. Mineral composition, moisture content, pH, presence
of organic materials and electrical conductivity can all vary widely from site to site.
These differences make it difficult to predict a metal’s durability in soil. Furthermore,
other factors (e.g. stray currents from DC voltage sources) can also affect durability.
Aluminium’s corrosion properties in soil very much depend on the soil’s moisture,
resistivity and pH value. Unfortunately, present knowledge about the corrosiveness
of different types of soils is not comprehensive.
When using aluminium in soil, some form of protective treatment, e.g. a bitumen
coating, is recommended. Corrosion can also be prevented by cathodic protection.
Aluminium
in soil
– protection is
recommended.
Bitumen coating (here of a fence post and a telephone pole) prevents corrosion.
16.5 Aluminium in water

A metal’s corrosion in water is largely dependent on the composition of the water.
For aluminium, it is the presence of chlorides and heavy metals that has the
greatest effect on durability.
In natural fresh water and drinking water, aluminium may be subject to pitting.
However, with regular drying and cleaning, the risk of harmful attack is small.
Pots, pans and other household equipment can be used for decades without there
being any pitting.
The likelihood of harmful attack increases where water is stagnant and the
material is wet for long periods.
129
16. CORROSION
Pitting can however be prevented by:

– design solutions that reduce the risk of water being trapped
– cathodic protection
– corrosion inhibitors, e.g. used in car radiators.
d = k3 t
The rate of pitting in fresh water decreases strongly with time and has been
Pots and pans proven to obey the above formula, where d is maximum pit depth,
k a constant determined by the alloy and water composition and t is time.
can be used
The formula indicates, for example, that a doubling of the pit depth that
for decades has developed by the end of the first three years can only be expected after
without there a total of 24 years.
being any In sea water, AlMg alloys with over 2.5% Mg (and AlMgSi alloys) show
pitting. particularly good durability.
Copper containing alloys should be avoided. Where they are used, they
must be given effective corrosion protection.
When correct attention has been paid to design, especially as regards
use with other materials (and the risk of galvanic corrosion), aluminium is an
excellent material in a marine context. One example of this is the extensive
use of aluminium in many types of ships and boats. Cathodic protection
against corrosion is widely used here.
Corrosion at the water line

Aluminium that is only partly submerged in water can corrode directly under the
water line (so-called waterline corrosion). This type of corrosion, which only occurs
in stagnant water, can be prevented by coating the area around the water line.
130
16. CORROSION
16.6 Aluminium and alkaline building materials

Splashes of damp alkaline building materials, e.g. mortar and concrete, leave
superficial but visible stains on aluminium surfaces. As these stains are difficult Visible
to remove, visible aluminium surfaces should be protected on, for example, surfaces
building sites. Other materials also require the same sort of protection.
should be
Aluminium cast into concrete is similarly attacked. This increases the
adhesion between the materials. Once the concrete has set (dried), there is protected.
normally no corrosion. However, where moisture persists, corrosion may
develop. The volume of the products generated by corrosion can give rise to
cracks in the concrete.
This type of corrosion can be effectively prevented by coating the aluminium
with bitumen or a paint that tolerates alkaline environments. As the oxide layer
is not stable in strongly alkaline environments, anodising does not improve
durability here.
Provided that the concrete has set, aluminium does not need to be protected
in dry, indoor atmospheres.
16.7 Aluminium and chemicals

Thanks to the protective properties of the natural oxide layer, aluminium shows
good resistance to many chemicals. However, low or high pH values (less than
4 and more than 9) lead to the oxide layer dissolving and, consequently, rapid Good
corrosion of the aluminium. Inorganic acids and strong alkaline solutions are resistance
thus very corrosive for aluminium. to many
Exceptions to the above are concentrated nitric acid and solutions of ammonia. chemicals.
These do not attack aluminium.
In moderately alkaline water solutions, corrosion can be hindered by using
silicates as inhibitors. Such kinds of inhibitors are normally included in
dishwasher detergents.
Most inorganic salts are not markedly corrosive for aluminium. Heavy metal
salts form an exception here. These can give rise to serious galvanic corrosion
due to the reduction of heavy metals (e.g. copper and mercury) on aluminium
surfaces.
Aluminium has very good resistance to many organic compounds.
Aluminium equipment is used in the production and storage of many chemicals.
16.8 Aluminium and dirt

Coatings or build-ups of dirt on the metal’s surface can reduce durability to a
certain extent. Very often, this is attributable to the surface now being exposed
to moisture for considerable periods. Thus, depending on the degree of
contamination, dirty surfaces should be cleaned once or twice a year.
131
16.9 ALUMINIUM AND FASTENERS
16.9 Aluminium and fasteners

When choosing fasteners for use with aluminium, special attention should be
paid to avoiding galvanic corrosion and crevice corrosion (see sections 16.2.1,
16.2.2 and 16.2.5).
Galvanic corrosion of aluminium occurs where there is metallic contact with
a more noble metal. It should be pointed out that, indoors and in other dry
atmospheres, aluminium can be in permanent contact with brass and carbon
steel with no risk of galvanic corrosion.
The table on page 129 shows some of the most common surface coatings
for fasteners. The evaluation of the surface coatings is based on the findings of
fastener and coating suppliers, as well as the experience of Sapa and its
customers (primarily in the building and automotive industries).
In deciding which fasteners to use, the table should be regarded as an
introductory guideline. As development is rapid, Sapa also recommends that
fastener and coating suppliers be contacted.
The pictures below show the results of an accelerated corrosion test,
the Volvo Indoor Corrosion Test (VICT). The test cycle is 12 weeks. This
corresponds to five year’s use of a car in a moderately large town (Gothenburg).
Zinc/iron-coated steel nut and bolt. The fastener Dacrolit-coated steel nut and bolt. The fastener
is completely rusted. In the aluminium, 0.43 mm has not been attacked. No pits have formed in
deep pits have formed. the aluminium.
132
16.9 ALUMINIUM AND FASTENERS
At-a-glance guide for choosing fasteners

The table below lists some of the most common materials and coatings for fasteners used with
aluminium. It also gives an evaluation of corrosion resistance in different environments.
Atmospheres
Substrate Surface Comments
material treatment Marine Industrial Rural
Carbon steel Electroplated (Zn/Ni) ++ +++ +++ Used in the automotive industry.
approx. 7 – 10 μm Good protection against galvanic
+ yellow chromating. corrosion.
Carbon steel Electroplated (Zn/Fe) – + +++ Negative results on vehicles.

approx. 7 – 10 μm The Zn layer disappears relatively quickly
+ yellow chromating. and galvanic corrosion then sets in.
Stainless steel, Electroplated, ++ +++ +++ Used primarily in the building industry.
18/8 approx. 7 – 10 μm The Zn coating is principally to reduce
Zn + yellow or bright friction (bolt threads).
chromating.
Stainless steel, Dacrolit – Zn and Al flakes +++ +++ +++ Used primarily in the building industry.
18/8 in an organic binder The Dacrolit coating is used to reduce
containing, amongst friction (bolt threads) and the risk of
other things, chromate. galvanic corrosion.
Stainless steel, Electroplated (Zn/Fe) + +++ +++ Used primarily in the building industry.
2302 7 – 10 μm + yellow or
bright chromating.
Carbon steel Dacrolit – Zn and Al flakes ++ +++ +++ Used primarily on vehicles and, in some
in an organic binder cases, buildings. Withstands 12 weeks
containing, amongst VICT (Volvo Indoor Corrosion Test)
other things, chromate.
Carbon steel Geomet – Zn and Al flakes ++ +++ +++ Very good corrosion resistance shown in
in a matrix of Si, Zn and tests in the automotive industry. Suppliers
Al oxides. Chrome-free. state that it withstands 1,000 hours in a
neutral salt spray (ISO 9227).
Carbon steel Polyseal – Zn phosphating – ++ +++ Used in the automotive industry,

approx. 3 μm + organic Good results in acetic acid and neutral
protection layer (seal) salt spray (ISO 9227).
+ organic top coat.
Aluminium No coating. ++ +++ +++ Used in the building industry.

rivet with
electroplated
steel mandrel.
Stainless steel No coating. + ++ +++ Galvanic corrosion in marine

(18/8) rivet atmospheres.
with stainless
steel mandrel.
Evaluations: +++ = very good; ++ = good; + = acceptable with moderate demands as regards lifetime (up to 10 years)
and surface finish.
References:
1) Korrosionshärdigheten hos fästelement – marknadsinventering avseende nya produkter.
Swedish Corrosion Institute report 1983:5. In Swedish.
2) Korrosionshärdigheten hos fästelement. Slutrapport. Swedish Corrosion Institute report 1995:7. In Swedish.
3) Discussions with Sapa customers and suppliers of fasteners and coatings.
133
16.10 CORROSION CHECKLIST
16.10 Corrosion checklist

The summary below is intended to give a picture, from the perspective of durability,
of aluminium as a construction material.
Used correctly, aluminium has a long life.
Environments
Rural atmosphere Aluminium has excellent durability.
Moderately sulphurous Aluminium has excellent durability.

atmosphere
Highly sulphurous Superficial pitting can occur. Nonetheless, durability is

and marine atmospheres generally superior to that of carbon steel and galvanised steel.
Corrosion problems
can be overcome
Profile design The design should promote drying, e.g. good drainage.
Avoid having unprotected aluminium in protracted contact
with stagnant water.
Avoid pockets where dirt can collect and keep the material
wet for protracted periods.
pH values Low (under 4) and high (over 9) values should, in principle,

be avoided.
Galvanic corrosion In severe environments, especially those with a high chloride

content, attention must be paid to the risk of galvanic
corrosion. Some form of insulation between aluminium and
more noble metals (e.g. carbon steel, stainless steel, copper)
is recommended.
Closed systems (liquid) In closed, liquid containing systems, inhibitors can often
be used to provide corrosion protection.
Severe, wet environments In difficult, wet environments, the use of cathodic protection
should be considered.
134
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
17. Cost-efficiency
When compared with other design solutions, aluminium profiles are
almost always competitive. Though the price per kg is higher than that of,
for example, steel, this is counterbalanced by advantages such as:
– very great freedom in creating exactly the shape that solves the design
problem and contributes to the high quality of the end product
– aesthetically pleasing surfaces
– low die costs
– low machining costs
– low weight combined with high strength
– long lifetime, minimum maintenance
– high recycling value.
The balance sheet comes out in favour of products based on
aluminium profiles!
17.1 How you, the designer, can influence cost-efficiency

Through carefully considered design, designers can influence the following cost-affecting
factors: alloy, shape, weight per meter, surface class, tolerances, surface treatment,
machining, recycling.
Alloy
A number of factors have to be taken into consideration when choosing the right alloy
for an extruded product. These include strength requirements, surface quality, suitability
for decorative anodising, corrosion resistance, machining (cutting or plastic), weldability
and cost-efficiency.
High-alloy aluminiums are relatively more expensive and more difficult to extrude.
Thus, alloys with higher than necessary strength should not be chosen. It is sometimes
more cost-efficient to increase dimensions and extrude the profile in a slightly softer, but
more easily extruded, alloy.
See also chapter 7, “Choosing the right alloy”.
Shape
Exploit the potential to create a shape that reduces the need for further machining and
simplifies the assembly of the final product. Simplify the cross section as much as possible.
Refer back to chapters 9 and 10, “General design advice” and “Jointing”.
Weight per meter

Carefully considered design can reduce weight per meter. This often lowers costs.
See also chapter 9, “General design advice”.
Surface class
The choice of surface class affects price. The finer the surface, the higher the production
cost (greater monitoring of dies, lower extrusion speed, increased handling costs).
Surface classes 5 and 6 are the most economical to produce.
Think carefully about which surfaces really need to be classed and marked as visible
(refer to chapter 12, “Surface classes”).
135
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
Tolerances
Tight tolerances decrease productivity and, consequently, increase production costs.
Thus, special tolerances should be restricted to the dimensions that are most important
for the profile’s functionality.
See also chapter 11, “Profile tolerances”.
Surface treatment
Choosing the right surface treatment has a positive impact on appearance, function and
durability.
See also chapter 15, “Surface treatment”.
Machining
At the design stage, it is important to create a shape that requires a minimum amount
of subsequent machining. Extrusion provides many possibilities for including a number of
functional features (screw ports, tracks, snap-fit joints, etc.) in the profile solution. Refer to
chapters 9 and 10, “General design advice” and “Jointing”.
Carefully considered machining (tolerances, deburring, machining before or after
surface treatment, etc.) can also have a positive impact on the product’s final price.
See also chapter 14, “Machining”.
Recycling
The recycling of aluminium consumes relatively little power. It must be borne in mind that
bolt joints, and other solutions involving the use of materials other than aluminium, can
complicate recycling.
See also chapter 4, “Environmental impact”.
17.2 How you, the purchaser, can influence cost-efficiency

Order volumes
Unit price for small volumes is always higher than it is for large volumes. The larger the
ordered volume, the less the unit price is affected by fixed costs such as tooling-up,
machine adjustments, etc.
Precise budgeting
Where you yourself take charge of machining, a lot of work is involved in inviting and
evaluating tenders. Besides material and machining costs, calculations should also make
provision for:
– inspection of incoming profile material
– warm storage
– production preparation
– tool inspection
– tool storage
– tool installation
– rejects
– production waste
– transport to and from subcontractors
– loading, packing, unpacking, etc.
– dealing with offers and orders
– dealing with invoices.
On top of all that, the cost of tied-up capital also has to be taken into consideration.
136
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
Rejects and production waste

With Sapa in charge of machining, you do not have the bother of taking care of rejects
and production waste. You receive a fixed price for the finished component.
Production is tailored to minimising production waste. Sapa’s long experience ensures
that there is minimal rejection.
All the scrap stays at Sapa

For Sapa, rejects and production waste are a high-grade raw material that can be directly
exploited and put back into production without expensive intermediaries.
Shorter lead times

Our planning is made easier by the fact that we have control of the entire production chain.
Should anything unexpected occur, e.g. during machining, we can rapidly bring in extra
profiles. Along with reduced transport, this contributes to shorter lead times.
Less tied-up capital

When you choose Sapa as your partner, you only pay:
– when the finished components are delivered
– for the exact number of components supplied.
When you yourself take charge of machining, you have to bear the full capital cost
of materials all the way through production. This includes the costs associated with what
becomes scrap and waste.
Reduced administration
For you, having Sapa as the single centre of responsibility, means (amongst other things):
– reduced work in connection with tenders
– reduced ordering and organising of transport
– simplified monitoring of deliveries
– simplified quality assurance
– fewer invoices
– minimal work in connection with claims.
Simplicity itself
You have a single supplier, a single point of contact, one order, one delivery, one invoice
and one telephone number to ring. It really is that simple!
Having Sapa as your partner reduces

IN the burden of administration. It also
offers every possibility for increased
O UT
profitability, higher productivity and
improved quality.
137
17. COST-EFFICIENCY
It is all about co-ordination – general and specific, large and small, chalk and cheese, strategic and tactical.
Business development, research and development, quality assurance, logistics, market analyses, materials science,
mechanical engineering, assembly, production planning, product development, profile optimisation, project management,
technical development, technical calculation, monitoring and inspection, training, surface treatment
and much, much more.
17.3 Sapa’s vision

“Sapa shall be the most sought after partner in our industry and shall be the market
leader in the Nordic countries. Our focus is customer service, technical expertise,
quality and delivery dependability.”
Are we in a position to help you with expertise, quality and resources? Can we
free resources for your company's core business?
There is a reason for contacting Sapa for open discussions. Many companies
have found that the closer the partnership with Sapa, the sharper the resultant
competitive edge.
138
18. KNOWLEDGE BANKS
18. Knowledge banks

As a construction material, aluminium is capturing an ever greater
share of the market. Unfortunately, this development has escaped
the attention of the formal seats of learning. Consequently, knowledge
about aluminium and profile design is low in comparison with that in
respect of more traditional materials and construction methods.
As the market leader in Sweden, and the other Nordic countries,
we see it as our duty to increase the insight of industry and educational
establishments into our field of expertise. That is one of the reasons
behind the publication of this manual.
The Profile Academy shares the same goal.
18.1 The Profile Academy

The lack of a permanent forum for sharing knowledge and findings meant that people
involved in product development, design and production generally had limited awareness
of aluminium profiles and the possibilities they offer.
To combat this, Sapa founded the Profile Academy (for Sapa customers). Via this
establishment, experts from Sapa, together with a great number of highly qualified external
lecturers, give advanced courses on the construction possibilities offered by aluminium
profiles.
Examples of course scope

1. Materials science and corrosion. 2. Design, recycling and the environment.
3. Profile technology and design for optimal production. 4. Dimensioning and strength.
5. Surface treatment. 6. Forming. 7. Cutting. 8. Mechanical joints. 9. Welds.
10. Case studies – examples and analyses of profile solutions and total cost-efficiency.
Participants’ opinions
“The Profile Academy covers a wide area – for example, materials science, profile design,
jointing and machining. The course provided a good basis for further study of areas that,
not least for those of us in the vehicle industry, are both interesting and essential. I have
been made aware of the great possibilities offered by the material and profile technology.”
“My visit to the Academy gave me interesting insights into the potential for constructing
with aluminium profiles. The course covered the technology and also provided many ideas
for applications. To sum up, my understanding was both widened and deepened.”
“I think the Profile Academy course is very good. Efficient, concentrated and
comprehensive with a good balance between theory and practical application.”
Since the beginning of 1994, each participant has given a thorough evaluation of the
full course. Amongst other things, the results show that over 99% would recommend it
to their colleagues.
139
18. KNOWLEDGE BANKS
18.2 Further sources of knowledge
18.2.1 Sapa Technology

Sapa Technology (ST) is Sapa’s research and development centre. It is also a resource
for customers. The centre’s specialists offer expertise on how aluminium’s properties
can be tailored by the choice of alloy and production conditions.
The research laboratories have advanced equipment at their disposal for
measurement and scientific material examination.
ST also runs development projects along with Sapa and our customers. In addi-
tion to this, much work is done in collaboration with universities, colleges and research
institutes.
Shorter assignments such as chemical analyses, structure investigations and
strength testing form another part of ST’s operations. Advice on material selection,
design, jointing, surface treatment, recycling and so on are further examples of its work
in this field.
Hardware and software
ST’s equipment, the hardware, is often particularly advanced – in some cases, unique.
Most important amongst its array of instruments are those for analyses, structure inves-
tigations and mechanical testing.
However, “instrument time” is not the essence of what ST supplies. At heart, the
most important thing ST offers is its “software” – the way it solves problems and devel-
ops potential, the expertise of its employees, etc.
ST’s metallurgists, chemists, metallographers, physicists, designers, mechanics and
engineering technicians all have aluminium as their speciality.
140
18. KNOWLEDGE BANKS
Aluminium profiles as floor gratings in reefer vessels
FEM image of the stresses in

a loaded cross section. The finite
element method (FEM) is a
powerful tool in calculating and
optimising strength, deformation,
characteristic frequency, etc.
Fatigue testing of floor gratings

under simulated operating
conditions. Sapa Technology
designs and produces test
equipment tailored to customer
needs.
18.2.2 Colleges, industry organisations, etc.

Outside Sapa, a number of institutions are involved in aluminium-related research,
development and knowledge sharing. Many technical and regional colleges, high
schools and private sector training companies run projects that have the goal of raising
understanding of aluminium technology.
Industry organisations support, at many different levels, researchers and lecturers in
their aluminium-related activities.
In all these initiatives, Sapa plays an active role as an institutor and implementor.
141
19. DESIGN
19. Design
This section was compiled by Torsten Höglund 19.2 Design literature
(Dr. Tech. and Professor at the Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden) and Peter Benson Boverkets handbok för stålkonstruktioner, BSK 94,
(Dr. Tech., Sapa). Boverket. In Swedish.
Design Regulations, BKR, of the Swedish Board
of Housing, Building and Planning, June 2000.
19.1 General
Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures ENV
Extrusion enables the production of aluminium profiles
1999-1-1, European Committee for Standardisation,
that, to the widest possible extent, meet all a designer’s
Brussels, 1999.
function-related demands.
Profiles can have almost any cross section. European Recommendations for Aluminium Alloy
Consequently, much is demanded of the designer. Structures Fatigue Design, ECCS no. 68, 1992.
Furthermore, there are no standard tables to turn to for Kapitel K18, Utdrag ur Handboken Bygg, Fritzes, 1994.
data on cross-sectional properties. In Swedish.
This section is intended as an aid for all those SBN 80 avd 2A, Bärande konstruktioner med
interested in using aluminium profiles in load-bearing kommentarer, Statens Planverk, 1979. In Swedish.
constructions.
StBK-N5, Swedish Code for Thin Gauge Steel
The section contains advice and views on cross-
Structures 79, Statens Stålbyggnadskommitté, 1980.
sectional design as well as formulae and tables for
dimensions. The section’s contents mirror those of TALAT – Training in Aluminium Application
the Swedish Building Code (BKR). In many ways, this Technologies, F. Osterman and others, 1995.
is similar to the proposals for Eurocode 9, Design
of Aluminium Structures, on which the European
Committee for Standardisation, CEN, is working at 19.3 Key considerations
present. in aluminium design
For information on more complex structures and
phenomena, refer to the literature cited in 19.2. Low weight (density = 2,700 kg/m3)
Low weight is important not only where the structure’s
own weight dominates, but also in transport and
assembly.
Low modulus of elasticity

(E = 70,000 MPa)
Where structures are subjected to compression, the
goal is as little slenderness as possible.
For aluminium structures, deformation requirements
are often determinative as regards dimensions.
Distribute mass appropriately (e.g. latticing) or use
statically indeterminate designs.
Relatively low fatigue resistance

Aluminium structures subjected to fatigue loading
should be designed so that the cross sections where
large stress variations are expected are, as far as
possible, of unweakened parent metal.
142
19. DESIGN
Heat induced reductions in strength High corrosion resistance

The strength of the material used in load-bearing Corrosion resistance is often a determining factor in
aluminium structures is increased by cold working the decision to use aluminium.
or heat treatment. Local strength is reduced by the
heat applied in hot straightening, hot forming and, in Can be extruded
particular, welding. Extrusion offers many possibilities for the production of
If heating is necessary for technical reasons function-tailored profiles.
connected with structure or production, it should take
place in areas where stress is low. Formability
Especially at low tempers, aluminium is easy to form
Relatively low hardness when cold. Aluminium sheets and plates can be
Hardness is relatively low. For hardness values, refer formed in press brakes and roller presses. They can
to pages 26 – 27, chapter 7, “Choosing the right alloy”. also be deep drawn.
Avoid unnecessary transport and components
that, because of their size and shape, are prone to Tight cross-sectional tolerances
deformation or surface damage. Extruded aluminium profiles with open cross sections
are produced to tight tolerances. Furthermore,
Not prone to brittle fracture compared with rolled profiles, initial curvature is small.
at low temperatures
Aluminium does not become brittle at low temperatures. Low residual stress
As a rule, it becomes tougher and stiffer. The residual stresses in extruded aluminium profiles
are low.
Low damping factor
Where oscillation may be induced by variations in
interference frequencies (e.g. gusts of wind), the 19.4 Cross-sectional shape
structure should be sufficiently stiff to place its 19.4.1 Asymmetrical profiles
characteristic frequency well above the largest – the shear centre
interference frequency.
Functional requirements often determine a profile’s
cross section. Consequently, asymmetrical profiles are
Relatively high thermal expansion
common. An asymmetrical profile’s shear centre (SC)
The coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively high, does not coincide with its centre of gravity (CG). This
23 x 10-6 per °C change. The effects of temperature affects both how the profile works and its load-bearing
variations (varying operating temperatures, changes properties.
in ambient temperature, etc.) have to be taken into Loading a beam to the side of its shear centre
account if the resultant expansions and contractions induces torsion in the beam – torsion and warping
can induce stress. stresses arise.
Because of the low modulus of elasticity, For example, a U-profile subjected to a load
the stresses induced by resistance to longitudinal directly over its web will deform (bend) in the load
expansion are moderately large. plane. As the shear centre lies outside the cross
In statically indeterminate systems, attention section, the profile will also be subjected to torsion.
should be paid to the stresses induced by changes The position of the shear centre in relation to the
in temperature. load plane is of greater significance in solid profiles
than it is in hollow profiles. This is because the
High thermal conductivity torsional rigidity of the latter is often considerably
Temperature differences between the different sides greater.
of a profile are rapidly evened out. For the relevant On the next page, there are some examples of
values, see pages 26 – 27, chapter 7, “Choosing the the position of the shear centre for various profiles.
right alloy”.
143
19. DESIGN
The SC of a profile with two planes lies in the 19.4.2 Solid or hollow profiles?
point of intersection (figure 19.4.1.a-b). The SC of a It is almost as easy to extrude a hollow profile (closed
hollow profile often lies inside the cross section cross section) as it is a solid profile (open cross
(figure 19.4.1.c-d). For solid profiles, it often lies section). However, which is the right solution for the
outside (figure 19.4.1.e-f). application in question?
With large openings, the SC lies further from the In structures where profiles are subjected to torsion,
profile than is the case with small openings. a closed cross section has the edge.
To prevent undesired torsion, every attempt should The torsional rigidity of a hollow profile is considerably
be made to place the SC in the load plane (figure greater than that of the corresponding solid profile.
19.4.1.g). Alternatively, a hollow profile should be used. To illustrate this, figure 19.4.2.a compares a selection
To calculate SC position, refer to the appropriate of profiles having the same width, height and cross-
literature (see 19.2, “Design literature”) and the sectional area. In this example, the hollow profile is
computer programmes that are now available. 290 times stiffer than the corresponding solid profiles.
Hollow profiles can be used in structures that are
subjected to direct torsion.
Concentrated loading of plate structures is a different
= SC (Shear centre) = CG (Centre of gravity) area. In figure 19.4.2.b, a plate is constructed of
transversally joined hollow profiles. In principle, the
joints transfer shearing forces only. To achieve torsional
rigidity, the ends of the profiles are joined to support
structures. When a concentrated load is applied, it is
transferred to the supports by the bending and torsion
between adjacent profiles.
Figure 19.4.1. a-b
= SC t1
= CG
h
Kv = 7
Figure 19.4.1. c-d
t2
h
K v = 3.4
Figure 19.4.1. e-f
t2
h
K v = 1,000
Figure 19.4.1.g. The shear centre and centre of gravity for Figure 19.4.2.a. Comparison of torsional rigidity (K v) in a selection
various profiles. of solid and hollow profiles having the same width, height and
cross-sectional area (w = 200 mm, h = 300 mm, t 1 = 17.2 mm,
t 2 = 12 mm).
144
19. DESIGN
P
a
design value for the structure’s resistance and is the
2.6 mm
result of characteristic strength (Rk) divided by the
product of the partial coefficients Gm and Gn . Rd is also
referred to as design resistance. The allowable value
corresponding to that in the allowable stress method
b
is obtained by dividing the design resistance (Rd) by
2.3 mm the load coefficient (Gf ).
Design here takes into account the structure’s
resistance in the serviceability limit state and in the
c
ultimate limit state.
In the serviceability limit state, i.e. the demands
1.8 mm made on the structure in normal use, deformation may
be one of the crucial factors.
In the ultimate limit state, demands are put
d on the structure’s ultimate load-bearing capacity.
1.1 mm
This includes material fractures, instability, toppling,
deformations that make the structure unusable, etc.
The rules given in the following are based on the
partial coefficient method.
Figure 19.4.2.b. Four examples of a plate structure constructed
from hollow aluminium profiles (profile width = 250 mm,
height = 150 mm, wall thickness = 5 mm, span = 2,000 mm
19.6 Material
and load = 10 kN). 19.6.1 Material values
In example a, the profiles are not joined. The loaded profile has The design value for strength is determined from
to bear the entire load.
In example b, the profiles are connected and have low torsional fyk
rigidity. fyd = GmGn
In examples c and d, the cavities are larger and, consequently,
torsional rigidity is greater. Through torsion, the load is distributed
across several profiles.
where fyk is the characteristic value at the material’s
0.2% proof strength. The design value for the
material’s ultimate strength is determined from
19.5 Design using
the partial coefficient fuk
fud =
1.2Gm Gn
method – general
Two methods are used for designing load-bearing where fuk is the characteristic value of the material’s
structures – the allowable stress method and the ultimate tensile strength. The factor 1.2 provides an
partial coefficient method. In the allowable stress additional safety margin against material fracture.
method, In welding, the heat input affects the material
nearest the weld. The result is a local reduction in
strength
Sa = Sallowable strength. The design value for material affected by
s welding is determined from
where s is a safety factor providing a margin for
uncertainty and Sallowable is the allowable stress value. fwuk
fwud =
This method is increasingly being dropped in favour 1.2 Gm Gn
of the partial coefficient method.
When designing with the partial coefficient where fwuk is the characteristic value of the material’s
method, the conditions below have to be satisfied. ultimate tensile strength in the heat-affected zone.
The design value for the modulus of elasticity is
SdaRd determined from
Sd=SkGf Ek
Ed = G G
m n
Rk
Rd = where Ek is the characteristic value of the modulus
GmGn
of elasticity.
Sd is the design load, i.e. the characteristic load Characteristic material values are given in table
multiplied by the partial coefficient Gf . This latter 19.6.1.a (next page).
provides a margin for load uncertainties. Rd is the Partial coefficient values are given in section 19.6.2.
145
19. DESIGN
Table 19.6.1.a. Characteristic strength values for Sapa’s structural alloys.

Certain values may differ from those given in BKR – contact Sapa for further details.
Property Sapa 6060 Sapa 6063 Sapa 6063A Sapa 6005 Sapa 6005A Sapa 6082 Sapa 7021
T6 T6 T6 T6 T6 T6 T6
fyk [MPa] 150 170 200 240 240 250 310
fuk [MPa] 190 215 230 270 270 290 350
fwuk [MPa] 100 100 100 * * 180 *
Ek [MPa] 70,000 70,000 70,000 70,000 70,000 70,000 70,000
A5 [%] 12 12 10 10 10 8 10
* Contact Sapa.
19.6.2 Partial coefficients 19.7 Designing

When calculating the resistance of a profile based on 19.7.1 General
its nominal dimensions reduced by the lower tolerance Unless otherwise stated, the design methods given
deviation limit, Gm is set at 1.0. In all other cases, Gm = 1.1. here apply to unwelded constructions.
The coefficient Gn is determined by safety class
(as per 19.6.2.a). 19.7.2 Buckling
Slender parts of a cross section (“strips”) have a resistance
that is greater than the buckling load of the initially
Table 19.6.2.a. Coefficient Gn flat plate of which they form a part. This is because
Safety class Consequence of fracture Gn
the edges of the strips are prevented from bending
outwards by the adjacent strips.
1 (Low) Low risk of serious Figures 19.7.2.a and 19.7.2.b show the difference
personal injury. 1.0
between a plate with two free edges (a), and one with
2 (Medium) Some risk of serious all four sides simply supported (b).
personal injury. 1.1
A plate with two free edges fails in the same
3 (High) High risk of serious way as a bar and deforms to leave a surface with a
personal injury. 1.2 single curve. All the vertical strips are exposed to the
same compressive strain and bending. Consequently,
When designing for the ultimate limit state, load the stress is constant transversally.
is determined from Under buckling, the plate simply supported on all
n four sides deforms to give a surface with a double
Fd = 3G F
i =1
fi ki
curvature. As the plate buckles, the stresses to which
strips on the edges are exposed are not the same as
those affecting the strips in the centre.
where Gfi is the partial coefficient for load Fki . The
The edge strips remain straight and the compression
values for Gf can be read from table 19.6.2.b.
leads to compressive strain and increased stress. The
centre strips, however, bend away without there being
any significant increase in compressive strain.
Table 19.6.2.b. Partial coefficient Gf For a plate that has little slenderness, the resistance
is lower than the buckling load and failure arises
Load type Load Partial
value Fk coefficient Gf through material fracture. For a plate that has a great
amount of slenderness, the failure load is higher than
Permanent loads Gk 1.0 och 0.8 the buckling load, see figure 19.7.2.c.
A variable load Qk 1.3 Under the rules set out in BKR and StBK-N5, it is
Other variable loads YQk 1.0 permitted to use the resistance over and above the
buckling load, i.e. the real resistance.
Buckling under normal loads can be taken into
For permanent loads, the Gf value giving the most
account by replacing the true cross section with an
unfavourable load condition is selected.
effective cross section. In StBK-N5, this is done by
When designing for the serviceability limit state,
replacing the true width with an effective width, see
Gf is set at 1.0.
figure 19.7.2.e. BSK, on the other hand, uses an
For further information on loads and load
effective thickness, see figure 19.7.2.f. With certain
coefficients, refer to BKR.
simplifications, this latter method is used in the
following formulae.
146
19. DESIGN
19.7.3 Effective thickness

The calculation of effective thickness uses a slenderness
parameter that depends on the support conditions,
Initially straight bar stress distribution, material values and the ratio
between the width and the thickness of the elements
of which the cross section is composed.
Cross section with outstand

Initially bent bar and plate
with two free edges bk fyk
L = 1.52
t Ek
Figure 19.7.2.a. Outstand
Initially flat plate

Figure 19.7.3.a.
tef = t if L a0.67
1 0.22
tef = – t if L 0.67
Initially L L2
buckled plate
Flat internal
Figure 19.7.2.b. elements
Constant compressive stress
Buckling load
b fyk
L = 0.526
Resistance t Ek
Load
Slenderness
Figure 19.7.2.c.
Figures 19.7.2.a - 19.7.2.c. Exposed to normal force, a plate with

two free edges fails in the same way as a bar (figure a). With
all edges simply supported, the plate buckles, but can carry a
higher load (figure b). At the same time, the stiffness of the plate
Figure 19.7.3.b.
decreases. The connection between slenderness, buckling load
and resistance is particularly clear in figure c.
Variable compressive stress
b fyk
L =
(2.67 – 0.77 Y) t Ek
Stress distribution for
the gross cross section
Figure 19.7.2.d. Figure 19.7.2.e. Figure 19.7.2.f.

True stress Stress distribution Stress distribution
distribution. using the effective using the effective
width method. thickness method.
Figure 19.7.3.c.
147
19. DESIGN
Alternating compressive stress
bc fyk
L = 0.375
t Ek
Stress distribution for a b
the gross cross section
Figure 19.7.4.a. Profile without longitudinal reinforcement (a).

Profile with longitudinal reinforcement (b).
19.7.5 Axial force

For a profile subjected to axial tensile forces, resistance is
determined, in most cases, by the strength of the material.
Figure 19.7.3.d.
Where the load consists of axial compressive
forces, resistance is determined by the material’s
In these cases: strength and modulus of elasticity as well the profile’s
tef = t if La0.6 cross section and length.
Failure can occur as a material fracture or loss of
0.85 0.172 stability, e.g. bending instability, lateral-torsional
tef = 0.06 + – t if L0.6 buckling or torsional buckling.
L L2
The resistance of a profile subjected to axial
loading is determined from
Elements subjected to Nd = fyd Agr Wc

shear stress where Agr is the gross surface of the cross section
and Wc is a factor that takes the nature of the load into
bw fyk account. For tensile force, Wc is set at 1.0. For com-
L = 0.35
tw Ek pressive force, Wc can be read from figure 19.7.5.c. The
slenderness parameter is determined from
lc fyk
Lc =
Pi Ek
where lc is the critical length

Figure 19.7.3.e. of buckling (lc = BL, see
figure 19.7.5.b) and i is the
radius of inertia (= I/A)
tef = 0.67 tw if La 0.75 for the profile.
0.50
tef = tw if L 0.75
Lw
Figure 19.7.5.a. Buckling of a bar
subjected to an axial compressive force.
19.7.4 Reinforced elements
For cross sections with slender elements,
The resistance of profiles with wide, thin elements i is replaced by
subjected to compressive or shear forces is often
reduced by local buckling.
Idef
One way of improving resistance is to use ief =
longitudinal reinforcement, see figure 19.7.4.a. Aef
Methods for designing reinforced internal elements
are given in StBK-N5. where Idef is the moment of inertia calculated for
a cross section based on elements with effective
thickness tdef as per below. Aef is cross-sectional area
based on effective elements as per 19.7.3.
148
19. DESIGN
The deformation is a
combination of bending and
torsion. When designing for
torsional buckling and
lateral-torsional buckling,
refer to BKR or Eurocode 9.
B = 2.1 B=1 B = 0.8 B = 1.2 B = 0.6
Figure 19.7.5.b. B values for simple support conditions.
For internal elements (e.g. the web of a beam):

tdef = 33 t2 / b a t
Figure 19.7.5.d. Torsional buckling.
For outstands (e.g. a beam flange):
tdef = 12 t2 / b a t
19.7.6 Bending moments
The resistance of a profile subjected to a bending
Wc
moment is determined from the lower of the two values
1
0.9 Md = fyd W H compressed edge or edge
0.8 subject to tensile forces
0.7 Md = fud Wnet edge subject to tensile forces
0.6
0.5 where W is the profile’s flexural resistance and H is a
0.4 shape factor that takes the slenderness of elements
0.3 into consideration. Where the profile has compact
0.2 elements, H is set at 1.0. This gives conservative results.
0.1 For a more finely detailed method, refer to BKR. For
0
profiles with slender elements, H = Wef / W, where
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Lc 2.0
Wef is flexural resistance for a profile composed of
elements with effective thickness. Wnet is the flexural
Figure 19.7.5.c. Factor Wc as a function of Lc . Curve 1 is for sym- resistance of a profile with local weakening, e.g. a
metrical cross sections and curve 2 for asymmetrical hole.
cross sections.
Lateral buckling
Torsional buckling and Lateral buckling is a failure mode occurring in a beam
lateral-torsional buckling that, under the influence of a bending moment and/or
Torsional buckling is the type of stability failure transversal loading, bends away at right angles to the
demonstrated when a bar, under compression, twists load plane and, at the same time, twists, see figure
around its longitudinal axis, see figure 19.7.5.d. 19.7.6.a.
Torsional buckling occurs in cross sections with Lateral buckling is a particular problem of beams
point or double symmetry and limited torsional rigidity. that have little torsional rigidity and little flexural rigidity
Lateral-torsional buckling is a form of stability perpendicular to the load plane.
failure that can occur in a compressed bar where the A great deal of calculation is required to determine
loading falls outside the axis of the profile’s shear the design bending moment in respect of lateral
centre. Lateral-torsional buckling can arise when, buckling in beams with a cross section deviating
for example, a simple or asymmetric profile is loaded from the common I or U-profile. Thus, designs should
along the axis of its centre of gravity, or when a normally seek to eliminate lateral buckling.
symmetrical profile is subjected to an off-centre load. If the compressed flange (or the edge of the
rectangular beam) is supported laterally, or if the beam
is prevented from twisting throughout its length, the
149
19. DESIGN
The structure exerting the load often provides 19.7.8 Torsion

support and/or twist prevention, for example, a plate The resistance of a solid or hollow profile subjected to
placed on the upper flange of an I beam. pure torsion is
Lateral buckling does not normally occur in round
tubes or in square tubes where the height is less than TRd = 0.58 fyd Zv Wv
three times the width.
For the design of beams in respect of lateral where Zv is torsional resistance as per the theory of
buckling, refer to the literature. plasticity, and Wv a reduction factor that takes shear
buckling into account. For solid profiles, Wv = 1,0. For
hollow profiles, Wv can be read from table 19.7.8.a. In
this table, Lw is determined (using the same formulae
as for a plate subjected to shearing stress) for
elements with maximum slenderness bw/tw .
For other types of torsion, e.g. mixed torsion, refer
to the literature.
Table 19.7.8.a. Reduction factor Wv (shear buckling in hollow

profiles subjected to torsion) as a function of Lw .
Fork or hinge
support Lw Wv
– 0.65 0.67
Figure 19.7.6.a. Lateral buckling in a simply supported beam. 0.65 – 2.37 0.435 / Lw
A common example of lateral buckling is that

occurring between battens providing lateral bracing Table 19.7.8.b. Cross section properties for pure torsion.
(compare this with the lateral buckling of the top bar
in beam latticing). In this case, the following rule of Cross section Kv Wv Zv
thumb can be used. If
Solid, h i ti 3 kv hi ti 2
l Ek thin wall 3 3 tmax 3 2
< 1.25 cross section
if fyk
Hollow,
lateral buckling is not crucial for the design. In this 4 A2
thin wall 2Atmin 2Atmin
formula, l is the distance between side braces and if ds
is the radius of inertia for a cross section comprising
cross section
F t
the compressed flange and 1/6th of the web.
19.7.7 Transverse force

In a profile that acts as a beam, transverse forces are
taken up by the web. This can be compared to a plate
subjected to shearing stress.
The transverse force capacity of a beam subjected
to transverse forces only is determined from
VRcd = bw twef fyd
where bw is the width of the web and twef is the

effective thickness value for a plate subjected to Figure 19.7.8.a. Explanation of terms in the calculation of cross
a shearing force – as per 19.7.3. When designing section properties. A = the area within the centre of gravity line.
a girder with a stiffened web, refer to BKR or
Eurocode 9.
150
19. DESIGN
19.7.9 Combined loads 19.7.10 Concentrated force and

support reaction
Bending instability
For beam webs without stiffeners, the design value
Where a bar is subjected to axial force and bending
(FRcd) for resistance in respect of stresses and
in one plane, the formulae below can be used for
buckling under concentrated loads is:
checking the resistance. Both conditions of the
formulae have to be met. The formulae give
2
conservative results for compact cross sections. FRcd = 0.70 tw Ed fyd
For greater precision, refer to BKR or Eurocode 9.
0.8
where tw is web thickness.
NSd MSxd
+ a 1.00
NRxcd MRxd
0.8 0.8 19.8 Joints

NSd MSyd
+ a 1.00 19.8.1 General
NRycd MRyd
Aluminium profiles can be joined together using
mechanical joints, welding and adhesive bonding.
where NSd = axial force, MSxd = the moment Mechanical joints include screw and rivet joints
around the x axis, MSyd = the moment around the where a part of the joint (e.g. a screw port or nut track)
y axis, NRxcd = the design axial force in respect of is integrated into the profile. The jointing can even be
buckling around the x axis, NRycd = the design axial completely integrated into the profile, e.g. clamp and
force in respect of buckling around the y axis, snap-fit joints.
MRxd = the design moment with regard to bending Joints using nuts and bolts are designed in
around the x axis and MRyd = the design moment accordance with the tables in BKR. Rivet joints and
with regard to bending around the y axis. joints using self-tapping screws are designed as per
To check lateral torsional buckling for a bar StBK-N5.
subjected to normal force and a bending moment, There are types of fasteners with properties
refer to BKR or Eurocode 9. different from those discussed here and types of joint
For a profile simultaneously subjected to a that are not taken up in this text. In these cases,
bending moment, transverse force and axial force, characteristic strength can be determined by testing.
the following condition has to be met: For further information on this, refer to BKR.
MSd VSd NSd

+ 0.63 + a 1.38
MRd VRd NRd 19.8.2 Force distribution in joints
For a profile simultaneously subjected to a Centric force with several identical fasteners is
bending moment, transverse force and torsion, the distributed equally between all the fasteners if L < 15d.
following condition has to be met: When L > 15d, the force (FS) on the most highly
loaded fastener will be as in figure 19.8.2.a.
VSd TSd 2 MSd 2

+ + a 1.00
VRd TRd MRd
where TSd is the torsion and TRd is the torsion

capacity. n no. of fasteners with diameter d
Where L a 15d F
FS = n
1 F
Where 15d < L a 65d FS =
L n
1.075 –
200d
Where L > 65d F

FS = 1.33 n
Figure 19.8.2.a. Force distribution in joints.
151
19. DESIGN
19.8.3 Types of failure in joints 19.8.4 Nuts and bolts

using fasteners The resistance of a bolt subjected to tensile force is
In joints made by fasteners, failure can occur in the
material (the profile) or the fastener. The design FRtd = Jt As fbud
methods here are in respect of the following failure fbuk
modes that are themselves dependent on the type fbud =
of joint and the loading: 1.2Gn
where As is the bolt’s stressed area and fbuk is the

bolt’s characteristic ultimate tensile strength. The
Shear resistance reduction factor Jt is 1.0 for pretensioned bolts in
in the fastener strength classes 8.8 and 10.9. For normally tightened
bolts, Jt is 0.6.
Characteristic tension resistance FRtk is given in
Bearing resistance Jt FRtk
FRtd =
1.2Gn
Tilting In a bolt joint subjected to shearing force,

resistance is determined by whichever is the lower
of FRvd (the bolt’s shear resistance) and FRbd (the
bearing resistance).
Pull through resistance
FRvd = 0.60 A1 fbud
Punched through where A1 is the bolt’s nominal area if the shearing

resistance
plane intersects the unthreaded bolt stem. In other
cases, A1 is the bolt’s stressed area.
To ensure that a joint fails as a result of a bearing
resistance failure, FRvd is reduced by 25%.
Tension resistance
The bearing resistance is determined from
e1
Pulling out of the base FRbd = 1.2 – 0.5 d t fud
d
Figure 19.8.3.a.
where d is the bolt’s diameter, t is the thickness of the
structural element transferring the force to the bolt and
e1 is the distance from the hole centre to a free edge
Table 19.8.4.a. Characteristic ultimate tension resistance FRtk in a bolt/screw (as per BSK). Load in [kN].
As Steel Stainless steel 1) dmax2)

Strength class
(mm 2 ) 4.6 8.8 10.9 50 80 (mm)
M4 8.8 3.51 7.02 8.78 4.39 7.02 4.5
M5 14.2 5.68 11.4 14.2 7.10 11.4 5.5
M6 20.1 8.04 16.1 20.1 10.1 16.1 6.6
M8 36.6 14.6 29.3 36.6 18.3 29.3 9
M10 58 23.2 46.4 58.0 29.0 46.4 11
M12 84 33.6 67.2 84.0 42.0 67.2 14
M14 115 46.0 92.0 115.0 57.5 92.0 16
M16 157 62.8 126.0 157.0 78.5 126.0 18
1) 2)
SS 2332, SS 2343. Maximum hole diameter.
152
19. DESIGN
(or the centre of an adjacent hole) measured in the For the effects of combined loads, the following
direction of the force. If e1 > 2d , then e1 = 2d is used. conditions are to be checked:
The simultaneous effect of tensile force and
shearing force is FStd
2
FSvd
2
+ a 1.00
2 2 FRgd FRhd
FStd FSvd
+ a 1.00
FRtd FRvd 2 2
FStd FSvd
+ a 1.00
FRtd FRvd
where FStd is the tensile force and FSvd the
shearing force.
where FStd is the tensile force and FSvd is the shearing
force.
19.8.5 Self-tapping screws
Self-tapping screws can thread into drilled holes or, as
in figure 19.8.5, be given a drill tip. The tip on the left
can be used in thin materials. The one on the right is
suitable for thicker materials.
The shear resistance of a screw subjected to
shearing forces is determined from Figure 19.8.5.a. Self-tapping screws – the screws can be given drill
tips for thin material (left) or thick material (right).
520 T Table 19.8.5.a. Self-tapping screws

FRvd = N
GmGn – characteristic tension resistance, T, [kN].
d Aluminium Stainless steel Stainless steel

T q 2.3 x 10-3 FRhd (kN/screw) (mm) SS 4338 SS 2332 SS 2302
SS 2333 Carbon steel
where T is the characteristic ultimate tensile strength SS 2343 SS 1370
Case-hardened
of the screw (see table 19.8.5.a).
For joints subjected to a shearing force, bearing 4.8 4 7 8
resistance is determined from 5.5 6 10 11
6.3 8 13 15
8.0 13 22 25
2.8 t 3 d fyd
FRhd = min
1.6 t d fyd
19.8.6 Screw ports

if t = t1. For 1 < t1/t < 2.5, there is straight line
interpolation between these equations (t is the
Open screw port
thickness of the plate nearest the screw head and
t1 is the thickness of the other plate). d
For joints subjected to tensile force, resistance
is determined by pull through resistance and
punched through resistance.
t
FRgd = 6.5 t fyd
(t in mm and fyd in MPa give FRgd in N.)
Figure 19.8.6. Open screw port.
pulling out of the base
Screw ports can be threaded for machine screws or
used for self-tapping screws. The allowable force in
FRud = 0.65 t1 d fyd
respect of a screw pulling out of the base is determined
from the formula
and tension resistance in the screw
FRud = 1.6 a fyd
800 T
FRtd = where a is the thread length of the port (a in mm and
GmGn
fyd in MPa give FRud in N).
153
19. DESIGN
Shear strength depends on the direction of the The following load capacity values apply to shear
force. With a force acting against the opening of the resistance in rivets:
port, the allowable force is determined from
800 S
FRvd = GmGn
FRvd = (2t + 0.16a) fyd
where S is a value read from table 19.8.8.a.
where t is the thickness of the material in the screw Bearing resistance – the same as for self-
port (t and a in mm and fyd in MPa give FRvd in N). tapping screws of identical diameter, d.
The formulae have been verified for screw Pull through resistance and punched through
diameters 3 ad a7 mm. resistance (FRgd): 0.4 times the value for self-tapping
Where the force acts in towards the port, the screws.
screw’s strength is determinative – refer to 19.8.5, Tension resistance in the rivet: 1.5 times the value
“Self-tapping screws”. for shearing fracture.
With a force acting perpendicularly into the opening, Pulling out from the base (FRud): 0.3 times the
resistance is determined by material thickness. FRvd value for self-tapping screws.
can be used as described above. Greater thickness, t,
leads to increases in both pull-out and shearing force.
Values can be determined by testing. Table 19.8.8.a. Rivet with mandrel.
Characteristic shearing fracture force (S) in [kN]/rivet.
Closed screw ports d Aluminium Steel Monel Stainless

(mm) AA 5053 AA 5056 steel
Closed screw ports have to be used where strength SS 1325
requirements are high. SS 2332
SS 2333
The depth of engagement for metric fine-pitch SS 2343
screws should be 3d, where d is screw diameter.
Resistance in respect of tension and shearing is 4 0.8 1.1 1.6 2.4 2.8
determined as for the screws in table 19.8.4.a. 4.8 1.1 1.6 2.4 3.5 4.2
5 1.7 2.6 4.6
6 2.6
19.8.7 Tracks for nuts and bolts 6.4 2.0 3.1 4.4 6.2
Nut and bolt tracks can be used for the rapid
interconnection of profiles, or for rapidly connecting
profiles with other components.
Resistance in respect of tensile force is 19.8.9 Welded joints
determined by the shear resistance of the profile Fusion welding gives very good results with aluminium.
material or by the bolt’s strength. Resistance in respect A number of methods are possible, but the most
of the bolt pulling out of the base material common for construction purposes are Metal Inert Gas
is determined from (MIG) and Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG).
When aluminium is welded, there is a lowering of
strength in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). To take this
FRgd = 1.2d t fyd
into account, calculations reduce material thickness
in the area 25 mm around the weld. Thickness is
where t is the material’s thickness and d is the size of determined from
the track opening. The latter should not be more than
10% larger than the bolt’s diameter. fwud
Tension resistance in the bolt is determined as thaz = t
fud
per 19.8.4.
If thickness is also reduced to take local buckling into
19.8.8 Rivet joints account (tef ), then the lower of the values thaz and tef
There are various types of rivets. The most common is chosen.
are those with a mandrel. For rivet connections, there For profiles with transverse welds, fwud replaces fyd
are the same fracture modes as for self-tapping screws. when fwud < fyd in an area of 25 mm on each side
The rivet is put into a pre-drilled hole. It is introduced of the weld.
and headed from one direction. Heading takes place When designing welded joints, exploit the
when the mandrel is pulled out by special tongues. possibilities offered by profiles. Increase material
Where mandrel material is incorporated into the thickness locally in highly loaded areas. This will
rivet at heading, the rivet has a sealing effect. reduce stress. Use butt welds wherever possible.
154
19. DESIGN
Build edge preparation into your design at the products, offshore structures and similar structures
drawing board stage – see figure 19.8.9.b. using semi-finished products in the form of profiles,
The calculation of forces and stresses in the weld plates and drawn or forged tubes. The methods used
is the same as for steel constructions. in the recommendations are not valid for cast alloys.
For the design of longitudinal welded beams and The operating temperature of components has an
beams with transverse welds, see BKR. upper limit of 70°C. The environmental class is M3.
Component thickness is limited to 25 mm. For
Solution heat
treated zone
thicker material, testing should be carried out. If testing
Artificially aged
is not possible, fatigue strength is to be reduced as
zone, 300°C
zone, 130°C
Unaffected
annealed
per the instructions in ERAAS FD.

structure
500°C
Weld
zone
Soft
The jointing method can be MIG or TIG welding,

screw or rivet joints.
N/mm2
fu 19.9.3 Fatigue load

300
Any load that gives rise to stresses that vary during
200 use is to be regarded as a fatigue load.
fwu Vibration, thermal fluctuation, load movement and
100
inertial loads can cause fatigue. Dynamic load
r = 0.6
increases often have a significant effect on stress
levels and must be considered in all calculations.
Figure 19.8.9.a. How the material is affected by heat input at When designing in respect of fatigue, the design
welding. load must mirror stress conditions throughout the
component’s lifetime. Normally, this load is of a different
type to that used when designing in respect of
fracture.
The stress range is determined as the largest
Figure 19.8.9.b. The reduction in strength can be compensated algebraic difference between the main stresses acting
for by increasing material thickness locally – edge preparation at in the main stress planes intersecting each other at
the design stage. less than 45° (minimum angle).
Generally, irrespective of whether the greatest
19.8.10 Miscellaneous jointing methods stress is positive or negative, the entire stress range is
There are several methods of jointing thin-walled used for the calculation of fatigue load. In some cases,
profiles using the material itself and no extraneous where the structure is built from unwelded material, a
agents or fasteners – see chapter 9, “General design certain increase in strength can be taken into account
advice”, and chapter 10, “Jointing”. – see ERAAS FD.
The effect of the stress concentrations that build up
around welds, and when making holes for bolts, screws
and rivets, were taken into account in plotting the
19.9 Fatigue fatigue curves for the standard details in 19.9.5,
19.9.1 General The designer must also consider stress increases
Fatigue is often a critical design factor for aluminium occasioned by other factors, e.g. the cutting of holes,
structures and, in particular, welded aluminium large variations in material thickness and misalignment
structures. in joint intersections.
As regards the fatigue design of welded and
unwelded aluminium structures, BKR refers to the
ECCS document, European Recommendations for 19.9.4 Designing for fatigue
Aluminium Alloy Structures Fatigue Design (ERAAS The characteristic strength ( frk ) of standard detail
FD). The methods given there are partially reproduced solutions and standard alloys is given in tables 19.9.5.a
here. For fuller details, refer to ERAAS FD. – 19.9.5.c. These tables give strength values in the
load cycle range 103 < N < 108. Stress range variations
have been taken into account by giving the values for
19.9.2 Scope standardised stress spectra as per figure 19.9.3.a.
The recommendations are for building-related
structures, machine parts and components, transport
155
19. DESIGN
The following applies to fatigue design 19.9.5 Detail types

This section includes 33 detail types used in structures.
Srd < frd The arrows show the direction of stress. The typical
frk crack zones are marked by red stripes. These areas
frd = have to be examined for fatigue. Each detail type has
1.1Gn been given a designation and a characteristic fatigue
strength, C (detail class), at 2 x 106 load cycles and at
where Srd is the stress range determined from the R = 0.5, where R is the ratio of the smallest stress in
largest difference between stress levels at a point in the load cycle to the corresponding largest stress.
the detail. For cross sections subjected to more than
uniaxial stress, Srd is taken as the main stress.
Structural detail A1, simple profiles and machined parts in

alloy 7020, detail class 130
These values are for simple profiles, e.g. flat bars or

angles with as-extruded surfaces and no sharp edges.
Surfaces have no obvious stress raisers.
Figure 19.9.3.a. Standardised stress spectra. Structural detail A2, components in alloy 7020, detail class 85
Components of extruded products (hollow profiles

and members both included therein). Surfaces are as
extruded.
Structural detail A3, simple profiles and machined parts in

alloy 5000/6000, detail class 95
Simple profiles, e.g. flats and angles with as-extruded

surfaces and no sharp edges. Surfaces have no obvious
stress raisers.
156
19. DESIGN
Structural detail A4, components in alloy 5000/6000, Structural detail B2, simple elements with transverse
detail class 70 butt welds, detail class 50
Simple and light structural elements (e.g. flats) with

Components of extruded products (hollow profiles full penetration, transverse butt welds made from both
and members both included therein). Surfaces are sides. The overfill angle is greater than 150°. Members
as extruded. must have edges as extruded or carefully machined/
ground in the direction of the stress. As set out in
specified quality control requirements (non-destructive
Structural detail A5, notches, holes testing included therein), welds must be proven free of
detectable discontinuities. Transverse splices in flats
must be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a slope
not exceeding 1:4.
Structural detail B3, simple elements with transverse

butt welds, detail class 45
Simple notched components with drilled and reamed

holes. Fatigue strength is 90% of that of the base metal.
This also applies to riveted or bolted beam-flange
attachments that are not load-bearing.
full penetration, transverse butt welds made from
butt welds, detail class 55 both sides or from one side only without permanent
backing. The overfill angle is greater than 130°.
Members must have edges as extruded or machined/
ground in the direction of the stress. Welds must
be fully fused, fully penetrated, free of cracks and
inspectable from both sides. Transverse splices in flats
must be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a slope
not exceeding 1:4.

full penetration, transverse butt welds made from
both sides. The overfill is ground flush with the
surface (finished by machining in the direction of
the applied stress). Members must have edges
as extruded or carefully machined/ground in the
direction of stress. As set out in specified quality
control requirements (non-destructive testing
included therein), welds must be proven free of
detectable discontinuities. Transverse splices in flats Simple profiles such as flats. Welding from one side
must be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a with permanent root backing. Welds must be fully
slope not exceeding 1:4. fused, fully penetrated and free of cracks.
157
19. DESIGN
Structural detail B5, profiles with transverse butt welds, The overfill angle is greater than 130°. Members must
detail class 45
have edges as extruded or machined/ground in the
direction of the stress. Welds must be fully fused,
fully penetrated and free of cracks. Full penetration
must be verified by inspection from both sides.
Transverse splices in flats must be tapered (in width
or in thickness) with a slope not exceeding 1:4.
Structural detail B8, profiles with transverse butt welds,

detail class 30
Complex profiles with full penetration, transverse butt
welds made from both sides. The overfill is ground
flush with the surface (finished by machining in the
direction of the applied stress). Members must have
edges as extruded or carefully machined/ground in
the direction of the stress. After grinding flush, and as
set out in specified quality control requirements (non-
destructive testing included therein), welds must be
proven free of detectable discontinuities. Transverse
splices in flats must be tapered (in width or in
thickness) with a slope not exceeding 1:4. Complex profiles with full penetration, transverse butt
welds made from one side only without permanent
backing. Welds must be fully fused, fully penetrated
detail class 40 and free of cracks. Full penetration must be verified
by inspection from the root side. Transverse splices in
flats must be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a
slope not exceeding 1:4.
Structural detail B9, built-up components with transverse

Complex profiles with full penetration, transverse butt

welds made from both sides or from one side only.
The overfill angle is greater than 150°. Members must
have edges as extruded or machined/ground in the
direction of the stress. Welds must be fully fused, fully
penetrated and free of cracks. Full penetration must
be verified by inspection from both sides. Transverse
splices in flats must be tapered (in width or in
thickness) with a slope not exceeding 1:4.
Beams built up from several profiles joined together
by full penetration, transverse butt welds made from
detail class 35 both sides or from one side only. The transverse butt
welds between the profiles being joined end to end
are made and ground flush before longitudinal
welding of the profiles. Before any longitudinal
assembly/welding, and as set out in specified quality
control requirements (non-destructive testing included
therein), the transverse welds must be proven free
of detectable discontinuities. Transverse splices must
be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a slope
not exceeding 1:4. The design stress must make
Complex profiles with full penetration, transverse butt allowance for misalignment induced stress raisers.
welds made from both sides or from one side only.
158
19. DESIGN
Structural detail B10, built-up components with transverse Structural detail C1, longitudinal, ground flush butt welds,
butt welds, detail class 35 detail class 60
Beams built up from several profiles joined together Members with continuous, full penetration, longitudinal
by full penetration, transverse butt welds made butt welds. The overfill is ground flush with the surface
from both sides. The transverse welds are made (finished by machining in the direction of the applied
before final assembly of the beam by longitudinal stress). As set out in specified quality control requirements,
web-to-flange welds. The overfill angle is greater than the welds must be proven free of significant defects.
150°. Welds must be fully fused, fully penetrated and The members must have edges as extruded or carefully
free of cracks. Full penetration must be verified by machined/ground in the direction of stress.
inspection from both sides. Transverse splices must
be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a slope
not exceeding 1:4. The design stress must make Structural detail C2, longitudinal butt welds, detail class 45
allowance for misalignment induced stress raisers.
Structural detail B11, built-up components with transverse

Members with continuous, full penetration, longitudinal

butt welds (overfill angle greater than 130°). Welding
must be uninterrupted throughout the root pass and
the final pass.
Beams built up from several profiles joined together Structural detail D1, longitudinal, continuous fillet welds
by full penetration, transverse butt welds made without interruptions, detail class 45
from one side only without permanent backing.
The transverse welds are made before final assembly
of the beam by longitudinal web to flange welds.
Welds must be fully fused, fully penetrated and free
of cracks. Full penetration must be verified by
inspection from the root side. Transverse splices
must be tapered (in width or in thickness) with a
slope not exceeding 1:4. The design stress must
make allowance for misalignment induced stress
raisers.
Members with continuous longitudinal fillet welds.
Welding must be uninterrupted throughout the root
pass and the final pass, i.e. stop-start positions
and/or tack welds are not allowed.
159
19. DESIGN
Structural detail D2, longitudinal fillet welds with Structural detail E2, attachment to the web of a beam,
interruptions, detail class 40 detail class 23
Members with continuous, longitudinal fillet welds

made from one or both sides. The welds are tack
welds or have stop-start positions.
Structural detail D3, longitudinal, intermittent fillet welds,

detail class 35
Round or rectangular shapes welded to the web and

having no load-bearing function. Stress range to be
calculated using principal stresses.
Members with intermittent, longitudinal fillet welds.
Welds must be free of undercut and crater cracks.
This class includes beams with intermittent Structural detail E3, attachment (with a transition radius)
web-to-flange welds. to the edge of a flange, detail class 35
Structural detail E1, attachment via transverse fillet welds,

detail class 35
r
Gusset plate welded to the edge of a plate or a
beam flange – transition radius q 50 (mm). Smooth
transition radius, r, achieved by machining the gusset
plate before welding and then grinding the weld area
parallel to the direction of stress.
Structural detail E4, attachment (no transition radius)

to the edge of a flange, detail class 18
Vertical stiffener on an extruded beam or built-up

beam. Stiffener fitted by transverse fillet welds to one
or both flanges. The stress range at potential crack
zones must be calculated using principal stresses.
Gusset plate welded to the edge of a plate or a
beam flange – no transition radius.
160
19. DESIGN
Structural detail E5, vertical attachment (with a transition Structural detail F1, cruciform joint, transverse,
radius) on flange, detail class 35 toe crack failure, detail class 30
Details of any length fillet welded (parallel to the

direction of stress) on the flange of an extruded profile
– transition radius q 50 (mm). Smooth transition radius, Joint between a profile and a plate using full
r, achieved by machining the gusset plate before penetration butt welds or double fillet welds. As set
welding and then grinding the weld area parallel to out in specified quality control requirements (non-
the direction of stress. destructive testing included therein), welds must be
proven free of detectable discontinuities. The fatigue
Structural detail E6, vertical attachment (no transition radius) check is performed by determining the stress range
on flange, detail class 23 in the load-bearing plates. The maximum allowable
misalignment of the load-bearing plates is less than 15%
of the thickness of the intermediate (connecting) plate.
Structural detail F2, cruciform joint, transverse,

throat crack failure, detail class 25
Details of any length fillet welded (parallel to the

direction of stress) on the flange of an extruded profile.
Structural detail E7, vertical attachment on flange without

transition radius, detail class 18
Joint between a profile and a plate using full

penetration butt welds or double fillet welds. As set
out in specified quality control requirements (non-
destructive testing included therein), welds must be
proven free of detectable discontinuities. The fatigue
check is performed by determining the stress range
in the weld throat area. The maximum allowable
Details of any length fillet welded (parallel to the misalignment of the load-bearing plates is less than 15%
direction of stress) on the flange of a beam built up of the thickness of the intermediate (connecting) plate.
from several profiles.
Structural detail F3, cover plate with transverse, load-bearing
Structural detail E8, vertical attachment to the flange plane, fillet welds, detail class 20
detail class 23
Details fillet welded (transverse to the direction of End zones of cover plates on beams built up
stress) on the flange of a beam built up from several from several profiles (cover plate ends attached by
profiles. transverse or longitudinal fillet welds).
161
19. DESIGN
Table 19.9.5.a. Characteristic fatigue strength Table 19.9.5.b. Characteristic fatigue strength
for standardised stress spectra, details A1 – A4. for standardised stress spectra, details B1 – B4, C, D and F.
K log nt C K log nt C
70 85 90 130 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
1 3 207 252 281 385 1 3 116 145 174 203 232 261 290 320 349
4 149 181 203 277 4 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 188 205
5 107 130 146 199 5 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
6 77 94 105 144 6 23 29 35 41 47 53 59 65 70
7 70 85 95 130 7 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 49
5/6 3 242 294 327 448 5/6 3 136 169 204 238 272 305 338 372 407
4 176 213 238 326 4 81 100 121 140 161 181 200 220 241
5 127 154 172 235 5 48 60 72 84 95 107 119 131 143
6 92 112 125 171 6 29 36 42 49 57 63 70 76 83
7 66 80 89 122 7 16 20 24 29 33 37 41 45 49
8 48 58 65 88 8 13 15 19 21 24 28 30 34 36
2/3 3 287 347 388 532 2/3 3 161 203 243 283 323 363 404 444 485
4 211 256 286 392 4 97 122 145 169 193 217 242 266 290
5 153 187 209 286 5 58 73 87 101 116 130 144 159 173
6 111 136 152 208 6 35 43 52 60 69 77 86 94 103
7 81 98 109 150 7 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
8 59 71 80 108 8 15 19 22 26 30 34 38 41 45
1/2 3 343 416 465 634 1/2 3 198 248 297 347 396 445 495 544 593
4 260 316 353 483 4 122 152 182 212 243 273 303 333 364
5 194 235 263 359 5 73 92 110 128 146 165 183 201 219
6 142 172 193 264 6 43 55 66 77 87 98 110 120 131
7 103 126 140 192 7 26 32 39 45 52 58 64 71 77
8 75 92 102 140 8 19 25 29 34 39 43 48 52 57
1/3 3 402 488 546 746 1/3 3 248 309 372 434 495 557 618 681 742
4 322 391 438 599 4 159 199 238 278 317 357 396 436 475
5 250 305 339 465 5 98 123 148 172 196 221 246 269 295
6 189 230 257 352 6 61 76 90 105 120 134 150 164 180
7 141 171 192 262 7 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
8 103 125 139 190 8 27 34 41 47 54 61 67 74 81
1/6 3 451 547 612 837 1/6 3 308 384 461 538 615 692 769 846 923
4 383 465 520 712 4 214 267 320 373 426 479 533 586 639
5 318 386 431 590 5 142 177 212 247 283 318 353 387 423
6 256 311 347 475 6 90 113 135 158 180 203 225 248 271
7 201 244 273 374 7 58 72 86 100 115 129 143 157 172
8 150 182 203 278 8 41 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0 3 485 589 658 901 0 3 364 455 546 637 728 819 909 1000 1091
4 428 519 581 794 4 273 342 410 478 546 614 682 750 818
5 372 452 505 691 5 199 248 297 347 396 445 495 544 594
6 317 385 431 589 6 140 174 209 244 278 313 348 382 417
7 265 322 360 493 7 96 120 143 167 191 214 238 262 287
8 216 262 292 400 8 66 82 99 115 131 147 163 179 197
162
19. DESIGN
Table 19.9.5.c. Characteristic fatigue strength

for standardised stress spectra, details B5 – B11 and E1 – E8.
K log nt C
18 23 30 35 40 45
1 3 172 219 286 334 382 429

4 87 111 145 169 193 217
5 44 56 73 85 97 109
6 22 28 37 43 49 55
7 14 18 23 27 30 34
5/6 3 201 257 335 390 446 501

4 102 130 170 199 227 254
5 52 67 87 100 116 129
6 27 33 44 52 58 66
7 14 18 24 28 31 35
8 10 13 16 19 22 24
2/3 3 239 306 399 466 532 599

4 124 158 205 240 274 308
5 63 80 106 122 141 157
6 33 42 54 63 71 81
7 17 23 29 34 38 44
8 12 15 20 23 26 30
1/2 3 296 376 492 573 656 737

4 156 198 259 302 344 387
5 81 103 134 155 178 201
6 42 53 69 81 92 103
7 23 29 37 44 50 55
8 15 20 26 30 35 38
1/3 3 377 482 628 733 837 942

4 205 263 343 400 456 513
5 110 139 182 211 243 273
6 57 73 96 111 127 142
7 31 39 52 61 69 77
8 22 28 36 42 49 54
1/6 3 494 631 823 960 1097 1234

4 291 371 483 564 645 725
5 164 209 272 317 363 408
6 90 115 149 173 199 223
7 50 65 84 97 112 126
8 34 44 57 66 75 85
0 3 627 801 1045 1219 1393 1567

4 411 525 684 798 911 1025
5 258 329 429 500 572 643
6 156 200 260 303 346 390
7 94 119 156 182 207 233
8 59 75 97 114 130 146
163
This design manual draws on the expertise Sapa has acquired through its many years of work with aluminium structures. It is
emphasised that the profile solutions presented in the manual are based on general principles and theoretical calculations. Thus,
the manual is not in any way intended as a substitute for the specific analyses necessary in each design project. Conditions vary
from case to case and allowance has to be made for this.
The information, advice and comments in this manual are based on data gathered from a number of different sources. The
data was judged to be correct at the time of printing. However, Sapa accepts no liability whatsoever for the correctness and/or
completeness of the details in this manual. Sapa reserves the right to alter technical specifications.
Sapa Profiles UK Limited
Saw Pit Lane Industrial Estate, Tibshelf, Derbyshire, DE55 5NH.
Tel: +44 (0) 1773 872 761. Fax: +44 (0) 1773 874 389.
Tewkesbury Road, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire , GL51 9DT.
Tel: +44 (0) 1242 521 641. Fax: +44 (0) 1242 513 304
Email: info.profiles.uk@sapagroup.com
www.sapagroup.com/uk/profiles Shaping the future

Design Manual: Success With Aluminium Profiles

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Design manual

Success with aluminium profiles

14. Machining 92 – 103 17.2 How you, the purchaser,

These heat sinks exploit aluminium’s high thermal conductivity.

Aluminium has superior malleability.

Density, g/cm3 2.7 7.9 8.9 7.1 1.1 1.4

Aluminium is easy to work using most machining methods.

Aluminium has excellent resistance in neutral and slightly acid environments.

In today’s environment-conscious society, the recycling of used aluminium

The aluminium cycle

Thus, to gain a true assessment of an aluminium product from the environmental

The remelting works in Sjunnen, Sweden.

4.1 The environmental impact

Die cleaning – a closed process producing no waste water.

4.2 Product examples

Total life cycle analysis

Energy consumption during Steel carriages 561,200 kWh

Energy savings in less than two years

4.2.3 Window frames

Whatever the ﬁeld

The advantages of aluminium and extrusion

Billets are heated to the right temperature in an induction furnace.

Two main classes

Dies for solid proﬁles. A hollow die.

Alloying Alloy Alloy

Choosing the right alloy

Logs being prepared for extrusion.

At-a-glance alloy selection

Special alloys for

Suitable alloys for anodising

Heat treatment recommendations

Solution heat treatment: Rapid full through heating,

Natural ageing: Occurs spontaneously at room tem- 2 2 2 2 2 2 30 – 2 2

Common Construction Alloys

Alloys suitable for decorative anodising

Temper codes: Version 7

All alloys: When choosing Good Good Speciﬁcally High-strength

3) Stated tensile strength applies to sections with a wall thickness

4) Sapa 1050A is a non-hardenable alloy – its mechanical

8. Wide proﬁles with

The illustration shows max. proﬁle Weight

Recommended wall thickness – guidelines

6082 hollow proﬁles

9.1 Uniform wall thickness 9.2 Soft lines

It is often acceptable However, a proﬁle Extrusion cannot Corners should be

A design may This is easily

9.1.1 Exceptions As far as possible, Tips should, therefore,

9.3 Solid proﬁles if possible 9.5 Proﬁles with deep channels

For proﬁles with pockets

9.4 Fewer cavities in

NB! Where channel width is under 2 mm, or where a proﬁle’s

This hollow proﬁle is By replacing the hollow

Is it essential In many cases, reducing

9.6 Heat sinks

The solution above gives a narrow, deep channel

9.7 Decorate! Masking of imperfections

Where a proﬁle has, Using decoration, the

Protection against damage

A decorative pattern can make a plain aluminium surface

Most commonly, screw ports are used directly for self-

Port diameters for self-tapping screws

Placing screw ports at corners saves material. To ensure

A screw port along the length of a proﬁle facilitates “stepless