CHAPTER 3

SHORT CIRCUIT
THEORY
AND TERMINOLOGY

Chapter 3 Page 1 Short Circuit Theory and Terminology

SHORT CIRCUIT THEORY AND TERMINOLOGY
ONE LINE DIAGRAMS

• Introduction

• Purposes

EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUITS

• Arcing and Burning

• Current Flow

• Thermal Stress

• Mechanical Stress

• Voltage Drop

FAULT CURRENT SOURCES

• Introduction

• Generators (Local)

• Motors

• Utility System

• Total Fault Current

MACHINE REACTANCE MODELING

• Introduction

• Subtransient Reactance (X”d)

• Transient Reactance (X’d)

• Synchronous Reactance (Xd)

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FAULT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

• Symmetrical Versus Asymmetrical Fault Currents

• System Power Factor and X/R Ratios

• Sample Fault Current Waveshapes

• Asymmetry Factors

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ONE-LINE DIAGRAMS
INTRODUCTION

The most commonly used diagram in an industrial power system is the one-line
diagram (Figure 3-1). This diagram is very useful in showing, by means of standard
graphical symbols and nomenclature, an over-all power system arrangement. For
maximum usefulness, the relative physical arrangement of the electrical system
should be shown on the one-line diagram.

Figure 3-1. One-Line Diagram

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PURPOSES

One-line diagrams are used in the performance of power system studies, to perform
system operations and maintenance, and for construction purposes.

Power System Studies: The one-line diagram is most commonly used in the
performance of power systems studies. The following information is usually
provided, as a minimum, on the one-line diagram, regardless of the type of power
system study being performed.

• Bus current and voltage ratings

• Short circuit current available (optional)

• Voltage and current ratios of instrument transformers

• Protective device (e.g., circuit breakers and fuses) ratings

• Functions of relays indicated by device numbers

• Ratings, type, and impedance of motors and transformers

• Connections (e.g., delta or wye) of transformers

• Number, length, size, and type of conductors and conduit

The final application of the drawing (short circuit study, coordination study,
construction, etc.) will determine the exact information that is provided on the one-
line diagram. For example, impedance of a motor is required for a short circuit study
but not for a coordination study. Relay and adjustable settings of circuit breakers are
required for a coordination study but are not required for a short circuit study.

Operations and Maintenance: The one-line diagram is also commonly used by

technicians to operate and maintain the plant electrical distribution system. For
example, the one-line diagram is used to determine which breakers or switches
should be closed or opened to switch to alternate sources of power due to a fault on
the system. Another example is that the one-line diagram is used to perform “locking
and tagging” procedures when equipment is to be removed from service. Both of
these uses of the one-line diagram point out that the diagram must be kept up-to-
date and accurate. Use of inaccurate data (one-line diagram) for a power systems
study could result in additional costs; use of inaccurate data for switching purposes
or locking and tagging procedures could result in loss of life.

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EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRUCITS
ARCING AND BURNING

At the point of the fault, arcing and burning occurs resulting in hot, molten copper,
burning insulation, etc. In many instances, the end result is a fire.

CURRENT FLOW

Large currents flow under short circuit conditions form various sources (utility,
motors, and generators). These currents are independent of load current.

THERMAL STRESS

All components carrying short circuit currents are subject to thermal stress (heat)
that varies as a function of the current squared (I2) and the fault duration (t). The
temperature rise (ΔT) is an integrated effect, as shown below:
t2

ΔT = [(σ cυA )] ∫
2 -1
• i2 (t) dt = I2t (simplified)
t1
• where: ΔT = temperature rise in oC
σ = electrical conductivity in ohm-1/meter (Ω/m)
Cυ = specific heat in joules/oC x m3
A = conductor cross-sectional area in m2 (Figure 3-2)
i(t) = instantaneous current in amperes (A)
t = time in seconds (sec)
I = rms current in amperes (A)

Figure 3-2. Conductor Cross-Section

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MECHANICAL STRESS

All components carrying electrical current are also subjected to mechanical stress
that is related to the square of the current and the fault duration [i2(t)]. The primary
difference from thermal stress is that the mechanical stress is an instantaneous
effect, rather than an integrated effect, as shown below:

• F/L = [μ0i2(t)]/(2πd)
• where: F/L = force per unit of length in Newtons/meter (N/m)
μ0 = magnetic permeability of air
= 4π x 10-7 henries/meter (H/m)
i(t) = instantaneous current in amperes (A)
d = conductor spacing in meters (m) (Figure 3-3)

Figure 3-3. Parallel Conductors (Simplest Case)

VOLTAGE DROP

The system voltage drops throughout the entire power system and it is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the fault current. The worst-case voltage drop is at
the point of the fault, where the drop is 100 percent (V=0) for a “hard” fault, but all
parts of the power system are subjected to some level of voltage drop.

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FAULT CURRENT SOURCES
INTRODUCTION

When calculating the fault current, it is important to include all possible sources
(Figure 3-4) of short circuit current. The fault current sources are generators (local),
motors (induction and synchronous), and the utility (“large” generators).

Figure 3-4. Fault Current Sources

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GENERATORS (LOCAL)

Generators are driven by some type of prime mover (turbine, diesel engine, etc.).
When a fault occurs on the circuit, the generator continues to produce voltage
because the field excitation is maintained and the prime mover continues to drive the
generator at normal speed. Stated another way, the generator “sees” the fault as an
instantaneous load demand. The only impedance that limits the fault current
magnitude (Figure 3-5) flowing from a generator is the impedance of the generator
(X”g, R”g) and any system impedance that is between the generator terminals and
the point of the fault.

Figure 3-5. Generator (Local) Fault Source

MOTORS

Synchronous motors are constructed similar to generators, which is that they have a
separate field excited by dc current and current flows in the stator winding.
Normally, a synchronous motor converts electrical energy (input kW) to mechanical
energy (output hp). Under fault conditions, the opposite occurs, the synchronous
motor acts like a generator and delivers fault current with the load inertia acting as a
prime mover. As a result the synchronous motor delivers fault current for many
cycles (Figure 3-6) and, like a generator, the current flowing is limited by the motor
impedance (X”m, R”m) and any impedance between the motor terminals and the point
of the fault.

Figure 3-6. Synchronous Motor Fault Source

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MOTORS

Induction motors act much like synchronous motors under fault conditions. The
inertia of the load acts as a prime mover and the motor delivers fault current, but only
for a few cycles (Figure 3-7). The duration is very short because the field of the
induction motor is from the stator winding rather than a dc winding, as is the case
with a synchronous motor. The short circuit current contribution must be considered,
but only for momentary ratings of medium voltage switchgear, and interrupting and
withstand ratings of low voltage equipment. The fault current magnitude delivered by
the induction motor, like generators and synchronous motors, is limited by the
motor’s own impedance (X”m, R”m) and any impedance between the motor terminals
and the point of the fault.

Figure 3-7. Induction Motor Fault Source

The utility system, strictly speaking, is not a source of fault current. The actual
source is the utility company’s generators, which are typically the largest source of
short circuit current in an industrial power system. Like the other short circuit current
sources, the only impedance limiting the fault current from the utility is the self-
impedance of the utility generator(s), and any impedance between the utility system
and the point of the fault. Unlike the other sources, the utility delivers fault current
without any noticeable decay for an indefinite period (Figure 3-8).

Figure 3-8. Utility (Generator) Fault Source

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TOTAL FAULT CURRENT

The total short circuit current that is flowing (Figure 3-9) into the fault point is the sum
of the individual sources plus the dc component. Note: The dc component of the
total fault current will be discussed later in this Tab.

Figure 3-9. Total Fault Current

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MACHINE REACTANCE MODELING
INTRODUCTION

The impedance of generators and motors consist primarily of reactance and, unlike
cables and transformers, it is not a simple value, but is more complex and it also
varies with time. Machines are modeled by three reactance values as follows:
subtransient (X”d), transient (X’d), and synchronous (Xd).

If a short circuit occurs across the terminals of a generator, the waveshape is as

shown in Figure 3-10. The magnitude starts out relatively high and decays to a
steady state value after a definite time lapse (e.g., 30 cycles) depending on the type
of generator (turbine, salient-pole, etc.) and the generator’s reactance (X).

Figure 3-10. Generator Fault Waveshape

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SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCE (X”d)

Subtransient reactance (X”d) is the apparent reactance of the stator winding at the
instant the short circuit occurs, and it determines the current flow during the first few
cycles after short circuit.

• 0 < t < ≈ 3 to 6 cycles

A synchronous motor has the same kind of reactance as a generator, but it is of a
different value. Induction motors have no field coils, but the rotor bars act like the
amortisseur winding in a generator; and therefore, induction motors are said to have
subtransient reactance only.

TRANSIENT REACTANCE (X’d)

Transient reactance (X’d) determines the current following the period when
subtransient reactance is the controlling value. Transient reactance is effective up to
one-half second (≈ 30 cycles) or longer, depending upon the design of the machine.
Transient reactance is approximately 150 percent greater than the subtransient
reactance (X’d ≈ 1.5 X”d).

• ≈ 3 to 6 cycles < t < ≈ 30 to 200 cycles

SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE (Xd)

Synchronous reactance (Xd) is the reactance that determines the current flow when a
steady state condition is reached. It is not effective until several seconds after the
short circuit occurs; consequently, it is not generally used in industrial power systems
short circuit calculations.
• t > ≈ 30 to 200 cycles

Figure 3-11. Machine Reactances (XM)

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FAULT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
SYMMETRICAL VERSUS ASYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENTS

Symmetrical and asymmetrical describe the ac current waveshape about the zero
axis. Virtually all short circuit currents begin as asymmetrical currents and decay to
symmetrical currents.

It the envelopes of the peaks of the fault current waveshape are symmetrical about
the zero axis, they are called symmetrical currents, as shown in Figure 3-12.

Figure 3-12. Symmetrical Fault Current

If the envelopes of the peaks of the fault current waveshape are not symmetrical
about the zero axis, they are called asymmetrical currents, as shown in Figure 3-
13.

Figure 3-13. Asymmetrical Fault Currents

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SYSTEM POWER FACTOR AND X/R RATIOS

Virtually all fault currents are asymmetrical because the system power factor before
a fault occurs is very high (implying low X/R ratios) and then it changes
instantaneously to a very low system power factor after a fault occurs (implying high
X/R ratios). Figure 3-14 shows a typical system circuit model.

Figure 3-14. Circuit Model

Before a fault occurs, the following conditions apply:

• Load impedance dominates (ZL >> ZS)

• ZS very small and mostly XS (XS >> RS)
• ZL very large and mostly RL(RL >> XL) (Figure 3-15b)
• High power factors (e.g., 70% - 95%)
• Very low X/R ratios (e.g., <1)
• Current lags voltage by ≈ 18 - 45 degrees (Figure 3-15a)

After a fault occurs the following conditions apply:

• System impedance (ZS) dominates

• ZL equals 0 (e.g., “shorted out”)
• ZS dominant factor and mostly XS(XS >> RS)
• Low power factors (e.g., 5% - 45%)
• Current lags voltage by ≈79 - 87 degrees (Figure 3-16a)
• Very high X/R ratios (e.g., 5-20 or larger) (Figure 3-16b)

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SYSTEM POWER FACTOR AND X/R RATIOS

Figure 3-15. System Relationships (Before Fault Occurs)

Figure 3-16. System Relationships (After Fault Occurs)

SYSTEM POWER FACTOR AND X/R RATIOS

The only possible way that a current/voltage relationship can change from lagging
approximately 36.9o (Figure 3-15a) to instantaneously (t=0) lagging by approximately
85o (Figure 3-16a) is for the current waveshape to offset itself from the zero axis.
The greater the ratio of reactance to resistance (X/R ratio), the greater the offset and
the slower the rate of decay.

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SAMPLE FAULT CURRENT WAVESHAPES

If a fault occurs in a zero power factor circuit (R = 0) at a system voltage equal to the
maximum value (ES = Emax), the fault current will be totally symmetrical, as shown in
Figure 3-17.

Figure 3-17. Zero Power Factor Circuit (ES = Emax)

If a fault occurs in a zero power factor circuit (R = 0) at a system voltage equal to

zero (ES = 0), the fault current will be totally asymmetrical, as shown in Figure 3-18.

Figure 3-18. Zero Power Factor Circuit (ES = 0)

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SAMPLE FAULT CURRENT WAVESHAPES

High X/R Ratio: Figure 3-19 shows a typical short circuit current oscillogram in a
medium voltage circuit where X/R = 15 (power factor of 7%). Figure 3-19 shows the
voltage current relationships under the same conditions.

Figure 3-19. Short Circuit Current Waveshape at X/R = 15

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SAMPLE FAULT CURRENT WAVESHAPES

Low X/R Ratio: Figure 3-20 shows a typical short circuit oscillogram in a low
voltage circuit where X/R = 2 (power factor of 45%).

Figure 3-20. Short Circuit Current Waveshape at X/R = 2

The following conclusions can be made concerning the decay of the current
waveshapes under fault conditions.

• Rate of decay is a function of the system X/R ratio.

• Low X/R ratios imply a very fast decay.

• High X/R ratios imply a very slow decay.

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ASYMMETRICAL FACTORS

S/C* S/C Mm Ma S/C* S/C Mm Ma

p.f. X/R 1/2∼ 1/2∼ p.f. X/R 1/2∼ 1/2∼

0 ∞ 1.732 1.394 30 3.180 1.130 1.064

1 99.995 1.697 1.374 31 3.067 1.122 1.062

2 49.990 1.662 1.354 32 2.961 1.113 1.057
3 33.318 1.630 1.336 33 2.861 1.106 1.053
4 24.980 1.599 1.318 34 2.766 1.098 1.050
5 19.975 1.569 1.302 35 2.676 1.091 1.046
6 16.637 1.540 1.286 36 2.592 1.085 1.043
7 14.251 1.512 1.271 37 2.511 1.079 1.040
8 12.460 1.486 1.256 38 2.434 1.073 1.037
9 11.066 1.461 1.242 39 2.361 1.068 1.034
10 9.950 1.437 1.229 40 2.291 1.062 1.031
11 9.036 1.413 1.216 41 2.225 1.058 1.029
12 8.273 1.391 1.204 42 2.161 1.053 1.027
13 7.627 1.370 1.193 43 2.100 1.049 1.024
14 7.073 1.350 1.182 44 2.041 1.045 1.023
15 6.591 1.331 1.172 45 1.985 1.041 1.021
16 6.169 1.312 1.162 46 1.930 1.038 1.019
17 5.797 1.295 1.152 47 1.878 1.035 1.017
18 5.465 1.278 1.144 48 1.828 1.032 1.016
19 5.167 1.262 1.135 49 1.780 1.029 1.014
20 4.899 1.247 1.127 50 1.732 1.026 1.013
21 4.656 1.232 1.119 55 1.518 1.016 1.008
22 4.434 1.219 1.112 60 1.333 1.009 1.004
23 4.231 1.205 1.105 65 1.169 1.005 1.002
24 4.045 1.193 1.099 70 1.020 1.002 1.001
25 3.873 1.181 1.092 75 .8819 1.0008 1.0004
26 3.714 1.170 1.087 80 .7500 1.0002 1.0001
27 3.566 1.159 1.081 85 .6197 1.00004 1.00002
28 3.429 1.149 1.076 90 .3287 1.00002 1.00001
29 3.300 1.139 1.071 100 0 1.00000 1.00000
* S/C p.f. = cos θ = cos [tan (X/R)]
-1

Table 3-1. Mm and Ma Ratios (Asymmetrical Factors-A.F.)

Chapter 3 Page 20 Short Circuit Theory and Terminology