HORT-403

Assignment
Topic:1:Botanical name, family, chromosome no.wild relatives,
mode of pollination of major fruits and vegetables crops.

2:Role of plant breeding in improvement of horticultural crops with

recent references.

3:Comprehensive note on development of inbreed line through

classical breeding and through in vitro culture of anther in horticultural
crops.

Submitted by

Usman Tariq
2015-AG-6275

Submitted to

Dr.Usman

Institute Of Horticulture
University of Agriculture Faisalabad
 Assignment 1

Topic:Botanical name, family, chromosome no.wild relatives, mode of

pollination of major fruits and vegetables crops.

Vegetables

1.Potato:
Botanical name: Solanum tuberosum

Family: solanaceae

Chromosome no. 48, 15

Wild relative: Bantu Tulip

Mode of pollination: often self-pollinated

2.Cauliflower :
Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. botrytis

Family:Mustards

Chromosome no. 2n=18

Wild relatives: Cabbage

Mode of Pollination: Cross pollinated

3.Brinjal:
Botanical name: Solanum melongena

Family: solanaceae

Chromosome no. 24

Wild relatives: S. incanum,

 Mode of Pollination: self pollinated

4.Onion:
Botanical name: Allium cepa

Family: Amaryllidaceae

Chromosome no. 16
Wild relative: allium biscripton

Mode of pollination: self-pollination

5.Tomato:
Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum

Family: solanaceae

Chromosome no. 24

Wild relatives: Solanum arcanum Peralta

Fruits
1.Grapes
Botanical name: vitis venifera

Family: vitaceae
Chromosome no. 38

2.Peach:
Botanical name: Prunus persica

Family: Rosacece

Chromosome no. 2n=2x=16 chromosomes

Wild relatives: apricot, nectarine

Mode of pollination: self pollination

3.Strawberries:
Botanical name: Fragaria × ananassa

Family: Rosacece

Chromosome no. 14

Wild relatives: Blueberry

Mode of pollination :cross pollination

4.Mango
Botanical Name: Mangifera indica

Family: Anacardiaceae

Chromosome no. 40

Wild relative: Irvingia gabonensis

Mode of pollination: cross pollination

5.Apple
Botanical name: Mallus pumilia

Family: Rosaceae

Chromosome no. 34,51

Wild relatives: Malus sieversii

Mode of pollination: cross pollination

6.Citrus
Botanical name: citrus x sinensis (sweet lemon)

Family: Rutaceace

Chromosome no. 18

Wild relatives: rough lemon

Mode of pollination: cross pollination

 Assigment 2
Topic: Role of plant breeding in improvement of horticultural crops
with recent references

Methods for Nutrition Improvement and Horticulture

crops Improvement against abiotic stress

Introduction

Quality improvement of crop plants is a significant component in nutritional and food security. It
is always a challenge both in field and horticultural crops. Several conventional as well as
modern breeding methods are practised to triumph over the challenge. Recent advancements in
the field of agricultural biotechnology have created a new domain to complement the methods of
plant breeding. So, plant breeding, an interdisciplinary science, is moving towards a new
horizon. Here these methods of improving quality in horticultural crops have been discussed with
several achievements obtained in different fields. It would help to deduce a comprehensive and
comparative idea amongst the methods of plant breeding available for designing a proper route to
meet the demand. Different varieties with such genetic improvement have already been released
and successfully cultivated which have also been focused here.

Role of Classical Breeding in horticulture

Earlier, the classical breeding program like selection, hybridization, backcross breeding and
composite crossing and multiline were used, but faced several problems such as slow, take long
time, cost money and hectic for developing resistance in crops [4]. Further, classical breeding
faced some difficulty affected the hybridization such as environmental conditions in particular,
low and high relative humidity, as well as low and high temperatures . Furthermore, selection is
the most basic and ancient procedure in plant breeding program. The selected and inbred new
lines are compared with the existing commercial old varieties in their productivity and quality.
Hybridization of selection, wild or domesticated plants grown in stressed atmosphere always
give sunrise to obtained a new generation or mutation can be tolerant and challenged to the
environmental adverse.

Role of Tissue culture

Tissue culture is a tool for vegetative propagation of horticultural crops and clonal propagation.
Through tissue culture can be obtained haploid induction, of soma clonal difference and rapidly
differentiates relatively within a small space . It was possible to induce the differentiation of
roots and shoots from shoot tip apical meristem, seed germination, embryo culture and pollen
grain culture thereby producing atypical daughter plants. Tissue culture techniques have been
applied to the plant species in an attempt to produce new genotype with improved characteristics
including the physiological basis for salinity tolerance. Plant tissue culture is considered as one
of best effective technique for improving horticultural plants to many stressed conditions.

Role of Genetic engineering

Abiotic stress is most problems ubiquitous in the worldwide, can be affect horticultural crops
yield productivity and quality. Also, biotic and abiotic stresses affect all secondary metabolites
like photosynthesis, polysaccharide, protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, physiological and
biochemical processes. Genetic engineering via gene transfer can be change the gene expression
or activity in response to salt stress and drought stress. Genetic Manipulation (GM) or genetic
modified is one of the important factors to avoid the dissertation by water shortage and plant
irrigation with salty water. Transgenic plants of the many tools available for modern plant
improvement programs. Gene identification and functional genomics projects have revealed
multi stressed gene families, which enhance productivity improvement and acclimation to abiotic
stresses. Several investigators discovered several genes in different gene family that can be
introduced to different plant with different families. The approach from gene transfer is
demonstrated and provides more options for selectivity of stressed and multi stressed genes from
different organisms to introduce them into plants to provide resistance against different biotic
stresses.

Role of Grafting

As we know that horticultural crops facing several environmental problems especially when
grown under water deficiency and salt stress. Grafting was found to be a rapid technique to avoid
biotic and abiotic problems and was relatively one methods of plant breeding at the increasing
environmental stresses . At the moment grafting is more distributed over the world with different
plant species to achieve the horticultural crops with high productivity and quality. On the other
hand, the positive effect of grafting on improving the salt tolerance it also promotes water use
efficiency . Several investigators found an improvement plant growth and yield by grafting under
salt stress and water stress. Grafting improved the horticultural crops for yield productivity and
quality under different stresses of environmental conditions. Generally, roots are powerful of
supply water and nutrient uptake by the soil, or to distribute growth regulators to the grafted part.
The grafting technique is very important to solve the problems facing horticulture crops when
grow under salinity or drought conditions by evaluating and screening new genotypes for their
rootstocks tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. For future outlook still we have one question:
Is the new genotypes (grafted product) genetically changed or only physiologically changed
coming from the rootstock?

Ref1. Helaly AA (2017) Strategies for Improvement of Horticultural Crops against Abiotic
Stresses. J Hortic 4:e107. doi: 10.4172/2376-0354.1000e107.
Ref.2Ballot, D., R.D. Baynes, T.H. Bothwell, M. Gillooly, B.J. MacFarlane, A.P.MacPhail, G. Lyons, D.P.
Derman, W.R. Bezwoda, and J.D. Torrance.1987. The effects of fruit juices and fruits on the absorption
of iron from a rice meal. Brit. J. Nutr. 57:331–343.

Improvement in horticulture(Fruits) through plant

breeding :
Technical problems in fruit breeding

Most woody perennial fruit plants are outbreeders and are highly heterozygous and they do not breed
true form seed. Accordingly, the subtle combinations of genes which constitute a good cultivar must be
perpetuated by vegetative propagation. Most of the traits which make up a good fruit are polygenic in
their inheritance and few are simple Mendelian characters. Seedlings of woody perennial plants have a
protracted juvenile phase during which they do not normally form flowers. With conventional
techniques the minimum generation times are from 4-15 years depending on the species. To this must
be added the tine required for orchard or vineyard evaluation of advanced selections, perhaps another 5
years. Other biological constraints in fruit breeding include self-incompatibility, polyploidy and
parthenocarpy.

Having, at last, raised a progeny the fruit breeder is faced with the problem of selection criteria. Fruit
crops tend to be bred for quality rather than yield and there are few simple objective tests of fruit
quality. Finally, there are conservative forces which tend to resist the introduction of new cultivars
irrespective of excellence. Certain cultivars have become firmly entrenched in the market-place (e.g.
Granny Smith) and consumers have little interest in unfamiliar fruits. wholesalers tend to dislike new
cultivars because marketing is made more complicated. In certain crops, notably grapes, the
introduction of new genotypes is opposed by schemes such as "Appellation d'Origine Controlee" which
are designed to stabilize quality and reinforce the image of the existing products.

Conventional methods in fruit breeding

The traditional and most widely-employed approach to breeding clonally-propagated crops is to select
within large Fls produced by Dossing existing cultivars. The best of the segregates are multiplied
vegetatively, and tested in replicated trials (Simmonds 1979).

The method has had some notable successes in each of the major fruit crops (Janick and Moore 1975),
but it has some strong disadvantages. The turnover is slow and the genetic base is narrow. Little genetic
information is forthcoming because generations seldom go beyond Fl. Genetic gain in a breeding
population is not exploited in following generations and the method is founded on the personal skill of
the individual.
In France, much study has been made by biometrical geneticists and fruit breeders of "strategies d'
amelioration" in fruit crops. Recurrent selection procedures have been proposed for grapes in which
information can be accumulated on the inheritance of the characters concerned and on the breeding
value of parents. Essentially, these schemes separate the creation of cultivars, which can occur at any
time during successive cycles, from the long-term genetic improvement of the breeding population.
Schemes such as recurrent selection are not so firmly founded on the skill of an individual because,
theoretically, the successive cycles can proceed with different caretakers. This has distinct advantages in
the case of plants with long generation times. It remains to be seen, however, whether recurrent
selection (Bouquet 1977), "panmixie controlee" (Rives 1977), or other slow-turnover long-term breeding
plans with woody perennials (Wagner, 1975), will survive the administrative fatigue that is a cannon
hazard of fruit breeding programmes.

In apple breeding, considerable progress has been made in producing disease-resistant cultivars by the
insertion of a number of single gene characters from wild Malus into polygenic backgrounds, followed
by backcrossing to scion cultivars to upgrade fruit size and quality (Hough et al. 1953). There has also
been progress in the acquisition of genetic information. More than 40 genes with dominant alleles have
now been identified in the apple, chiefly by the group at East Mailing Research Station in England
(Alston 1971).

Many apple cultivars have arisen as spontaneous mutants of existing genotypes, e.g. the numerous
colour variants of the original Delicious apple which arose in 1881. Artificially-induced mutants of apples
and other fruits are also of considerable potential importance. Work in Canada (Lapins 1965), England
(Campbell and Lacey 1973), Italy (Donnini and Rosselli, 1977) and France (Decourtye, 1971) has shown
that irradiation is highly effective in producing useful variants of existing cultivars. The so-called
"compact mutants" are an example.

Limiting factors

As a generalization there are no intractable genetic problems which are limiting factors in fruit
improvement. There is much genetic variation within genera of fruiting plants that is potentially useful
to the breeder and there are already several genetically-sound breeding procedures by which this
variation could be exploited. The major problems in fruit breeding are long generation times and lack of
pre-selection criteria. These problems are in the sphere of plant physiology rather than in genetics and
an important direction for horticultural science in the next decade is the application of plant
physiological research to breeding rather than to the manipulation of existing genotypes.

Novel methods in fruit breeding

Reviews on the potential contributions of aseptic culture methods to plant improvement in agriculture
and horticulture appear in the literature with irritating regularity. Most authors are academic botanists
or biochemists with little knowledge of crop plants or crop production systems and many of the claims
of these tissue culture devotees need be taken with a pinch of salt.
It must be stressed that most of the manipulations which have been accomplished in vitro with
protoplasts, pollen, somatic cells or other explants have been with plants such as tobacco and wild
carrot. These experimental systems have been specially selected for their high degree of regenerative
competence in vitro and for their suitability as tools for basic research on the nature of embryogenesis
and organogeresis.

It is a big step from herbaceous annual test plants to the breeding of commercially-important trees. A
characteristic of most fruit plants is that they are very difficult to regenerate in vitro. So far, high
frequency somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis has been achieved only in grape (Mullins and
Srinivasan 1976; Rajasekaran and Mullins 1979; Barlass and Skene 1978) and citrus (Button and Kcchba,
1977). The ability to produce very large numbers of individuals from somatic tissues is a prerequisite for
the application of genetic engineering to crop improvement and it is also the basis of clonal propagation
- a subject of special significance in horticulture.

Aseptic culture techniques may be of value for rapid multiplication of scarce clonal material, or for
production of pathogen-free plants, but enthusiasm for the technique should not obscure the fact that
there have been substantial advances in recent years in the conventional methods of "cloning" - the
induction of adventitious roots in cuttings of fruit plants (Howard 1971).

The creation of genetic variability by induced mutations in vitro, protoplast fusion, organelle transfer or
DNA-uptake, is potentially of great interest in crop improvement. In fruit crops, however, lack of genetic
variability is seldom a serious concern. The genus Vitis, for example, contains more than 60 interfertile
species which are distributed from cool-temperate to tropical environments. Similarly, in Citrus, Malus,
Pyrus, Prunus and most other genera of fruit plants, there are great reserves of unexplored genetic
variation (Janick and Moore 1975).

The essential problem in the improvement of fruit crops is not the creation of new variation but the
development of new strategies for the efficient exploitation of existing genetic variation. The haploid
method of breeding is of special interest in this regard (Winton and Stettler 1974). Techniques for
producing large numbers of haploid and homozygous diploid plants from major fruit species are not yet
available. Some progress has been made in growing plantlets in vitro from anthers of hybrid grapevines
(Rajasekaran and Mullins 1979) but the origin of the plantlets has yet to be confirmed.

It is clear that aseptic culture techniques are an interesting addition to the fruit breeders' armoury but, if
their potential is to be realized, there must be an increased investment in research on regenerative
phenomena in vitro in horticulturally-significant species. Hitherto, there has been excessive
extrapolation from simple, contrived, experimental systems with herbaceous plants to complex
horticultural situations with woody perennial species.

Ref. Mullins, M. G. 2006. Plant improvement in horticulture: the case for fruit breeding. The regional
institute online publications. Sydney.
 Assignment 3
Topic : Comprehensive note on development of inbreed line through
classical breeding and through in vitro culture of anther in horticultural
crops.

Classical Breeding:
Classical plant breeding uses deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related
species to produce new crops with desirable properties. Plants are crossed to introduce
traits/genes from a particular variety into a new genetic background.
Method:
One major technique of plant breeding is selection, the process of selectively propagating plants
with desirable characteristics and eliminating or "culling" those with less desirable
characteristics.
Another technique is the deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related
individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred
to introduce ((traits/genes from one variety or line into a new genetic background. For example, a
mildew-resistant pea may be crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, the goal of the
cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high-yield characteristics. Progeny
from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding parent to ensure that the progeny
were most like the high-yielding parent, (backcrossing). The progeny from that cross would
then be tested for yield (selection, as described above) and mildew resistance and high-yielding
resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be crossed with themselves to
produce inbred varieties for breeding. Pollinators may be excluded through the use of
pollination bags.
Classical breeding relies largely on homologous recombination between chromosomes to
generate genetic diversity. The classical plant breeder may also make use of a number of in vitro
techniques such as protoplast fusion, embryo rescue or mutagenesis to generate diversity and
produce hybrid plants that would not exist in nature.
Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants include:
  Improved (quality, such as increased nutrition, improved flavor, or greater beauty
 Increased yield of the crop)
 Increased tolerance of environmental pressures (salinity, extreme temperature,
drought)
 Resistance to viruses, fungi and bacteria
 Increased tolerance to insect pests
 Increased tolerance of herbicides
 Longer storage period for the harvested crop
Inbreed Line:

Inbreeding is the production of offspring from the mating or breeding of individuals or

organisms that are closely related genetically.By analogy, the term is used in human
reproduction, but more commonly refers to the genetic disorders and other consequences that
may arise from expression of deleterious or ((recessive traits resulting from incestuous sexual
relationships and consanguinity.
Inbreeding results in homozygosity, which can increase the chances of offspring being affected
by deleterious or recessive traits.This usually leads to at least temporarily decreased ((biological
fitness of a population (called inbreeding depression), which is its ability to survive and
reproduce. An individual who inherits such deleterious traits is colloquially referred to as inbred.
The avoidance of expression of such deleterious recessive alleles caused by inbreeding, via
inbreeding avoidance mechanisms, is the main selective reason for outcrossing. Crossbreeding
between populations also often has positive effects on fitness-related traits,but also sometimes
leads to negative effects known as outbreeding depression. However increased homozygosity
increases probability of fixing beneficial alleles and also slightly decreases probability of fixing
deleterious alleles in population. Inbreeding can result in purging of deleterious alleles from a
population through purifying selection.
Inbreeding is a technique used in selective breeding. For example, in livestock breeding, breeders
may use inbreeding when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock and for
producing distinct families within a breed, but will need to watch for undesirable characteristics
in offspring, which can then be eliminated through further selective breeding or culling.
Inbreeding also helps to ascertain the type of gene action affecting a trait. Inbreeding is also used
to reveal deleterious recessive alleles, which can then be eliminated through assortative breeding
or through culling. In plant breeding, inbred lines are used as stocks for the creation of ((hybrid
lines to make use of the effects of heterosis. Inbreeding in plants also occurs naturally in the form
of self-pollination.
Inbreeding can significantly influence gene expression which can prevent inbreeding depression.
Example:
Horticulture crops that are inbreeders are tomato, cumcumber, and chickpea.These are species that
naturally self-pollinate and incommercial practice are grown as true breeding, homo-zygous lines. So all
the individuals of a particular cultivarare genetically identical.Each generation is produced by allowing
the plants toself-pollinate in each cycle of the breeding programme sothat while the trialling and
selection process is proceedingthe plants are becoming more inbred.

Anther culture:
Anther culture is one of the plant biotechnology tools utilized for creation of haploid and spontaneous
dihaploid plants from different horticultural crops. Androgenesis can be defined as a set of biological
processes leading to an individual that genetically originated exclusively from an anther microspores
that represent the mail genotype. The main objective of in vitro anther culture is to obtain dihaploid
homozygous lines with high practical value for breeders, but researches in this area also have theoretical
importance for fundamental biological sciences. After spontaneous, or induced genome doubling,
dihaploids that are completely homozygous can be utilized differently in fundamental and practical
research programs. From the standpoint of plant breeding, androgenesis has power to reduce the
typical 7–9 inbreeding generations necessary to stabilize a hybrid genotype to only one. It is the key
advantage of dihaploid technology in the context of plant breeding. Since pepper, tomato and eggplant
are one of the most important Solanaceae crops worldwide, the improvement of their diversity is
possible by engagement of the methods of classical breeding, but also by plant biotechnology which can
advance the breeding process. During the past years, in vitro anther culture research of numerous
horticultural crops is extended although its successful application depends on different factors. Hence,
in vitro anther culture is one of the biotechnological tools which is often exploited in different
solanaceous and other horticultural species pre-breeding programs.

Method:

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L., 2n = 2x = 20) is a seed-propagated herbaceous perennial vegetable

grown for its tender spears that are harvested primarily in the spring in temperate climates. Due to
dioecy, it is obligately cross-pollinating except for occasional self-pollination of perfect flowers that
occur on andromonoecious plants (Ellison, 1986). Hybrid cultivars have been developed through double
cross breeding schemes or by single crosses after tissue culture methods became available for rapid
multiplication of parental clones. Propagation of hybrid asparagus by seed results in almost equal
numbers of male and female plants and individual plants vary in yield ability (Ito & Currence, 1965; Tsay
et al., 1980). Sex expression is under simple genetic control with maleness dominant to femaleness.
Because male plants tend to be more productive than female plants, the potential of all-male hybrid
cultivars has attracted the attention of many asparagus breeders. Haploids and doubled haploids can be
efficiently utilized to realize such breeding schemes. Anther culture allows the rapid production of
haploids and subsequent chromosome doubling can lead to completely homozygous diploid male (YY) or
female (XX) plants. Homogeneous all male F1 hybrids can then be obtained by crossing homozygous
female and supermale parents.The first hybrid cultivar resulting from a single cross between two
selected doubled haploids, one derived by anther culture and the other derived parthenogenically, was
released recently (Corriols et al.1990).