COMMINUTION CIRCUIT DESIGN
HUGH W. RIMMER
PE&O
BLACKSBWRG. VA
ABSTRACT
The design of comminution circuits and the evaluation of alter-
natives should be based on state-of-the-art equipment and appro-
priate design criteria - considerations that are often neglected by
today's designers. This paper critically reviews common circuit
designs, evaluates various alternatives for difficult-to-treatores, and
discusses the factors that should be considered when developing
new plant designs or auditing existing plant performance. Data ob-
tained from laboratory, pilot and plant-scale test work on a wide
range of ores and circuits are used to justify the author's conclu-
sions.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been a major shift away from the con-
ventional crushinglcoarse milling circuit towards the use of the au-
togenoudsemi-autogenous (AGISAG) mill for size reduction in min-
erals processing. Although there is much to be said for the simplic-
ity and apparent cost reduction of this shift, in many cases, the jus-
tification for the shift has been based on unfair comparisons be-
tween old and new technologies. For example, there has been little
or no accounting for economies in scale, outmoded operating prac-
tices (such as operating crushing plants as mill feed preparation
devices rather than size reduction devices that are as important as
the mills), or operating expenses.
Comminution represents between 50 and 75 percent of the di-
rect production costs of most concentrating plants in the mining in-
dustry. Most of these costs are accounted for by consumable~
such as energy and wear metal. Quite often the costs are roughly
split 50-50 between power and metal consumption. Although labor
costs are often cited as being critical, such costs typically represent
only 5 to 10 percent of production costs for facilities processing
more than 40,000 tonnedday. Thus, in many circumstances, re-
ductions in labor will do little to offset the magnitude of the much
larger consumables cost.
This paper seeks to rectify this situation through the use of the
considerable knowledge base that has accrued from both existing
operations and research programs over the years.
BASIC CIRCUIT DESIGNS
Although it is possible to distinguish a great number of different
comminution circuits, only two basic circuits need to be considered:
The primary AGISAG mill, single-stage MVpebble mill urarit.
Today, this is more typically the SAG~ballmill variant (Figure 1).
The conventional three-stage crushing, single-stage ball
mill circuit (Figure 2).
More often than not, comparisons between AGISAG and con-
ventional crushing and grinding circuits have been between the
former and 3-stage crushing, rod milling and ball milling. However,
the modern conventional plant is as described above, utilizing high
energy crushing in the secondary and tertiary crushing stages and
separate crushing and screening plants. This approach permits the
independent optimization of equipment numbers and gives produc-
tivity gainslcost reductionsof the order of 25-30%. Examples of this
type of circuit include Atlas Consolidated's Carmen Copper Con-
centrator (Navarro etal., 1979); Bougainville Copper Ltd., (Pascoe,
etal., 1982); Mexicana de Cobre's La Caridad plant; and, to a lesser
extent, the Cyprus Sierrita Concentrator (Woody and Work, 1979).
This type of plant is significantly cheaper and more flexible than
was the traditional circuit and will, in general, change the capital cost
equation to one of near equality between "conventional" and AGI
SAG type circuits.
The Fine CrushinglCoarse Grlndlng Dllemma
Particle sizes around 25-50 mm (one to two inches) cause a dis-
proportionate number of the problems found in the effective utiliza-
tion of comminution energy, and the use of fine crushing or coarse
grinding to overcome this problem risks the introduction of signifi-
cant inefficiencies into the typical comminution operation. For ex-
ample, when the use of cone crushers is extended to finer sizes, the
structural rigidity and controlled motion of these mechanisms can
generate very high forces on individual particles (Flavel and
Rimmer, 1988). These force levels can cause significant energy
losses due to paddinglagglomerationof particles in the crushing
chamber and to elastic deformation of the crusher. This wasted
strain energy, which is cyclic, can also give rise to excessive fatigue
stress levels, reducing the effective life of crusher components, as
has been shown in a number of operating plants (Pascoe, et al.,
1982; Thirwell, et al., 1982).
Problems such as those outlined above do not occur in the free
breakage environment prevailing in tumbling mills. Here balls, rods,
rocks or pebbles are lifted to a height determined by the mill's diam-
eter and speed, and the energy gain within individual pieces of me-
dia is directly related to the mass of that piece. Inefficient energy
transfer from mill drive to the media and, more importantly, to the
material being broken, is the source of most of the losses observed
in practice. In ball mills and SAG mills, the largest size steel balls
in general use are 125 mm (5 inches) in diameter, and balls down
to 25 mm (1 inch) are typically present in the charge. Theoretical
calculations show there is a range from 0.009 kWh/t (0.008 kWWst)
for a 25 mm (1 inch) diameter ball hitting a 76 mm (3 inch) diameter
rock to approximately 26.4 kWh/t (24 kWhlst) for a 127 mm (5 inch)
 PROCEEDINGS OF 'THE XIX IMPC
Figure 1. Primary AGISAG Mill, Single-Stage Ball Mill Circuit (Af-
ter Koivistoinen, 1989)
ball hitting a 13 mm (112 inch) diameter rock. From many pendu-
lum breakage tests on average materials (work index approxi-
mately 14 kWhlt), it is found that the average energy needed to
cause any fracture approaches 0.15 kWhlt. However, study of the
impact of various size balls on a 76 mm (3 inch) diameter rock
shows that even a 127 mm (5 inch) diameter ball has only 0.12
kWWt (0.1 1 kwhlst) of available energy to break this size, and the
probability of breakage of an average hardness piece will be low.
A review of recent crushing and grinding work at the Cyprus
Sierrita plant gives perspective to these conclusions (Flavel eta/.,
1988). Sierrita grinding mill performance according to the Bond
calculation for oversize feed is shown in Figure 3. The average
laboratory work index from many grinding tests at Sierrita is ap-
proximately 14.3 kWhh (13.0 kwhlst) and for this hardness the op-
timum feed size (maximum size 80% passing size which gives no
power increment) is 4,000 l m . At this feed size the power require-
ment from the graph is 5.6 kWh1t (5.1 kwhlst). This is within 0.14
kWhh, or 2.4% of the pendulum prediction for this ore. The actual
mill performance with 13,000 l m F (), feed is approximately 8.8
kWhh (8 kwhlst), which is also in line with the Bond prediction for
this size. It should also be noted that if grinding mill feed size could
be reduced to 80% finer than 4 mm, an analysis such as that given
above indicates a maximum potential mill throughput of approxi-
mately double the original plant design capacity.
These observationscan also be explained in terms of "modem
comminution theory." It is convenient to view the selection (rate)
and breakage functions as describing two separate aspects of the
typical comminution process, the breakage function being prima-
rily a characteristic of the material and the energy input to the
breakage process, and the selection function being primarily a ma-
chine characteristic describing the "probability"or rate of breakage
of a given size of material under a given energy regime. If this is
done, the basic characteristics of the three different comminution
machines being discussed here, viz, the AGISAG mill, cone
crusher and ball mill, can be described by the selection functions
shown in Figures 4-5. It should be noted that the general superpo-
sition of the crusher and ball milling curves gives rise to a compos-
ite curve that is very similar to that describing the AGISAG curve,
both showing the general characteristic of low breakage rates at
sizes around 25-50 mm (1-2 inches), i.e.,the same problem, in dif-
fering degrees, affects both types of circuit. The shape and mag-
nitude of this dip in breakage rates depends, in general, on the
hardness of the material and may, with soft materials, be absent al-
together.
A variety of solutions to this problem have been tried, in-
cluding:
u
a
I
a
1
s
I
1
4
1.
-
-lmTOI*M
CrODVlLL
lOlCD
DOC-
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fll: = . n r V I L E
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Figure 2. Conventional Three-Stag Crushing, Single-StageBall Mill
Circuit (After Koivistoinen, 1989)
The use of additional stages of crushing andlor grinding
(usually rod mills) or the use of newer technologies, such as
"waterflush" crushing and high pressure roll crushing, as replace-
ments for tertiary crusherslrod mills. These last two options pro-
duce a finer product than do traditional crushers, and as a result, re-
duce (but do not eliminate) the need for closed circuit screening to
control mill feed top-size.
The inclusion of crushers in AGISAG circuits to crush
difficult-to-grind intermediate materials (conventional recycle crush
or Boliden autopeb approach).
Conventional Clrcult Variants for Problematic Ores
RodUp until 20 years ago, the standard comminution
flowsheet was three stages of crushing, often in open circuit, feed-
ing rod and ball mills generally of approximately 3 meter diameter.
Rod mills were a necessary part of these flow sheets because the
crushing facilities were usually unable to produce products with a
top size of less than approximately 25 mm (1 inch). A number of
factors have conspired to effectively eliminate the rod mill from
mainstream comminution applications:
Rod strengths and requirements on diameter-to-length
ratios have generally limited rod mill diameters to 4.2-4.6 m (14-15
ft). Maximum throughputs for efficient operation in this size of mill
are about 450 tlh, well below the capacity of currently available 6.1
m (20 ft) ball mills, thus creating significant size mismatches.
Rod mills containing broken and bent rods operate very
inefficiently, requiring the use of efficiency correction factors rang-
ing from 1.2 (for rod milllball mill circuits) to 1.4 (for rod mills alone)
in Bond type calculations.
Tertiary crusher designs have evolved to the point where
P, values of less than 10 mm (318 inch) can be achieved with many
ores, thus minimizing the magnitude of the oversize feed penalty for
ball mills.
e Roll C r u s m More recently, considerable atten-
tion (Kellerwessel, 1986; Schonert 1988) has been directed to a
high intensity crushing, compaction and agglomeration comminu-
tion process that was initially applied to European cement opera-
tions. This technology, which can be used as a ball mill replace-
ment or a fine crusher, has found its niche in pre-crushing grinding
mill feed, and has proven particularly beneficial in reducing commi-
nution costs in the cement industry by published amounts of up to
30%.
 COMMINUTION CIRCUIT DESIGN
BonO Woe Index (KWHIST)
W l Phlon Shall KWMrlST
turn Parrr - lglMKWb4m.y - W = 290 Yhrme)
Figure 3. Calculated Sierrita Ball Mill kWhn as a Function of
Feedsize
What is not generally understood, however, is that the original
process is notoriously inefficient. The typical cement clinker grind-
ing mill handles a coarser feed (80% minus 40 mm down to 20 mm),
than does the typical mining single-stage ball mill (80% passing 16
mm to 6 mm); grinds dry; and produces a much finer product (80%
minus 30 to 15 km, compared to the 80% minus 300 to 150 Fm
product from mining grinding mills). As a result, finish grinding on
cement clinker typically consumes 30 to 40 kWh1t of product com-
pared to 7 to 16 kWhn in many mining applications. The high pres-
sure roll crusher appears to utilize about 5 kWh1t to crush the nor-
mal mill feed to more acceptable sizes, and in the process, reduces
the mill energy consumption from 35 kWh1t to 20 kWhn. However,
the savings would be even more impressive if a cone crusher utiliz-
ing 1 to 2.5 kWh1t had been used to produce roughly the same size
mill feed.
Several questions regarding the degree of pre-stressing (weak-
ening) of mill feed vs. energy wastage due to re-agglomeration of
the crusher product remain to be resolved with this type of machine.
Problems experienced in mineralstest applicationsalso include sig-
nificant wear to the roll surfaces (which effectively reduces the ap-
plied crushing force), and the relatively high cost of these units per
tonne of throughput.
Waterflush" C r u s h This technology is being offered as a
replacement for tertiary crusherslrod mills (Motz and Beerkircher,
1992). The machine is essentially identical to a standard fine cone
crusher, but additionally uses a high volume flow of water to the
chamber to flush pads/ agglomerates from the chamber and assist
in their breakup. Published water addition rates will give product
pulp densities of the order of 40-60% solids, which typically is too
low for ball milling. Crusher product will therefore need to be dewa-
tered prior to milling, probably by feeding directly to the cyclone
pump sump in a reverse-closed ball mill circuit - not the most desir-
able situation for such an application since this feed does not meet
the normal criteria for this type of circuit, namely, that the feed con-
tain significant quantities of finished material.
Other potential problems include higher than normal wear rates
(because of the wet, corrosive environment); lower than normal
availabilities for the overall milling circuit (85% for crushers vs. 95%
for ball mills), since these crushers must be directly coupled to the
mill circuit; and very high force levels in these machines that will
probably limit their size (and therefore, capacity).
BreaAmerat8
-
Particle size
Figure 4. Typical AGISAG Mill SelectionIRate Function (After
Morrell, 1992)
AGISAG Circult Varlants for Problematic Ores
Hinken (1982) gives valuable insight into the inefficiency of en-
ergy usage in AGISAG mills by showing how critical size media can
consume considerable amounts of mill driving energy for lifting
within the mill charge. The predominant mechanism for reducing
critical size material is abrasive surface wear. As a direct result, the
mill products are considerably finer than those produced by impact
breakage events. The inefficiency levels were demonstrated in the
Amax Henderson No. 4 SAG mill during its commissioning. This
unit was first run for 17 days purely autogenously and then switched
to SAG operation, where the &rating work index improvedfrom around
29.5 kWhh (27 kwh/&) to approximately22 kWh/t (20 kwhlst) with an
8% to 10% ball charge. A more dramatic improvement occurred in
the mill product's specific power consumption, which improved from
41 kWhlt (37 kwhlst) to approximately 16.5 kWh1t (15 kwhlst) for
the required product. However, when compared to the conventional
grinding system at the Climax Molybdenum concentrator, which
treated a similar ore with a mill energy of 6.6 kWh/t (6.0 kwhlst), the
autogenous grind represented six times as much energy and the
SAG mill more than twice the amount.
The low energy potential of critical size media material within
autogenous and SAG mills would seem to indicate a need to crush
this down to a size that can be milled efficiently. This is, of course,
the ABC circuit concept and the rock pebble strategies that were
long extolled by Crocker (1985).
ARCISARC cir& These circuits are based on the recognition
of the fact that "pebble" material needs to be removed from the mill
in order to minimize abrasive size reduction (which is low produc-
tivity) and to free up mill volume for more effectiveimpactlcompres-
sive breakage. These materials then need to be reduced in size
(crushed?) before being returned to the circuit. This can be done
in two ways - single stage crushing, followed by recycle to the AG,
SAG mill (Koivistoinen eta/.,1993), or two stage crushing, followed
by feed forward of the material to the ball mill circuit (Motz and
Beerkircher, 1992). This latter approach introduces considerable
complexity into the processing circuit and is probably only useful in
a limited number of special applications.
This approach is the most widely used of the various options,
and provides an excellent catch-all for variable hardness ores.
However, potential problems include the need to provide a high
30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE XIX IMPC
Figure 5. Typical Ball Mill (left) and Cone Crusher (Right) Selection/
Rate Functions
level of tramp iron protection in SABC circuits to prevent crusher
damage, lower equipment availabilities (85% for crushers vs. 95%
for AGISAG mills), though this is less important in recycle systems
than in feedforward systems.
This approach is based on the belief
that critical size material must be avoided if at all possible, in order
to minimize abrasive size reduction in the mill, and to gain greater
control over product size (Soderlund e t a / . , 1989). The typical
"Autopeb" plant pre-crushes the feed to produce two well defined
size fractions - one coarse and one fine. The two fractions are then
fed to the primary (typically autogenous) mill in controlled propor-
tions, the coarse sewing as grinding media, i.e. pebbles. Although
it can be argued that the addition of this pre-crushingcircuit to a AGI
SAG circuit will give the worst of both worlds, the circuit is typically
smaller (since it is not requiredto produce a 100% fine product) and
simpler than the typical crushing circuit and may, in fact be only
marginally more complex and bigger than the conventional (S)ABC
circuit discussed above. Its principal problem, however, is that it is
a feedforward circuit in a situation where the ability to respond opti-
mally to changes in operating conditions may be poor.
THE EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE PLANT DESIGNS
Much has been written about the comparison of different
flowsheets and many hypotheses have been offered as to what
might be the best processing equipment lineup. It is not the inten-
tion here to repeat this work, but rather, to point out how the various
alternatives might be investigated and compared in such feasibility
studies.
The obvious place to get started on circuit comparisons is with
test work. On the most basic level, a Bond impact pendulum test
and rod- and ball-millgrindability tests would be performed and the
results would be used in Bond-type calculations to size crushers
and mills andlor provide base level estimates of equipment perfor-
mance. Given adequate test data, the total power consurnption and
final product fineness predictionsfor a conventional plant should be
within 5% of actual.
Similar. but more comDlete, information is needed if AGISAG
grinding systems require evaluation. The media competency test
(Rowland, 1989), the MacPherson autogenous grindability test
(Knight, et a/., 1989) andlor large-scale batch tests (Pena, 1989)
can be used to guide milllcircuit selection. In general, however,
these tests are of limited utility due to an incomplete understanding
of the relative importance of abrasive vs. impacffcompressivesize
reduction in the scale-up of autogenous and SAG mills, and only
provide general indications of plant performance. In particular,
there will be problems in estimating the quantities of critically sized
material present in the mill under different conditions unless continu-
ous pilot-scale test work is also carried out. This, in turn compli-
cates the estimation of mill power consurnption and operating Wl's.
Because of the need for additionaltest work to accurately quan-
tify autogenous and semi-autogenous mill performance, it has been
suggested by Barratt and Allan (1986), that for semi-autogenous
mills an empirical approach using their proposed efficiency factors
might be applied to the Bond laboratory grindability figures to pre-
dict SAG mill power requirements. Clearly, such methods are very
approximate. The only case study quoted in the paper (Escalante),
underestimated the SAG mill power by 27.5% and overestimated
the ball mill power by 15% in arriving at a total ( SAG mill + ball mill)
power estimate that was within 0.5% of the actual. Much more re-
search needs to be carried out before SAGlball mill systems can be
accurately sized solely on the basis of simple laboratory tests.
The basic problem in the use of this approach (and other ap-
proaches based on the Bond theory), is the limitation inherent in the
characterization of size distributions with a single parameter (the
P,), which implicitly assumes that the shape (slope) of the commi-
nution process product cuwe does not change in the course of pro-
cessing (Figure 6). When this does occur, e.g., in situations where
different size reduction mechanisms are applied sequentially, inter-
mediate estimates based on the Bond formula can be significantly
in error, even when the overall process, which more closely main-
tains the strict slopelshape requirement, provides a reasonable es-
timate of performance.
The objections outlined above can be overcome (to a certain
extent) through the use of population balance modeling packages
such as the Allis Mineral Systems crusherlscreen program
(Rimmer, et al., 1986) and the JKSimMet comminution process
simulation package (Morrell, 1992). These packages require pro-
prietary pendulum test work to characterize impact and compres-
sion breakage (Flavel and Rimmer, 1981; Narayaran, 1986), and
ore tumbling test work to characterize abrasive breakage for AGI
SAG mill prediction. Other laboratory-and pilot-scaletest work may
also be required to accurately predict final product size distributions
and estimate total power consurnption. This approach is most use-
ful for evaluating variations in layout, sizing, etc., for a specific set
of equipment. It is less satisfactory for comparisons of different cir-
cuits, due to the uncertainty of the accuracy of information for the
different options.
Abrasion index tests should also be conducted on each signifi-
cant ore type to permit the estimation of wear costs for new andlor
existing plant optimization.
Flowsheet Selection
There is no one solution to the flowsheet selection dilemma.
However, there are a number of points that should be considered
by those making these analyses. These include:
Factors associated with the size and cost of plant, such as
 COMMINUllON (ZIRCUIT DESIGN
equipment cost, scale and availability.
Costs of labor, and of consumables such as power and
wear metal.
Variability of ores within an ore body and over time, and
how this will impact upon factors such as major consumables and
plant flexibility.
- S
Etfects of Over the last 40-50 years, commi-
nution equipment sizes and capacities have increased markedly
and, in general, size limits for efficient operation have been estab-
lished. For instance, many of the key operating parameters of tum-
bling mills are influenced by mill diameter, D:
Productivity (Power) D2.3
Volume (Capacity) D2.0
Head Liner Area D2.0
Shell Liner Area ~ 1 . 0
Obviously at some point with increasing diameter, material re-
tention times will be too short to make use of available power. This
was first identified in the 5.5 m ball mills supplied to Bougainville
Copper in 1970. In general, though, larger mills are preferable: the
larger machines minimize the exposed areas of media and pulp,
and should therefore operate with lower unit production metal con-
sumption; operating requirementsshould also be reduced, although
upsets to operations will be greater when large units suffer down-
time.
Particle Size (microns)
Figure 6. Illustration of Typical Differences in Size Distributions for
a Single Value of P ,
Several examples of the way overall plant productivity can be
increased by improving crusher performance (by raising operating
speeds and connected power) are also given in the literature
(Navarro et a/., 1979; Pascoe, et a1.,1982; Flavel et a/., 1988).
These cover conventional crushing and grinding as well as ABC
and SAG mill grinding systems that use crushers to reduce critical
size material. Reported gains over originally designed capacity
have sometimes been significant, ranging from 20 to 100 percent.
Power ConsumDtlon: Without exception, cone crushers should
process scalped feed with already finish-sized material removed to
give maximum size reduction at the lowest possible operating work
index. Fines contained in crusher feed can give rise to packing and
wastage of energy. Recent research also suggests that as much
reduction work as possible be done in the secondary crushing
stage, to minimizethe number of tertiary crushers and screens, and
to minimize conveyor loadings, especially in closed circuits. The
energy consumed in crushing coarse ore to minus 13 mm (112 inch)
mill feed typically ranges from 1.35 to 3.3 kWM. Of this, ancillary
equipment (feeders, conveyors, screens, etc.) typically consumes
around 0.8 kWh1t of plant throughput. For materials of average
hardness (work index 14 kWhA, or 13 kwhlst), the fine crusher en-
ergy ranges from about 0.83 kWhA to more than 2.2 kWhlt based
upon the total plant throughput tonnage. These figures are typically
much less than would be erroneously calculated by dividing total
installed power by the plant design throughput.
The use of efficiency factors for conventional rod and ball mill
performance has been well defined by Rowland (1976). It should
be noted that when laboratory work index numbers are used, these
together with the efficiency factors are applied to the total plant
throughput. Therefore, there are no gains to the plant operating
work index similar to the type just discussed for crusher perfor-
mance when scalped material bypasses the machine.
Crushing critical size material has solved many of the major
problems experienced in the past with AGISAG circuits and has
helped to reduce the known energy disadvantages of these circuits.
Nevertheless, this energy disadvantage is typically of the order of
10-15% (Pena, 1989) and, in extreme conditions, can be more than
100%.
Metal Con- Extensive research programs have iden-
tified the key criteria involved with this major operating expense.
Major metal consumption is due to corrosive environments such as
those associated with slurries in grinding. Crushing processes,
which operate most often in predominantly dry environments, gen-
erally consume only 1110th to 1120th of the metal per unit of applied
comminution energy consumed in wet mill slurry environments. In
either case, the amount of wear has been shown to be related to the
specific energy level (kWhA) in addition to the areas of media and
liners exposed to abrasive action, and this parameter should be the
basis for comparisons, not the more commonly used gramsltonne
of ore processed.
One factor that has a significant influence on media and liner
consumption in grinding is the top size of the media. Although most
people accept that larger grinding media gives greater rates of con-
sumption, there is little published information available comparing
these effects. However, it has been shown from in-plant testing
over long periods of time that this is a very important parameter that
should be taken into account during studies of plant operating costs.
Two examples are mentioned here. In a paper reporting on im-
proved grinding mill efficiency following the crushing of finer f w d for
ball mills (Excell and Fitzpatrick, 1978), the energy requirementsfor
the mill were reduced by 20 percent. Ball consumption, however,
was reduced by 30 percent, and this was enhanced by charging
smaller top size balls to these mills. Similarly, a study in the
Henderson concentrator by Dunn (1982) showed that the top size
of balls as well as their ability to sunrive without spalling, chipping
or breaking is important In SAG mill systems. If balls are not large
enough or break prematurely, average ball consumption will 'k-
crease. Also, information from other SAG mill o~erationsclearlv
indicate that these mills consume more grinding inedia and liners
per kWhlt of production than do the ball mills that follow them. This
clearly relates to the effects of larger diameter ball media since both
mills are processing material with the same abrasion index.
Wear in AGlpebble mills will, of course, be much lower. The
32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE XIX IMPC
principle concern in these installations is whether the increased
capital cost of equipment required to provide the same plant
throughput will offset the reduced media cost.
. .
Feed . Due to the wide range of
fragmentation occurring naturally in as-mined material size, analy-
sis of this material is the important starting point for energy calcula-
tions. It is evident that some of the finer materials have insufficient
naturally occurring quantities of coarse material that can act as au-
togenous grinding media. Therefore, such materials can only be
considered suitable for conventional and/or possibly SAG mill type
comminution. The wider the fluctuation, the greaterthe capital cost
needed to buy the extra energy needed to maintain average pro-
duction rates. The Phelps Dodge Chino plant is a classic example
of this problem. Similar problems can be expected to occur durinn
the life of open pit mines. Increasing ore hardness will probabl;
lead to increased critical size build up, and production rates can be
expected to decrease considerably unless steps are taken to avoid
the problem by designing plants that will accommodate circuit ex-
pansions to handle the problem.
DISCUSSION
This paper has reviewed the various approaches used for size
reduction in minerals processing, outlined alternatives for
difficult-to-treat ores, and discussed factors that should be consid-
ered in the course of designing a new plant or auditing an existing
facility. Although space considerations have limited the amount of
detail presented, it is hoped that this review (and the references
supplied) will engender a more rational approach to the comparison
of the performance of different comminution processes1systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Much of the work reported here is the result of a 14-year
collaboration between the author and Malcolm D. Flavel, who died
in January 1994. This paper has drawn on research and commer-
cial test data provided by many different people and companies. In
particular, contributions by the staffs of Cyprus Sierrita, Atlas Min-
ing and Allis Mineral Systems are gratefully acknowledged.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Barratt, D. J., and Allan, M. J., 1986, "Testing for Autogenous
and Semi-autogenousGrinding: A Designer's Point of View," Min-
erals and Metallurgical Processing, May, pp. 65-74.
Crocker, B. S., 1985, "Pebble Mills," Chapter 5, SME Minerals
Processing Handbook, Weiss, ed., (SME, Littleton, Colorado).
Dunn, D. J., 1982, "Selection of Liners and Grinding Media for
Comminution Circuits - Case Studies," Design and Installation of
Comminution Circuits, Mular and Jergensen, eds., (SME. Littleton,
Colorado). pp. 973-985.
Excell, J. D., and Fitzpatrick,J. M., 1978, "Improvements in the
Feed Preparation Section of the Whyalla Pellet Plant," Trans.
AuslMM, North Queensland Branch Mill Operators Conference,
held at Mount Isa, June, pp. 1-7.
Flavel, M. D., and Rimmer, H. W., 1981, "Particle Breakage
Studies in an Impact Crushing Environment", presented at the
SME-AIME Annual Meeting, February, Chicago, IL, 21 pp.
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