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Mechanical characteristics of historical mortars

from tests on small-sample non-standard
specimens

Article · January 2008

Mechanical characteristics of historic mortars from tests on smallsample non-standard
specimens

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Miloš Drdácký Zuzana Slížková

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MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORIC MORTARS FROM TESTS ON
SMALL-SAMPLE NON-STANDARD SPECIMENS

M. Drdácký & Z. Slížková

Keywords: small-sample non-standard testing, lime, historic mortar, compression strength, bending strength, size
effect

INTRODUCTION

Research into historic mortars has traditionally focused on studies of chemical and
mineralogical composition or appearance features, rather than on mechanical characteristics.
Such an approach has been limited by the problem that it is not acceptable to extract test
specimens of the large volume required by the testing standards, and by a lack of reliable non-
standard testing methods for small-size specimens.
Though the problem of obtaining considerable quantities of test material from historic
architecture remains, some new non-standard testing approaches and more developed techniques
have led to improvements in the investigation of the mechanical characteristics of historic
mortars [1], [2].
This paper presents the development of some non-standard testing methods and discusses
typical problems in applying them in practice. Then we present and comment on the results of
tests on a series of historic mortars from different historic periods and from a range of European
countries. The extent of the tests does not enable us to draw very general or widely valid
conclusions, but some interesting results may help in the search for long-term durable lime
mortar technologies.

NON STANDARD TESTING OF HISTORIC MORTARS

The general requirement for a low-invasive survey and testing methodology when
investigating historic structures means that material samples can be extracted only in small
amounts and with limited dimensions. In the case of mortars taken from bed or butt joints, the
maximum thickness of a test specimen is around 20 mm, and it is not possible to form a classical
standard specimen. Several non-standard techniques have been developed to overcome these
obstacles. In this paper we focus on direct methods for measuring mechanical characteristics, and
do not discuss other NDT or MDT approaches, which also provide useful data.
When deciding about test types for historic mortars, the purpose should be taken into account.
We can basically distinguish between tests of material characteristics for scientific purposes, for
designing a compatible replacement or filling material, and for redesigning a masonry structure
or strengthening it for a change of use. In all cases, small sample size is an intrinsic problem, and
the tests will lack the required statistical significance.
COMPRESSION TESTS

Compressive testing of mortars in historic buildings is problematic. It is clear that

conventional standard mortar tests yield more or less meaningless results, which are practically
useless for assessing the current safety of, or the threat to, a historic structure. Mortar in historic
structures is not subjected to compression in a way similar to the test conditions. There has
therefore been increasing pressure in recent times to
change the methodology of tests of mortars taken
from historic masonry, and to apply experience
from soil and rock mechanics to this field [3], i.e. to
test mortars under triaxial stress state conditions
which, naturally, are much more exacting and
require appropriate instrumentation. However, these
triaxial tests are quite expensive and it is not a
simple matter to prepare the test specimens.
Therefore, a simpler approach was adopted some
years ago, and it is still of interest.
The methodology for tests on small specimens is Figure 1: Authentic historic mortar
influenced by several factors. Firstly, by the fact sample with a planed top and a levelled
that the real size of the mortar sample taken from bottom.
the historic structure – the masonry – is usually less
than 2 cm in thickness. Manufacturing the specimen for the compression test (cutting a cube) has
a significant influence on the properties of the the sample, as it basically disturbs the surface
strata and reduces the strength. In addition, manufacturing a small cube is very laborious and

Figure 2. The tendency for an increase in lime mortar compression strength in relation to
the slenderness.
time-consuming. In most cases, the compressed surfaces need to be supplemented with a
levelling layer. For this reason, specimens in the shape of irregular mortar “cakes“ from the
masonry joint have been preferred for compression tests in recent times. The thickness of the
joint is usually levelled with gypsum, sulphur cement mortar or polymer mortars to a constant
dimension, or one surface of the sample is original and only “planed” by grinding, and the other
irregular surface is levelled (Figure 1).
It has been known since the 19th century that the size of a testing specimen has a significant
influence on the measured strength, and numerous forms for transferring the attained
characteristics of concrete and cement mortars to the standard values have been proposed, e.g.
[4]. The correction functions also depend on the length of the specimen edge, on the sand
maximum grain, and on the quality of the mortar. All previous literature has reported on cement
mortars and little work has been done on pure lime mortars and specimens less than 2 cm in
thickness. Fig. 2 shows a typical increase in mortar strength in relation to the thickness (or in
relation to the slenderness) of the specimen h/a, where h denotes the thickness of the specimen
and a is its base edge). The decrease in the specimen base edge usually causes an increase in the
measured strength of the order of percents, e.g., about 5% for a reduction from 40 mm to 20 mm.

BENDING TESTS

However, it is difficult to measure the modulus of elasticity on small specimens. Optical

methods are the most satisfactory, while strain gauges can provide approximate results [5]. This
is another reason why a methodology for flexural testing of real mortar is being developed. Here
again, however, the specimens must be cut, which involves the same problems of surface
disturbance. However, at least two faces of the sample can remain without interference and,
consequently, with intact properties. These faces are always the contact surfaces of the mortar
and masonry elements and, consequently, the surfaces are technologically influenced differently
from the basic material. Generally
speaking this effect, which may
either improve or have a
deteriorating effect on the mortar
characteristics, has not been
studied in the framework of our
projects.
Nevertheless, the sample size is
still too small for flexural tests.
Therefore we have devised and
are using a sample extension with
another material in the form of so-
called “prostheses“. The method
was developed at ITAM in 1998
and has been used, among other Figure 3: Three point bending test of an extended mortar
things, for analysising various sample.
types of historic mortars, and also lime mortars reinforced with organic fibres. In the course of
“prosthesization“, the sample of material taken from the structure is supplemented symmetrically
on both ends to the required length, with two “prostheses“ which satisfy Navier’s assumption of
linear stress distribution along the cross section in flexure. This assumption forms the basis of
technical elasticity and strength of materials, and has been used in the derivation of the
mathematical models required for test evaluation. If a short sample were to be used, the measured
deformation would be significantly influenced by the contribution of the shearing force. Wood
has been found to be a suitable material for mortar prosthesization. It is sufficiently strong, light,
inexpensive, well workable and gluable (Figure 3). The tested material is placed at the centre of
the test specimen.
According to the results of tests that compare the flexural strength of pure mortar beams with
the strength ascertained on prosthesized identical material, the influence of prosthesization is
negligible. The specimens broken during the flexural tests were used for the testing the influence
of prosthesization on the results of flexural tests on mortars. Specimens with dimensions of
approximately 2 x 2 x 3 cm and 3 x 3 x 4 cm were extended to the length required for flexural
tests by gluing wooden prostheses to both ends, and were loaded in four-point flexure. The values
for the ratio of the strength of the prosthesized sample to that of the “standard“, i.e. all-mortar
specimens, were between 0.98 and 1.02 [2] if the specimen broke in its central part (undisturbed
mortar). It should be noted, however, that prosthesized specimens in most cases break in the close
proximity of the wooden prosthesis or tear away from it in the thin transition layer of mortar. In
such a case the ascertained strength is lower and
varies within 65 - 70% of the strength of mortar
specimens of approx. 2 x 2 cm cross section,
and 80 - 100% of the strength of 3 x 3 cm
mortar specimens. As stated above, the
manufacture of a prosthesized specimen
disturbs the mortar in the area of the cut end
glued to the prosthesis. Prosthesization
technology therefore requires a successful
solution to the problems of strengthening the
ends of the samples, and the use of an adhesive
of sufficient strength in combination with
adequate specimen loading. In this respect,
three-point flexure appears more favourable
Figure 4. Opened crack in mortar with
than four-point flexure, as it places less stress
natural fibres during the unloading stage.
on the area of the glued joint. In our
experiments, we dealt with the problem of disturbance to the cut ends by bandaging the glued
joint between the mortar and the wooden prosthesis. When this measure was taken, the test
specimens broke at the point of highest stress of the beam (Figure 3). The method was also
successfully used for a study of the fracture characteristics of lime mortars reinforced with
organic fibres, and for tests of specimens with notches and for measurements of the unloading
stage of the specimen failure (Fig.4).
Of course, it is also necessary here to study the influence of specimen size on measured
strength. The methodology was tested and calibrated using standard tests of mortar of various
qualities and carbonisation values. The effect of size on on bending strength was also evaluated
from these tests. The results are summarized in Table 1, from which it follows that the size effect
corresponds to the effect known from bending or tensile splitting tests on concrete or stone
samples, see, e.g. [6]. In Table 1, three grain size types of sand are used (fine J, medium S and
coarse H) and three cross-section dimensions (2, 3 and 4 cm long edges). The specimens are
marked in a corresponding manner (e.g., 2J means fine sand and 2 cm by 2 cm cross-sectional
dimensions). A range of behaviour was experienced during the tests on small samples made from
metakaolinite mortars, but this phenomenon needs to be investigated more deeply before any
general conclusions can be drawn.

Table 1. Comparison of strength measured on small specimens – influence of size.

Type of Measured bending strength in [MPa] specimen Average bending Ratio of strength of
specimen No. strength in MPa small samples to
1 2 3 4 5 (standard variation) standard samples
2J 0.549 0.676 0.612 0.522 0.579 0.588 (0.0533) 1.29
3J 0.543 0.401 0.691 0.609 0.538 0.557 (0.1062) 1.22
4J 0.471 0.396 - 0.487 0.471 0.456 (0.0355) 1.00
2S 0.467 0.418 0.414 0.334 0.592 0.445 (0.0847) 1.03
3S 0.542 0.456 0.509 0.510 0.471 0.498 (0.0306) 1.15
4S 0.378 0.514 0.432 0.413 0.433 0.434 (0.0445) 1.00
2H 0.609 0.679 0.518 0.499 0.674 0.596 (0.0756) 1.18
3H 0.599 0.490 0.555 0.485 0.436 0.513 (0.0572) 1.02
4H 0.437 0.539 0.494 0.619 0.443 0.507 (0.0675) 1.00

SHEAR TESTS

The non-standard compression and bending tests are accompanied by shear tests derived from
the methodology for shear testing of soils, (in cooperation with Prof. Ivo Herle from TU
Dresden). For tests of this
type, a specimen of any
convex shape is embedded
into a block of stiff material,
e.g., epoxy resin divided into
halves, Fig.5. The dividing
plane is provided with a
separation and a sliding
layer. Then the block is
tested in a simple shear box
and the measured normal and
shear stress is evaluated
using the standard soil
mechanics methodology. The
broken parts from the
Figure 5. A halved block of epoxy resin with a small-size
bending tests can be
embedded specimen after the shear test.
advantageously re-used in the
shear tests.
 RESULTS FROM TESTS ON A RANGE OF MORTARS

Selected results from tests on historic mortars will now be presented. The series of tests
included mortars of various ages – from Roman through medieval, till late baroque and
classicism. The specimens were extracted from structures located in various environments in
various countries. A range of tests were performed on most of them, and we are able to study
some correlations.
The most interesting data concerns the medieval mortars dating mostly from the 12th to 14th
century. These mortars mostly exhibit quite high strength, especially in bending, see Table 2. The
measured compression strength has been reduced using the formula given in Figure 2.

Table 2. Comparison of selected parameters of historic mortars

Locality Age Type of Grain B/S Apparent Open 24h. Compr. Bending Comment
material size ratio density porosity absorp. strength strength (binder
variation,
years kgm-3 % volume % weight MPa MPa
additives)
Medieval 670 milk
bridge in
mortar fine 1,2321 1500 38,63 24,33 5,15* 2,60 proteins
Roudnice mortar coarse 0,4065 1711 32,67 17,35 3,67* 3,24
Bohemia milk
mortar coarse 0,2610 1730 31,50 17,15 5,23* 4,90 proteins
mortar gravel 0,3021 1855 28,73 14,83 5,41* 2,41
Znojmo 875 milk
rotunda
plaster 0,5576 1802 30,50 15,27 3,77* 2,19 proteins
plaster 0,5060 1649 36,60 18,70 1,49* 1,89 clay
Rauna 650 mort 1 1406 45,43 31,90 5,29* 1,39
Castle mort 2 1929 26,30 12,33 11,42* 1,53
Latvia
mort 3 1439 44,10 27,10 3,80* 0,94
mort 20 1625 34,88 18,53 4,47 1,52
Church 830 clay + egg
Svojšín
mortar 0,4025 1,18* 1,19* proteins
egg
mortar 0,3587 2,03* 1,19* proteins
Štamberk 660 egg
mortar 0,2937 1615 36,00 17,00 3,86* 2,15 proteins
Veltrusy 230 plaster 0,2987 0,54* 0,28*
Sardinia 2300 mortar 0,9380 1486 43,27 25,07 1,53* 1,22
Telč 250 mortar 5,28 2,72 clay mortar
baroque 200 mortar 2,39* 1,44
house
90 mortar 1670 35,40 19,50 8,12* 5,74*
Moravia
100 plaster 1,23* 1,68
250 mortar 1480 42,10 27,10 4,11 -
Belgium 250 plaster 1,12 0,85 fibres
* Only a single specimen tested

(The strength values in the Table are the ultimate stresses at the moment of collapse of the
tested specimens). No correction for the length of the base edge has been applied. This might
further reduce the “standard size” compression strength values by about 20% and the bending
“standard size” strength values by about maximum 30%, as can be seen from the Table 1. There
is not enough data or knowledge of the size effects for a better evaluation of the results from a
small sample of non-standard specimens.
However, the tests indicate that 2500
there are apparent tendencies
toward simple and direct
2000
interdependencies among some
parameters. Firstly, there is
confirmation of a strong linearly 1500

Density
reciprocal relation of density to
porosity, and therefore also other 1000

apparently dependent parameters,

e.g., water absorption. That is, a 500

reduction in porosity implies a rise

in density, Fig.6. Further, the rise 0
in density correlates with a slight 0,00 5, 00 10,00 15,00 20,00 25,00 30,00 35,00 40,00 45,00 50,00

increase in both the compressive

Porosity

strength and the bending strength, Figure 6. Relation of porosity to density of mortars.
with all consequences yielding
from the relations between density 2500

and porosity or water absorption,

Fig.7. When assessing the results 2000
we should have in mind how
heterogeneous our sample of
historic mortars is. 1500
Density

The other parameters influence

the mechanical characteristics in a 1000

more complex way and cannot be

simply revealed. It seems that 500

with increased binder-to-sand

ratio the porosity (and also the 0

water absorption) increases. On 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00

Bending strength
5,00 6,00 7,00

the other hand, a rise in the

binder-to-sand ratio does not Figure 7. Relation of bending strength to density.
simply cause a corresponding rise
in the strength parameters.
During the analyses, the presence of organic additives and some other admixtures was also
studied. The relevant proteins were identified by means of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry
applied after a few hours of cleavage of the mortar by pepsins [7], Fig.8. The proteins have a
positive influence mainly on the bending (tension) characteristics of the mortars.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge support from GACR grants 103/06/1609 and
AV0Z20710524. The proteins were carefully identified by Dr. Štěpánka Kučková, and the
physical characteristics of the mortars were identified by Dr. Jan Válek.

Štamberk vzorek č. 1
a.i.
a.i.
10000

8000 8000

6000
6000

4000
4000

2000

2000

1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z 1100 1600 m/z

Figure 8. Mass spectrum of a Štamberk sample (left) with marked peptide fragments of milk
proteins and Znojmo 1 (right) with fragments of milk proteins (dots) and fragment of glue
(rectangles).

INFORMATION ON AUTHORS

M. Drdácký, Director
Z. Slížková, Head of Department of Particulate Media

Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech
Republic, v.v.i., Prosecká 76, Praha 9, 19000, Czech Republic,
drdacky@itam.cas.cz, slizkova@itam.cas.cz

REFERENCES

1. Drdácký, M., Slížková, Z., Vavřík, D. 2005. Identification of historic materials using tests on
small samples, 2nd International Conference on Hazards and Modern Heritage, Kos (Greece)
2. Drdácký, M.F., Michoinová, D. 2003. Lime mortars with natural fibres. Proc. Int. Symp.
Brittle Matrix Composites 7, (A.M.Brandt, V.C.Li and I.H.Marshall, eds.). ZTUREK RSI and
Woodhead Publ., Warsaw: 523-532
3. Van Balen, K.: Weaker may be better: insights into the durability of lime,
http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/bwk/ materials/Research/KVB/GCI_2/GCI_2.htm
4. Horký, B., Dohnálek, J. 1982. Vliv velikosti a štíhlosti nestandardních zkušebních těles na
pevnost malt a betonů v tlaku. Report No.512, Stavební ústav ČVUT (Building Research Institut
of CTU), Praha : 136 p.
5. Drdácký, M., Slížková, Z., Zeman, A. 2006. Analysis and restoration of an exterior plaster
floor of the 19th Century. Heritage, Weathering and Conservation (Fort, Alvarez de Buergo,
 Gomez-Heras, Vazquez-Calvo, eds.). Taylor & Francis Group, London: 961-968.
6. Cikrle P., Drdácký M., Lesák J., Slížková Z., Untergutsch A., Válek J., Vavřík D. and Zíma P.
2005. Small sample testing, Final report of the FP5 EC project EVK4-2001-00091/ EVK4-CT-
2001-00060 “ONSITEFORMASONRY”
7. Kučková, S., Hynek, R., Kodíček, M. 2007. Identification of proteinaceous binders used in
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M.Drdácký, Z.Slížková
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORIC MORTARS FROM TESTS ON SMALL SAMPLE
NON-STANDARD SPECIMENS
The mechanical characteristics of historic mortars have been studied by means of tests of small sample non-standard
size specimens typically extracted from bed or butt joints or from the rendering of historic masonry. They include a
range of European mortars from various structures (castles, bridges, houses), from various periods (from C4th BC to
C21st) and of various compositions. Three testing methods are described: compression tests on specimens with a very
low slenderness ratio, bending tests on mortar pieces extended by wooden prostheses, and shear box tests of irregular
small-size pieces of mortar embedded into two blocks of a stiff matrix and bridging these two blocks along the
sliding plane. The paper reviews the characteristics and presents the results in tables, together with some
observations concerning the influence of physical characteristics, chemical composition, binder modifications or
additives (organic and inorganic), grain size of sand, age, size effects, etc.

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