CHAPTER III

FORESTS AND VEGETATION

TYPES
 18

A forest is a community or an ecosystem of biotic and abiotic componetns.

The biotic components are predominantly trees or other woody vegetation. In addition to

trees, other biotic components are herbs, shrubs, grasses and other plants, big and small

animals. The abiotic components are soil and local climate prevailing within and around

the forests.

Forests are the assets of a nation. They play a key role in the socio-economic

development of a nation. Forests help conservation of soil and moisture and regulate sub-

soil moisture, they promote timely rainfall during monsoon. Forests maintain ecological

balance and prevent environmental pollution. Forests are the abode of Flora and Fauna,

the protection of which is essential. The rare floral and faunal species are also to be

protected and preserved. Forests also have aesthetic and touristic values. They keep the

air cool and clean. They are the guardians of the perennial spring of water. They are the

natural defenders of dust storms. They prevent erosion by wind and water and they

preserve the fertility.

Forest wealth provide handsome revenue to the nation. The chief forest

products of the Eastern Ghats include timber especially teakwood, sandal wood, rose

wood and red sanders, fuel wood and charcoal, bamboo, beedi leaf, myrobalans, tanning

barks, lac and gums. Bamboo and beedi leaf support paper and beedi industries

respectively and contribute greater revenue.

Government of India's recent estimates reveal that nearly 4.5 million hectares

of forests have lost duimg the last three decades for various developmental purposes and

the process continued still.

Out of the loss of 4.5 million hectares, the Eastern Ghats share is about 0.376

(Andhra Pradesh 0.202, Orissa 0.109 and Tamil Nadu 0.065 million hectares). At present

we have 83 million hectares of forests. The average growing stock in our

 19

forests is nearly 26 m3 per hectare as against the world average 110 m3 per hectare. The

National Forest Policy of 1952 envisaged the country's forest cover being raised from

23% to 33% of the total area. After three decades, it has been reduced to 10% of the area.

So present condition of forests is one of the most alarming aspects of present day

biospheral tendencies.

Causes of threats to the flora have generally been grouped into two

categories, viz., Natural and man-made. The natural causes include floods, earthquakes,

landslides, natural competition between species, natural regeneration, diseases etc. The

man-made causes include delibarate destruction of habitat such as over-exploitation,

excessive grazing, mining, dam construction etc.

The hilly regions of the Eastern Ghats containing rich and valuable forests,

give handsome revenue to the respective State Governments and local tribals living in the

Ghats.

The distribution of the forest cover in the Eastern Ghats is most uneven.

Northern Eastern Ghats have more forest cover than Southern Eastern Ghats.

In Northern Eastern Ghats, i.e., Ganjam, Gajapathi, Koraput, Kalahandi,

Rayagad district, Godavari catchment and Polavaram agency tracts have high percentage

of forest cover (more than 30%). Similar forest cover is found in the Southern Eastern

Ghats of Seshachalam catchment and last part of Eastern Ghats, i.e., Salem, South Arcot

and North Arcot districts of Tamil Nadu.

The Southern Eastern Ghats of Nallamala catchment, Veligondas,

Palakondas, Erramalais have 11-30% forest cover. Similar forest cover is found in

Northern Eastern Ghats of Mahanadi river basin, Pennar basin of Southern Eastern Ghats

and Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli districts of Tamil Nadu in Southern Eastern Ghats. Very

low (2-10%) forest cover is found in plateaus adjoining Mahaboobnagar and Anantapur

districts of Andhra Pradesh.

 20
From the forests and forest resource point of view, the Northern Eastern

Ghats are richer and denser than the Southern Eastern Ghats.

BIOTIC INTERFERENCE

It took nature ages to produce the great forests, but it takes man only

moments to destroy them.

Man and his domestic animals have a profound influence on the vegetation.

Biotic interference is causing much harm to the forests, resulting in direct or indirect

effect on mankind in general.

During the course of extensive plant exploration of Eastern Ghats for five

years, the author has noticed an alarming biotic interference on the vegetation of entire

Eastern Ghats leading to the extinction of rare and valuable species and conversion of

evergreen forests into deciduous forests and even deciduous forests into scrub jungles.

Luxurious flora and fauna is on the verge of disappearance. Even some of the

evergreen areas once present at Northern Eastern Ghats, Gandhamardan parbat

(undivided Sambalpur, Bolangir and Kalahandi districts), Mahendragiri (undivided

Ganjam and Gajapathi districts), Galikonda, Araku valley, Simhachalam hills

(Visakhapatnam district), Rampa hills (East Godavari district) and in Southern Eastern

Ghats the Nallamalai hills (Srisailam, Gundlabrahmeswaram, Krishna Nandi and Upper

Ahobilam in Kuraool district), Guvvalacheruvu and Balapalle in Cuddapah district;

Kambakam, Talakona and Tirumala hills in Chittoor district; Penchalakona in Nellore

district; Shevaroy hills in Salem district; Kolli hills in Namakkal district are being

converted into deciduous patches.

Biotic interference may be discussed under the following heads.

1 Fires : They cause much damage to the forests. The fires creep along the ground

burning grass, fallen leaves and dry fuel causing sometimes permanent
 21

injury to young seedlings, climbers, growing trees and forest soil. Since the forest

fires destroy humus, the water holding capacity of the soil is lost. Unmindfully

man sets fire to the forest during summer and responsible for the destruction of

forest wealth.

2 Illicit cutting and smuggling; Due to illicit cutting and smuggling of red sanders

(Pterocarpus santalinus) in Seshachalam hills and Kambakam hills; teak wood

(Tectona grandis) in Nailamalais and Sandal wood tantalum album) in North Arcot

and South Areot districts of Southern Eastern Ghats, there is danger of extinction

of rare, endemic and valuable species. Red sanders which is endemic to

Seshachalam hills and Kambakam hills is now rarely seen due to over exploitation.

3 Unrestricted grazing; U neon trolled grazing by domestic cattle and goats damage

several seedlings while trampling of fertile forest soil by such cattle causes soil

erosion during heavy rain. (Plate 8B).

4 Shifting cultivation: It is a global phenomenon. This is particularly conspicuous all

over the Eastern Ghats. (Plate 7B). The Girijans cultivate their food grains along

the hill slopes and valleys, after cutting and burning the leafy vegetation for

providing ash (mineral content) to enrich the forest soil. They follow such method

year after year for about 2-3 years on the same land or more, if the soil is fertile.

When the soil becomes less fertile, they leave it and select another good forest area

and follow the process of forest destruction. Such shifting method of cultivation is

locally called "Podu" cultivation. (Plate 8A).

5 Industries: Rapid industrialisation, urbanisation, ongoing and proposed projects

will certainly alter the natural habitats of plants. Construction of reservoirs and

hydro-electric projects, no doubt help to promote national development, but at

 22
the same time creates a lot of environmental stress. The destruction of valuable

species following the submergence and subsequent massive deforestion in and

around the river projects constitute a major threat to the ecosystems. For instance

the rate of deforestation around Sambalpur went up by 2.75 hectares per day during

1929-75. Srisailam project area which once harboured a dense forest, now shows

many desolete patches. During the construction of Telugu Ganga Project, the forest

area of about 4805 hectares in Nallamalais, 1269 hectares in Erramalais in Kumool

district and 367 hectares in Chittoor, Cuddapah and Nellore districts has been

destroyed.

The construction of roads [a new highway from Rayagada to Palakonda, a

new broad gauge railway line to Nallamalais (Plate 9A) ] on hilly regions also cause

biotic interference. Forest based industries like paper mills, plywood industries, Saw

mills, Rayon mills and few other minor industries have over-exploited the forests. Coal

mining has profound effect on the natural forest cover.

The ever increasing population has led to demand for more land for

agricultural purposes as well as habitation. This has naturally resulted in encroachment

and consequent destruction of forest areas.

The above biotic factors are all responsible for the gradual depletion of the

forest area. Presently Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other plantations are being raised under

Social Forestry Programme to increase the forest wealth.

CONSERVATION

The preservation of biodiversity is not only important to preserve gene bank

but also to protect the existing forests from further degradation and deterioration caused

by all factors.

The foremost attempt in the conservation strategies should be avoidance of

illicit felling and forest firing and germination of rare and endangered species. It is
 23
essential to conserve existing biodiversity in terms increasing population density, not

only of the forests but also sacred groves.

A recent documentation of sacred and potected groves attempted by the

World Wide Fund for Nature-India's Andhra Pradesh branch with the help of the

Universities in Andhra Pradesh and the Forest Department and other NGO’s reveals that

the biological wealth in these groves is noteworthy. As suggested in the study on Sacred

Groves, all such groves should be prohibited for alienation and eco-development schemes

should be taken up around all these groves as well as the sanctuaries to ensure that the

local communities give a better hand to the protection with the fulfillment of their

economic needs through the devices like upgradation and stall feeding of cattle, social

forestry and silvipasture schemes that make available fuel and fodder from non- forest or

sanctuary .sources, mechanisms for sustainable collection and value addition in the

villages in respect of forest produce of medicinal, edible, cosmetic or other value.

Effective plantation programmes and construction of check dams are to be

taken up to increase the moisture levels of soil and of air. Clothing of land mass with

vegetation cover and checking of population growth are to be emphasised. The

wastelands should be utilised for raising commercial crops. The Forest Department

should be strengthened. There should be strong political will to save the forests of

Eastern Ghats.

WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

Wild life is an integral part of the forests, their existence is also necessary for

ecological or environmental balance. These are dedicated to the preservation of wild life

and to represent ecological units.

Sanctuaries and National Parks with their under riled and unpolluted

environment are an alternative to the increasing man made sterile environment in the

Eastern Ghats.
 24

Eastern Ghats have rich biodiversity and having nearly 30 wild life

sanctuaries. Some noteworthy are mentioned below.

Name Area in Location(District)

Sq. Km

Badrama (Plate 9B) 304.03 Sambalpur

Khalasuni 116.00 Sambalpur
Karlapat 147.66 Kalahandi
Sunabeda 600.00 Kalahandi
Hadgarh 191.06 Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar
Similipal 2200.00 Mayurbhanj
Kotagarh 399.05 Phulbani
Lakheri Valley 185.87 Gajapathi
Kinnerasani 635.41 Khammam
Papikonda 591.00 Khammam, East & West
Godavari
Nagarjunasagar 3568.00 Guntur, Prakasam, Kurnool,
Mahaboobnagar, Nalgonda
Kolleru (Bird) 673.00 West Godavari, 60 Km from
Vijayawada
Nelapatlu (Bird) 0.83 Nellore situated in Sullurpet
Pulicat (Bird) 600.00 Nellore
Coringa, Kakinada 235.70 East Godavari
Krishna (Crocadile) 194.84 Krishna & Guntur
Gundlabrahmeswaram 1194.00 Kurnool & Prakasam
(Wild life)
Rollapadu (Great Indian Bustard) 6.14 Kurnool
Sri Lanka Malleswara 464.42 Cuddapah
(Jerdon's courser)
Sri Venkateswara (Wild life) 525.70 Cuddapah & Chittoor
Kaundinya (Wild life) 374.70 Chittoor
Vedanthangal Water Bird Chingleput
sanctuary

VEGETATION

The collective and continuous growth of plants in space is called vegetation.

The vegetation is actually the totality of plant growth including large or some populations
 25
of each species intermixed in a region. According to Hills (1960) the total production

possible from any specific locality is limited by the combined potential energy of

macroclimatic and land-form features of the area.

The wide variations in climate and topography of Eastern Ghats show a great

variety of vegetation ranging from evergreen forests to dry evergreen scrubs.

For those who are attracted to vegetation, the Eastern Ghat ecosystem is

quite a paradise. It has not attracted the attention that rain forests have but it shelters

forest types like tropical thorn, southern tropical moist deciduous and tropical dry

deciduous. The floristic diversity is significant, though still not fully explored. Already

documented information shows the existence of threatened and rare plants like

Andrographis beddomei, A>nallamalayana, Dicliptem beddomei, Brachystelma glabrum,

B. volubile, Boswellia ovalifoliolata, Chrysopogon velutinus, Pimpinella tirupatiensis

Cycas beddomei. For those who are not botany bugs, we can refer to the beautiful

bamboo forests, the creepers and vines and the lush grasses that come up in profusion

after the monsoons which cover these hills in the period July to September and again

partly in November and December. In season, many parts of the plateau are painted a

lovely yellow by the cascading flowers of Cassia fistula. The rare and endemic tree of the

Cuddapah-Chittoor region is the red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), which is so

threatened that its export has been banned. On the Tirupati Hills and nearby, you will

find sandalwood too trying to register its presence.

According to the classification of Champion and Seth (1968), vegetation in

Eastern Ghats can be broadly classified into

1 Evergreen forests,
2 Tropical semi-evergreen forests,
3 Tropical moist deciduous forests,
4 Southern tropical dry deciduous forests,
5 Northern mixed dry deciduous forests.
 6 Dry Savannah forests,
7 Scrub forests,
8 Tropical dry evergreen forests,
9 Tropical dry evergreen scrub.

1 Evergreen forests

This type of forests are seen only in very few valleys in Shevaroy hills. The

common elements are Elaeocarpus serratus, Ixora notoniana, Cinnamomum zeylanicum,

Meliosma microcarpa, Callicarpa tomentosa, Toona ciliata, Symplocos laurina etc. The

epiphytic flora is rich comprising several species of orchids and ferns such as

Aerides cylindricum, Bulbophyllum fusco-purpureum, Coelogyne nervosa, Dendroblum

heterocarpum, Oberonia brunoniana, Microsorum membranaceum, Pyrrosia

acrostichoides etc.

The humus leaden floor is almost devoid of herbs except Nilgirianthus

foliosus and N. barbatus. Occasionally some terrestrial orchids like Eulophia nuda,

Malaxis versicolor, Ceodorum densiflorum etc. are seen.

2 TVopical semi-evergreen forests (Moist deciduous forests mixed

with evergreen elements)

This type of vegetation is prevalent in damp valleys of perennial streams and

rivers and on hills of Similipal forests of Mayurbhanj district; Atai, Banguru,

Mahendragiri forests and parts of Ganjam and Koraput districts; Sapthasajya forest of

Dhenkanal district (Plate IB); Antikonda, Burmakonda and Donubai areas of Srikakulum

district; Kurkutti andTadikonda areas of Vijayanagaram district; Anantagiri, Dharakonda,

Galikonda (Plate 1A), Sapparla, Minumuluru and Sambarikonda areas of Visakhapatnam

district; Boddalanka, Maredumilli, Nulakamaddi, Satlavanda and Tadepalli areas of East

Godavari district; Daravanda and Papikonda areas of West Godavari district and

Tekuladde areas of Khammam district. These are

 27
characterised by a large number of dominant species, heavy climbers and luxurient

epiphytic growth. A few of the species of the top canopy and most of the under storey are

evergreen and occur intimately mixed with each other.

The important constituent species are Mesuaferrea, Michelia champaka,

Dillenia indica, Bridelia monoica, Phoebe lanceolata, Diospyros malabarica, Garcinia

xanthochymus, Syzygium cumini, Macaranga peltata, Firmiana colorata, Aphanamixis

polystachya, Schleichera oleosa, Neocinnamomum caudatum, Xantolis tomentosa,

Beilschmieda roxburghiana and small evergreen perennials such as Hedychium

coronarium, Leea asiatica, Boehmeria macrophylla, Curcuma aromatica, C. pseudo-

montana, Zingiber roseum etc. form the undergrowth. Ehretia acuminata is found only in

these forests.

3 Tropical moist deciduous forests

These forests can be subdivided for convenience into 3 sub-groups.

(a) Northern tropical moist deciduous forests (Sal forests)

(b) South Indian tropical moist deciduous forests (non-Sal forests)

(c) Southern tropical moist deciduous riverian forests.

(a) Northern tropical moist deciduous forests (Sal forests)

These forests are found in parts of the districts of Kalahandi, Phulbani,

Gajapathi (Plate 3B), Ganjam, Koraput (Plate 2A) and Srikakulam. In the Sal forests

Shorea robusta predominates and is associated with Syzygium cumini, Xylia xylocarpa,

Haldinia cordifolia, Terminalia alata, Phyllanthus emblica, Lagerstroemia parviflora,

Dillenia pentagyna, Careya arborea, Kydia calycina etc.

The shrubby layer consists mainly Ardisia solanacea, Barleria strigosa,

Flemingiaspp. Alstonia venenata, Grewia hirsuta, Colebrvokea oppositifolia, Cipadessa

baccifera, Woodfordia fruticosa, and Holarrhena pubescens. Natural regeneration of sal

is generally adequate.
 28
(b) South Indian tropical moist deciduous forests (non-Sal forests)

These forests are found in parts of the Gudem, Rampa agency; parts of West

Godavari district. Gundlabrahmeswaram and Hatakeswaram areas of Kurnool district;

parts of Tamil Nadu. (Plate 3A).

Predominant tree elements of these forests are Tectona grandis (in some

places), Anogeissus latifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Haldinia cordifolia, Mitragyna

parvifolia, Mangifera indica, Dalbergia latifolia, Albizia odoratissima, Schrebera

swietenioides, Careya arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia, Semecarpus anacardium, Bridelia

airy-shawii, Ehretia laevis, Cordia wallichi, Cordia monoica etc.

The shrubby layer is formed by Pavetta indica, Helicteres isora, Nyctanthes

arbor-tristis etc. Bauhinia vahlii, Millettia auriculata and Butea superba are the woody

climbers in these forests.

(c) Southern tropical moist deciduous riverian forests

This type of forests are found along the banks of river Godavari (Plate 2B),

Krishna, Nagavali, Pennar and Vamsadhara.

The most common trees in these forests are Terminalia arjuna, Anogeissus

acuminata, Mitragyna parvifolia, Tamarindus indica, Bombaxceiba, Pongamiapinnata,

Barringtonia acutangula, Crataeva nurvala, Alangium chinense, Butea monosperma,

Strychnos nux-vomica etc.

In the rocky and sandy "lankas” of Godavari, liable for submersion, shrubs

such as Homonoia riparia, Tamarix ericoides, Rotula aquatica, Syzygium heyneanum are

common. Pedalium murex, Indigofera linnaei, Euphorbia dracunculoides etc. are the

common herbs.
 29
4 Southern tropical dry deciduous forests

These forests are widely spread in Orissa (Plate 4B), Andhra Pradesh (Plates

5A,B & 6A) and Tamil Nadu. Generally trees shed their leaves by about December and

looks very open between February and May. The tree layer cannot be distinguished into

distinct storeys.

The common tree components of these forests are Chloroxylon swietenia,

Cochlospermum religiosum, Anogeissus latifolia, Careya arborea, Lannea

coromandelica, Gmelina arborea, Terminalia coriacea, Hardwickia binata, Dalbergia

lanceolaria, Strychnos potatorum, Cleistanthus collinus, Madhuca longifolia, Cassia

fistula etc.

The common grasses met with areAristida setacea, Apluda mutica, Vetiveria

zizanioides etc. The common climbers are Mucuna hirsuta, Ampelocissus tomentosa,

Cryptolepis buchanani, Cissus vitiginea, Pueraria tuberosa, Capparis zeylanica etc.

Pterocarpus santalinus is a pride of Eastern Ghats, thriving on the hill slopes

and plateau of forests of Chiuoor, Cuddapah and Nellore districts.

5 Northern mixed dry deciduous forests

This type of vegetation is found in Sukinda-Rebna-Keonjhargarh area,

Nigirda-Lulung area in Mayurbhanj district, parts of Angul division, parts of Kalahandi,

Ganjam and Koraput districts and parts of Nallamalais. (Plate 4A).

The common tree elements are Bombax ceiba, Anogeissus latifolia,

Boswellia serrata, Hymenodictyon orixense, Alangium salvifolium, Ziziphus xylopyrus,

Mallotus philippensis, Terminalia alata and Protium serratum.

The shrubby layer comprises of Helicteres isora, Gardenia gummifera,

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Securinega obovata etc.

 30

6 Dry Savannah forests

The forests formed as a result of intense biotic interference are scattered

throughout the Eastern Ghats.

The common tree species are Phyllanthus emblica, Albizia amara, A.

lebbeck. Acacia chundra, Cassia fistula, Terminalia chebula etc.

The common shrubs met with are Maytenus emarginatus, Hugonia mystax,

Dodonaea viscosa, Cassia auriculata, Carissa spinarum, Capparis divaricata etc.

Themeda triandra, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Chrysopogon aciculatus,

Imperata cylindrica are the principal grasses.

7 Scrub forests

Scrub is a biotic forest which is formed due to secondary succession. They

have developed due to the biotic influence of man and domesticated animals on the

natural vegetation. The vegetation presents a very open appearance so that the trees and

shrubs are widely spaced. These forests are seen in parts of Ganjam district, some drier

parts of Andhra Pradesh (Plates 6B & 7A) and Tamil Nadu.

The common tree elements are Euphorbia antiquorum, Gymnosporia

senegalensis, Acacia chundra, Albizia amara, Balanites aegyptica, Flacourtia indica,

Zizyphus oenoplia, Z mauritiana, Dichrostachys cinerea, Maytenus emarginatus, Rhus

mysorensis, Pleiospermum alatum, Diospyros chloroxylon, Wrightia tinctoria, Cassia

fistula etc.

8 Tropical dry evergreen forests

These forests are commonly found in Nallamalais of Kumool and Prakasam

districts and in some areas of upper Godavari districts, in South Cuddapah, Sriharikota

and Mamandur valley in Chittoor division.

 31 Common tree elements of these forests are Manilkara hexandra, Acacia leucophloea,

Chloroxylon swietenia, Dalbergia paniculata, D. lanceolaria, Diospyros chloroxylon,

Gyrocarpus americanus, Memecylon umbellatum, Celtis philippensis, Pleurostylia

opposita, Aglaia elaeagnoidea, Cordia dichotoma, Naringi crenulata etc.

The shrubby layer consists of Tarenna asiatica, Erythroxylum monogymirn,

Mimosa intsia, Ochna obtusata, Dichrostachys cinerea etc.

9 Tropical dry evergreen scrub

This type of forests are found in Saidapet division and Madurantakam in

Tamil Nadu. Memecylon edule, Dichrostachys cinerea, Carissaspinarum, Catunaregam

spinosa, Diospyros ferrea etc. with thin grass layer are found.
Plate 2 A. Northern Tropical moist deciduous forest (Sal forest),

Salur-Koraput Ghat Road, Northern Eastern Ghats.

B. Southern Tropical moist deciduous forest (riverian

forest), near Addatigela, Northern Eastern Ghats

Plate 3 A. Moist deciduous forest - Mettupalayam,

Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu.

B. Moist deciduous forest - Mahendragiri hills,

Gajapathi district, Orissa.

Plate 4 A. Dry mixed deciduous forest - Peddamantanala RF,

Prakasam district, Nallamalais.

B. Dry deciduous forest - Ushakothi forest,

Sambalpur district, Orissa.

Plate 5 A. Dry deciduous forest - Donubai,

^nkakulam district, Andhra Pradesh.

3. Dry deciduous forest - Navabkota,

Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh.

Plate 6 A. Southern Tropical dry deciduous forest,

Tirumala hills, Southern Eastern Ghats.

B. Tropical thorn forest or scrub forest,

Kambakam hills, Southern Eastern Ghats.

 Plate 7 A. Degraded dry deciduous - Thorny scrub forest,

Nallaguntla, Prakasam district, Nallamalais.

B. Fully exposed hills without thick vegetation due to human interference -

Seethampeta forest, Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh.

 Plate 8 A. Shifting cultivation - Araku valley,

Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh.

B. Grazing by cattle in the open forests of Badrama, Orissa.

Plate 9 A. Destruction of forests for infrastructural facilities -

This shows the conversion of railway line in Nallamalais.

B. Badrama wildlife sanctuary - Sambalpur district, Orissa.