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GIS Applications in Forest Management

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234 Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management

Chapter- 21
GIS Applications in Forest Management
Ankita Singh, Ankita Mishra, Hemlata Pant and Jyoti Singh

Abstract: Forest ecosystem is one of important and critical component

of the world’s biodiversity as many of them are more bio diverse than other
ecosystems. This chapter highlights distribution of forest in India, focusing the
environmental problems which are arose due to deforestation and also explores
the policies and acts for managing forest resource. Application of GIS in forest
management at the world level or Indian context have also discussed here.
Keywords: Temperate, Tropical, Boreal, Deforestation, GIS, GPS, CGIS,
Radiometric resolution
Introduction
A forest is simply defined as a piece of land with many trees. Forests
are most dominant terrestrial ecosystem of the earth and account for
approximately 75% of gross primary production. Forests cover nearly 31% of
the global land area. Approximately half the forest area is relatively intact,
and more than one-third is primary forest (i.e. naturally regenerated forests of
native species, where there are no visible signs of human interference affecting
the ecological processes). The total forest area is about 4.06 billion hectares, or
approximately 5000 m2 per person, but forests are not equally distributed
around the globe.
It is important to mention about major forest dense regions, among it
more than half of the world’s forests are found in only five countries Russia,
Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China and two-thirds (66%)
of forests are found in 10 countries. A forest helps to regulate local and regional
rainfall. They are source of food, medicine, clean drinking water and provide
immense recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits.
Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management 235

Figure 21.1 Global Distribution of Forest

21.1 Types of Forest

Forests vary in their climate, species composition, and community
structure. Within these larger regions, there are more specific types of forests:
Tropical Forest
Tropical rain forests grow around the equatorial zone in countries such
as South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. They have the highest species
diversity in the world, containing millions of different species. Even though
they cover only a small part of the earth, they are home for around one half of
all species. The temperature is stable across the year, around 27°C. Most tropical
forests receive 200 cm of rain in a year. Tropical forests generally have both
rainy and dry season.
The high temperatures, abundant rainfall with twelve hours of light a
day promotes the growth of many different plants. Broadleaved trees, mosses,
ferns, palms, and orchids all thrive in rain forests. Many animals adapted to
arboreal life such as monkeys, snakes, frogs, lizards, and small mammals are
found in these forests.
Various subcategories of tropical rain forests:
• Evergreen: rain around the year, no dry season
• Seasonal: vegetation evergreen, short dry season,
• Dry: long dry season in which trees shed leaves
• Montane: most precipitation from mist or fog (also called cloud forests),
mostly conifers
• Tropical and subtropical coniferous: dry and warm climate with conifers
adapted to variable weather
236 Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management

• Sub-tropical: north and south of tropical forests, trees adapted to resist

summer drought
Temperate Forest
Temperate forests occur in the next latitude ring, in North America,
Europe and North-east Asia. In general, the temperature ranges from -30 to
30°C and the forests receive 75-150 cm of precipitation per year. Common tree
species are oak, beech, maple, elm, birch, willow, and hickory. Animals
commonly living in these forests are squirrels, rabbits, birds, deer, wolves,
foxes, and bears. They are adapted to both low and high temperatures. These
forests are also known as temperate rain forests because of the large amount
of rainfall they receive. Evergreen conifers are the dominant species in these
forests. Common tree species include cedar, cypress, pine, spruce, redwood,
and fir. There are still some deciduous trees such as maples and many mosses
and ferns that provide a Jurassic look to these forests. Common animals roaming
around the woods are deer, elk, bears, owls, and marmots.
Boreal Forest
Boreal forests, also known as taiga, are found in between 50 to 60 degree
of latitude in the sub-Arctic region. This includes Siberia, Scandinavia, Alaska,
and Canada. Trees of this region are coniferous and evergreen. There are two
seasons here: a short, moist summer and a long dry winter. A temperature
ranges in between -40°C to 20°C. Precipitation is usually delivered in form of
snow because it is very cold. Examples like pine, fir, and spruce trees, live
here. Animals living in these forests usually have thick fur or other insulation
to withstand long periods of cold temperatures. Example: moose, bears, lynx,
wolf, deer, wolverines, caribou, bats, small mammals, and birds. Forest
management is a branch of forestry including various aspects like social,
economic, administrative and scientific. It mainly focuses on efficient
management of forests in a way by fulfilling the needs of present generation
and ensuring its equal access to future generations. The main aim of forest
management is to develop, protect and manage the forest resources and ensure
its conservation while providing an opportunity for improving people’s life.
The exploitation of forest and its resources is being done from decades. But
previously it was done in a balanced manner as the resources were used only
for personal or community uses. But in recent years, the complete scenario has
changed; the rate of exploitation is far greater than the rate of production.
21.2 Problems of Forest:
Deforestation and forest degradation are major concerns since colonial
period to nowadays. Just objectives of utilization have changed but it has led
to continue harnessing of forests. From 2015 to 2020, the estimated rate of
Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management 237

deforestation was about 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million
hectares per year in the 1990s.
• Agricultural expansion another major conceen. Since human became
organized and started agriculture it has affected the forests
catastrophically. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle
ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40
%of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence
agriculture for the other 33%.
• Natural reserves alone are insufficient to conserve biodiversity. They
are usually too small, may act as barriers in species migration and are
vulnerable to factors such as climate change. This signifies that there is
a need to look beyond protected areas and to conventional biodiversity
conservation into forest management practices.
• Deforestation began thousand years ago to collect wood for building
ships and houses. However, over the last 20 years, more than 300 million
hectares of tropical forests have been cleared for plantations, agriculture,
pasture, mining, urban development etc. Today forests cover only half
of the area they occupied when agriculture began. This loss of 50% of
the Earth’s forests is sufficient, in itself, for severely disrupting the
global carbon cycle.
21.3 Removing forests may be the cause of many serious problems such as:
• Less number of trees makes global warming worse.
• Primary driving force behind destruction of the rainforests is livestock
grazing.
• Forests are destroyed by inequitable land policies.
• Global warming is a threat to forests worldwide.
• Each year, forest fires burn in between 6 to 14 million hectares of forest.
• Forests are harmed by the trade in illegally extracted timber.
21.4 Deforestation with reference to India
The term ‘deforestation’ describes the complete long-term removal of
tree cover. The lost forest cover influences the climate and contributes to a
biodiversity loss. Siltation, flooding, soil degradation and reduced timber
supplies adversely affect the economic activity. This, in turn, threatens the
people’s livelihood.
Deforestation in India is the widespread destructor of major forests in
India. In 2009, India ranked 10th worldwide in the amount of forest loss, where
238 Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management

world annual deforestation is estimated about 13.7 million hectares (34×106

acres) per year.
21.5 Causes
Deforestation is one of the major causes towards environmental
degradation which is affected by the agents like farmers, ranches, loggers and
plantation companies. There is a broad agreement that expansion of agricultural
areas and pastures are a major source of deforestation. Few of them are-
• Agriculture
• Commercial logging
• Mining
• Increase in population
• Urbanization and Industrialization
• Construction of Dam reservoir
• Forest fires
• Overgrazing
21.6 Consequences
Based on the requirements of the social group concerned, deforestation
has made it possible for communities to be built. Forests are cut down to make
ways for residential houses, offices and factories. Governments are able to build
reads making trade and transport easier and therefore more convenient to
residents. Deforestation also means the conversion of forest land into productive
land for agricultural purpose resulting in better and more plentiful production
of food and materials, virtually eradicating periods of want and lack.
Economically, deforestation has contributed much in giving different
communities the opportunity to make positive changes in their lives.
Unfortunately, the negative consequences of deforestation outweigh its positive
effects.
Here are few of them:
• Future food problems
• Exposing soil to heat and rain
• Flooding
• Loss of biodiversity
• Displacement of indigenous communities
Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management 239

• Climate change
• Economic loss
• Health issues
21.7 Forest Policy of India
For better and substantial use of forest and its resources, several forest
policies and laws has been created since colonial period to modern times. They
are made structurally followed. In the constitution of India, ‘forestry’ appears
on the ‘concurrent list’ meaning that both federal as well as state governments
have control over it. Here we look to some of important policies which were
created from time to time and have shaped the safety and growth of forests in
India.
Overview of forestry acts and policies in colonial and post-colonial period
of India
Colonial Period
These are some historical milestones which led the formation of forest
policies and implementation in India. Major landmarks of process are listed
below:
• 1855 Lord Dalhousie’s Forest Charter – First time in India certain rules
were initiated for forest protection. Law’s of wasteland– contemporary
scientific forestry.
• 1864 Establishment of Imperial Forest Department.
• 1865 Indian Forest Act it asserted state monopoly on forest resources –
scientific forest management
• 1878 Forest Act, which is classification of reserved, protected and village
forests – refusal of local rights – opposed by the forest inhabitants.
• 1927 Indian Forest Act It has mentioned about RESERVE FOREST
AREA which restricts the movement of people in it, and promotes the
safety of biodiversity and natural ecosystem of it.
• 1930Establishment of Forest Department at state level
Post – colonial period
• 1952 Indian Forest Policy, classification of protection, national, village
forests and tree lands – aimed to bring 33% of geographical area under
forest cover
• 1953 Nationalization of forests
240 Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management

• 1980 Forest Conservation Act intended to limit deforestation, conserve

biodiversity and wildlife.
21.8 Role of GIS in forest management
A modern technology plays very important and absolute roles in
management of natural resources. among them prevention and management
of fires through creation of early warning for fire prone areas, monitoring fires
on real time basis and estimation of burnt scars. For such things nowadays
Satellite based remote sensing technology and GIS tools have been implicit in
better prevention and management of fires by establishment of early warning
for fire prone areas, monitoring fires on real time basis and statistics of burnt
scars.
Geographic Information System (GIS) is almost being used in every
field including engineering, natural and social sciences. It offers accurate and
efficient methods for collection and analysis of spatial data.
Both locational and descriptive inventory data are required to make
better decisions and for proper forest management. The use of GIS in forest
management is significant through which forestry sector can maximize its
benefit.
GIS tools:
• Remote sensor devices
• Satellite imagery
• Land detecting devices
• Aerial photography devices
GIS enables foresters to create essential databases for preparing work
plans. GIS, GPS (global positioning system) and RS (remote sensing) has
enabled the foresters to look out of the older concepts and brought up new
methods for collection and analysis of data.
GIS along with other various related technologies help foresters to keep
the record, analyze the situation and decision making. GIS answers the
questions like location, condition, trends, patterns and modeling. Apart from
that GIS can be really useful in terms of forest resource assessment and
monitoring, forest protection, forest harvesting, forest rehabilitation,
conservation and biodiversity, climate change, spatial databases for forest
management, preparation of the working plan, wildlife habitat conservation,
and soil and watershed conservation and so on. The use of GIS in forest
management is significant through which forestry sectors can maximize their
benefits.
Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management 241

21.9 Application of (GIS) in world -wide forestry

In 1960 world’s first operational GIS was developed in Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada by federal department of Forestry and Rural development. It was
developed by Dr.Roger Tomlinson, and known as Canada Geographic
Information System (CGIS).
There are certain data sources that provide information which is used
in GIS and spatial databases for geospatial analysis and mapping.
• Global map -it provides coverage of all land cover area on earth.
• UNEP environmental data explorer- it includes global forest cover, global
evapotranspiration etc.
• Global 200- carries vector data from WWF of terrestrial, freshwater
and marine ecoregions.
U.S. Forest Service and GIS Implementation
Virtually as government forest management agencies in North America
have acquired or are obtaining a GIS. GIS has been widely used by the U.S.
Forest Service. $150 million procurement has been initiated for GIS hardware
and software program to be mounted in 600 places beginning in 1991.The
Southern Region of the Forest Service will receive GIS software on new UNIX
workstations in 34 offices as part of the first phase of a region wide conversion
of 120 of their southern headquarters. All of these units will have entire GIS
database. In the early 1980’s, the Forest Service spend time focusing on the
computers rather than the data contained in them has changed since the
implementation of GIS.
How Canada is Using GIS in Forestry
In Canada, almost every forestry agency has either implemented GIS
or is in the process of implementing GIS technology. Before GIS, the wooded
area databases were up to date by aerial photography, field sampling methods
and manual drafting. Under the GIS program, the forest maps had been
digitized and a forestry stocks can be up to dated constantly. GIS provides
different and good ways for forestry agencies to manage and manipulate their
databases. Landsat satellite is used to update the individual maps that need
current information due to forest harvesting or forest fires.
GIS and forest management in Indian context
GIS and remote sensing technology have played great role in assessment
of grassland and their changes with time. It is through remote sensing that
the actual wooded area covers of India were known via findings of satellite
data analysis. The first attempt to classified forest cover types by computer
analysis of Landsat data was done in 1978 for Nagaland.
242 Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management

Other than forest land classification, stock mapping and volume

estimation, remote sensing is also used for damage assessment and fire
detection, which is a common characteristic of Indian forests.
• The Forest Survey of India organize forest cover type and land-use maps
on 1:50,000 and 1:63,360 scale by interpreting medium to small scale
panchromatic aerial pictures for approximately 4, 20,000 km 2 in India.
The fundamental application of remote sensing in woodland
management has been for timber harvest planning and monitoring of
logging and deforestation. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) has been used
to prepare terrain complexity map. Potential fishing zones are being
mapped from the records through satellites.
• Remote sensing records is used for different kind of applications in
forestry and surroundings including biodiversity characterization,
Wetlands, Forest & Biomass mapping, Land Degradation and
Desertification processes, Coastal wetlands, Coral reefs, Mangroves,
Glaciers, Air and Water pollutants evaluation etc. The multi resolution
satellite records (e.g. IRS AWiFS, INSAT and others) are used for
historical changeevaluation, biomass estimation, annual forest changes
etc. Forest fires are routinely monitored using multi temporal data and
near real time satellite data and are supplied to Forest Survey of India
(FSI), MoEF& CC and other state forest departments for field
interventions.
• FSI is one of the earliest establishments to have adopted the implement
of remote sensing techniques for national forest mapping. It brings out
biennial forest cover mapping of the country, using remote sensing data
which helps the country in close monitoring of the exact conditions of
forests in the country.
• Forest cover is a clear form of remote sensing data based on tree canopy
density characteristics. It is being carried out periodically by Forest
Survey of India (FSI). The spatial extent and trends in woodland cover
changes in India using multi-source and multi-date data (1930 to 2013)
has been carried out. This study has evaluated spatial extent and trends
in forest cover changes in India using multi-information and multi-date
data (1930 to 2013). The findings of the study will be useful to prioritize
conservation of forest cover at the regional level. It shall also provide a
base for future research on the impacts of deforestation on carbon stocks
and biodiversity. The first satellite that recorded forest coverage data
for India became accessible in 1987.
Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management 243

• India and the United States cooperated in 2001, using Landsat MSS
having spatial resolution of 80 metres, to get precise forest distribution
data. India thereafter shifted to digital image and advanced satellites
with 23 metres resolution and software processing of images to get more
clear data on forest quantity and forest quality. India now assesses its
forest distribution data biennially.
21.10 Forest Management Techniques
GIS and Remote sensing technology helps in several ways in forest
management, here are some of methods are:
1. Locational Analysis
In this regard foresters or caretakers of forest look into the location by
location specifications of forests, Such as through aerial mapping they can get
to know growth of forest, impact of weather on it, deforestation impacts etc.
USA uses this model very prominently.
2. Condition Analysis
Health of forests is reflected by its color of leaf so through analysis of
satellite photographs it is assessed regularly. By this how is condition of forest
can be determined also it helps in locating it with surrounding attributes near
it like lakes, valleys etc.
3. Understanding the pattern
GIS is very helpful in understanding the pattern of forests like height,
life, seasonal impact over it. All this can be analysed by close introspection of
GIS maps by experts.
4. In Controlling the Disasters
We continually here about forest fires in news mainly in areas of
Australia, USA, and SIBERIA etc. Most of times its reason is climatic change
like change in wind temperature, air velocity etc. With monitoring of weather
data and thermal images it can be predicted earlier so it will not cause much
level of loss at continues basis.
Table 21.1 National Geo Portal
 244 Geospatial Technology and its Applications in Resource Management

Conclusion
The need for better spatial, spectral and radiometric resolutions for
woodlands types and species (associations) has been emphasized over time.
Gradually, the mapping and tracking scenario is expected to be a lot better
than ever before. The spatial, spectral, and radiometric resolutions have already
advanced considerably. Currently most of the sensors provide spectral
resolutions of the order of about 10 nanometres per band. Sensing using
continuous spectra is expected to help not only in better species identification,
association/formation and forest/vegetation type level mapping but also result
in higher accuracy in timber volume and biomass estimations by highlighting
the subtle differences in the physiognomy of the vegetation. The hyper spectral
imagery is providing insight into the state of biodiversity and the vegetation
continuum across ecosystems and the landscapes in an unprecedented manner.
Ground penetration radars are already helping the scientific community in
belowground biomass evaluations.
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Ben, H.J. De Jong, Richard, Tipper and Guillermo, Montoya-Go´mez
(2000), An economic analysis of role of forests in carbon sequestration,by
forest: Evidence from Southern Mexico, Ecological Economics, 33,313-
327.
Gupta, D. (2020 July 4), Forest Policies of India, https://
els jnuals.wordpress .com/2020/07/04/fores t-policies -in- india/
geographynotes.com
https://www.slideshare.net/ajeetsingh90/forest-policies-of-india
www.researchgate.net
www.zmescience.com

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