My Favourite Polynomial

Author(s): Desmond MacHale

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Mathematical Gazette, Vol. 75, No. 472 (Jun., 1991), pp. 157-165
Published by: The Mathematical Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3620243 .
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MY FAVOURITEPOLYNOMIAL 157

can you predicthow many digits are required?Satterthwaitesays that he can.

Can you?
BOB BURN
Schoolof Education,HeavitreeRoad, Exeter EX1 2LU

My favouritepolynomial
DESMOND MACHALE

Ever since I was a schoolboy, my favourite polynomial has been

f(x, y, z) =x3 + y3 + z3 - 3xyz.
It is a wonderful polynomial, with lots of beautiful and useful properties
which, alas, do not seem to be known to the present generation of
mathematicalstudents.To remedythis, we collect togethersome of the known
propertiesof this polynomial and present some additional propertieswhich
appear to be new.
We observe thatf(x, y, z) is a symmetricpolynomialin its three variables,
i.e.
f(x, y, z) =f(y, x, z) =f(x, z, y) =f(z, y, x) =f(y, z, x) =f(z, x, y),
for all permutationsof x, y, z. Next we see that f(x, y, z) is homogeneousof
degree 3, i.e.f(tx, ty, tz) = t3f(x, y, z) for all t. Intuitively,this means that all
the terms of f(x, y, z) have "uniform thickness 3".
The first surprise is that f(x, y, z) has algebraic factors, one of which is
x+y+z.
Recall that
x3 + y3 = (X + y)(x2 -xy + y2)
= (x + y)[(x + y)2- 3xy]
= (x + y)3- 3xy(x+ y).
Thus
f(x, y, z) = (x + y)3 + z3- 3xy(x + y) - 3xyz
= (x +y + z)[(x +y)2 + z2 - (x +y) z] - 3xy(x +y + z)
= (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + 2xy + z2 - zx -yz - 3xy)
= (x +y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 - xy -yz - zx). (*)
This factorizationleads to the following fundamentalresult.
Theorem 1. If x=y=z or x + y +z=0 then f(x,y,z)=O0 i.e.
x3+ y3 + z3 = 3xyz. This result has many applications as we shall see later.

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158 GAZETTE
THE MATHEMATICAL

Next we ask, conversely,if x, y, z arereal numbersandf(x, y, z) = 0, what can

we say about x, y, and z?

Theorem2. If x, y, z e R and f(x, y, z) = 0, then either x + y + z = 0 or

x = y = z. In both cases x2 - yz = y2 - zx = z2 - xy.
Proof.By (*) either x + y + z = 0 or x2 + y2 - xy - yz - zx = 0. If the second
condition holds then multiplying across by 2 and rearranging we get
(x - y)2 + (y - Z)2 + (Z - x)2 = 0. Since x, y, zeY this gives at once that
x = y = z. If x= y = z then clearly x2 -yz=y2-zx = z2-xy. If
x+y+z=0, x=-(y + z) so x2-yz = (+z)2-yz=y2+yz+z2. Then
y2 - zx =y2 + z(y + z) =y2 +yz + z2 = z2 + (y
+ z)y = z2 - xy.
The proof of Theorem 2 establishes the following.

Theorem3. f(x, y, z) = (x + y + z)[(x - y)2 + (y - z)2 + (z - x)2].

We deduce at once the following

Theorem4. If x, y and z are non-negativerealnumbersthenf(x, y, z) > 0, with

equality if and only if x = y = z.
This can also be deduced from the famous A.M> G.M inequality as
follows. If a, b, c > 0 then '(a + b + c) > a/bc. Putting a = x3, b= y3, C = z3
we get 3(x3 + y3 + z3) > /X3 y3 z3 = xyz, which gives the desired result.
This process clearly generalises to the following.

Theorem 5. If x1, x2, ..., xn are non-negative real numbers, then

n x" nx x2 ... xnwith equality if and only if x = x2 =...***= n.
+ X + * >*
xT
The polynomialf(x, y, z) satisfiesmany pleasant identities. For the record
we collect some of them together.
Theorem6.
(i) f(x + y, y + z, z + x) = 2f(x, y, z).
(ii f(x + y - 2z, y + z - 2x, z + x - 2y) = 0.
(iii) f(x + y - z, y + z - x, z + x - y) = 4f(x, y, z).
(iv) If 2s= a + b+ c, f(s - a, s - b, s - c) =?f(a, b, c).
(v) If 3a = 2(a + b + c), f(a- a, - b, f- c) =f(a, b, c).
(vi) f(3x-y - z, 3y - z - x, 3z - x- y) = 16f(x, y, z).
(vii) f(nx - y - z, ny -z - x, nz - x - y)
=(n+ 1)2 (n - 2)f(x, y, z).
(viii) f(ax + bz, ay + bx, az + by) = (a3 + b3)f(x, y, z).
(ix) f(x + y + z + a(y + z - 2x), x + y + z + a(z + x- 2y),
x+ y+z + a(x + y- 2z)) = 27a3 f(x, y, z).

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MY FAVOURITEPOLYNOMIAL 159

These can all be verified by direct calculation with Theorem 3 being

particularlyuseful.
We now look at some applications of Theorem 1.

Example 1. Factorise
(i) (a - b)3+ (b- c)3+ (c- a)3

(ii) (a+ b)3 (a- b)3 + (b+ c)3 (b-c)3 + (c + a)3 (c-a)3

Solution.
(i) Since (a - b) + (b - c) + (c - a) = 0,
Theorem 1 gives (a - b)3 + (b- c)3 + (c - a)3 = 3(a - b) (b - c) (c - a).
(ii) Since
(a + b)3(a-b)3=(a2-b2)3
and
(a2 - b2) + (b2 - c2) + (c2 - a2) = 0,
the requiredfactorization is given by
3(a2 - b2)(b2 - c2)(c2 -
a2)
= 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)(a - b)(b - c)(c - a).
It is possible to concoct many pretty examples of this type.

Example2. Solve the equation 3x- - + x/- 2 + ~/x + 3 = 0.

Solution.Theorem 1 gives
(x - 1) + (x - 2) + (x + 3) = 3/(x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 3)
so
X3 = (x- 1)(x- 2)(x + 3) = x3 - 7x + 6.
Thus x = and checking we see that this the unique solution of the
equation.

Example3. If a, f5,y are the solutions of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0,

find a3 + /3 + y3 in terms of p, q and r.

Solution.We know that

c+ +y= -p, acf+ #y+ ya =q; aoly= -r.
Now
a2 + b2 + y2 = (a + + y)2 - 2(o + fy + ya) = p2 - 2q,

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160 GAZETTE
THE MATHEMATICAL

so

f(ax, l,y)
= (ca + ,+ y)(a2 + + a2-
+y2 -
fly + ya) = 3pq -p3.
Thus
oa3+ IN3
+ y3 = 3pq - p3 - 3r.

Example4. Solve the equations

x+y+z= a, x2 + y2 + Z2 =a2, x3 + y3 + Z3 = a3.
Solution.
- = a2 - a2 = 0,
2(xy+ -yz + zx) = (x +y+ z)2 (x2 +y2 +z2)
so

a3 = 3 + y3 + z3

=(x+y+z)(x2 +y2+z2 -xy+yz+zx)+3xyz

= (a)(a2) + 3xyz.

So 3xyz = 0, and thus one of the unknowns, say x, satisfies x = 0. Since

xy + yz + zx = 0, anotherunknown,say y, satisfiesy = 0. Since x + y + z = a,
z = a. By symmetrywe have the complete solution set.
x=0, y=0, z=a; x=0, y=a, z=0; x=a, y=O, z=O.

Example5. If sin A + sin B + sin C = 0 = cos A + cos B + cos C show that

cos 3A + cos 3B + cos 3C = 3 cos (A + B + C)
and
sin 3A + sin 3B + sin 3C = 3 sin (A + B + C).

Solution.Let i2 = - 1 so
(cos A + cos B + cos C) + i(sin A + sin B + sin C) = 0
and thus
(cos A + i sin A) + (cos B + i sin B) + (cos C + i sin C) = 0.
Now Theorem 1 is certainly valid for complex numbers so
f(cos A + i sin A, cos B + i sin B, cos C + i sin C) = 0.
Now apply De Moivre'stheoremto get (cos A + i sin A)3 = cos 3A + i sin 3A
and similarly for B and C, and
(cos A + i sin A)(cos B + sin B)(cos C + i sin C
= cos (A + B + C) + i sin (A + B + C).

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MY FAVOURITEPOLYNOMIAL 161

Thus
cos 3A + cos 3B + cos 3C + i(sin 3A + sin 3B + sin 3C)
= 3 cos (A + B + C)+ 3i sin (A + B + C).
Equating real and imaginary parts we get the result.

Example6. If x, y, and z are integers, solve the equationf(x, y, z) = 1.

Solution.By theorem 3, 2 = (x + y + z)[(x - y)2 + (y - z)2 + (z - x)2].

Since the second factor is never negative we have just two possibilities
(i) x+y+z= 1, (x-y)2 + (y-z)2+(z- x)2= 2
(ii) x + y + z=2, (x-y)2 + (y-_ )2 + (z-x)2= 1
In (i) we cannot have x = y = z, since then the second factor would be zero,
and if x, y, z are all distinct the second factorwouldbe > 3. Thus preciselytwo
(say y and z) are equal so 2(x -y)2= 2 and x - y = + 1. x + y + z = 1 now
gives 3x = 3 or 3x = -1 giving x= 1, y =0, z = 0 and permutations.
In (ii) the second equation cannot hold in integers so {x, y, z} = {1, 0, 0} is
the complete solution.
We recall that the equation x3 - 1 = 0 has the real solution x = 1 but also
the complex solutions x= co, co2 where co= (-1+ -3) and c02=
(-1 - /--3). We have co3=1 and l + o+o2 + = 0. We note that
f(x, y, z) =f(x, yco, zco2)=f(x, yco2,zcO) so that x + yo + zco2 and
x + ywc2+ zco are both factors of f(x, y, z). Hence
f(x, y, z) = k(x + y + z)(x + ycw2+zwc2)(x + yco2 + zco)
for some constant k and we see easily that k = 1. Thus we have the following
result.

Theorem7. Over the complex numbersf(x,y,z) factors completely as

(x + y + z)(x + ywo+zwc2)(x + yCo2+ zco)
This result too has many applications.

Example7. If
X3 X6 x4 X7
a= l+-+-.+ +....
bx+-+7+ ...
X2 X5 X8
2! 5, . .
then f(a, b, c) = 1.

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162 THE MATHEMATICAL
GAZETTE

Solution.It is easily verified that all three series converge.

Now,
X x2 3 x3

(O2 X2 (O3 X3

(.4 X2 ()6 x3
a+bwo2 + C= 1+ 2 x+ + +.. =ec2x

Hence f(a, b, c) = ex. e'x. ee2x = e(I = e? = 1.

+W+CU2)x

Theorem 7 also arises on the solution of the general cubic equation by the
method of Tartaglia and Cardan.
Example8. Solve the general cubic equation
k(x) = ao X3 + 3al x2 + 3a2 x + a3 = 0, where ao # 0.

Solution.To simplify the equation, let g(x) = a2k (x-l ) = x3 + 3Hx + G,

be the reduced cubic, where H and G are functions of ao, a1, a2, a3. The
solutions of k(x) = 0 are easily derived from the solutions of g(x) = 0. Now
(x - U - v)(x - U.) - vw)2)(X -U(C2 - v)) = U3 - 3uvx- u3 - v3, so the roots
of the cubic x3 - 3uvx- (u3+ v3) are u + v, uco+ vco2,uco2+ vco. We now
choose u and v so that uv = - H, u3 + v3 = - G. This means that u3 and v3 are
the roots of the quadraticx2 + Gx - H3. These roots are given by
a = ?(-G + /G2 +4H3), a2= -G- IG2 +4H3).
The solutions of k(x) = 0 are now determined in principle, although the
extraction of cube roots of complex numbers poses furtherproblems!
Our next result concerns the binomial coefficients.

Example9. Let
(1 + x)" = Co + C1 x +- C2 x2 + . . .,
X= CO + C3 x3 + C6 6 + . . .,

=C1 x+ C4 x4 + C7 x7 + ....
Z= C2 x2 + C5 X5 + C8 x8 + ....
Then f(X, Y, Z) = (1 + x3)n, where nefE/.

Solution
(1 +x)n = X+ Y+Z
(1 + (wox)n= X + CotY + 2Z

(1 + 2x)n = X + co2 Y+ coZ

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MY FAVOURITEPOLYNOMIAL 163

Thus

((1 + x) ( + cox) (I + co2x)) =

(X+ Y+ Z)(X+ (oY + w2 Z)(X+ c)2 Y+w Z)
So (1 + x3)n =f(X, Y, Z) as required.
We turn now to the problem of expressing a given integer in the form
f(x, y, z), for x, y, ze Z.
Let S = {klk =f(x, y, z) for some x, y, zeZ}. We will eventually
characteriseS completely. For example 8eS but 60S. Why?

Theorem8. If aeS and beS then abeS.

Proof. Let a =f(t, m, n) and b =f(x, y, z). By Theorem 7

ab = [(t'+ m + n)(x + y + z)][('+ mw2+ nw)(x + yw + zC2)]
x [(f+ mwo+ n(02)(x + yCo2 + zcw)]
=(A + B + C)(A + Bco+ Co2)(A + Bo2 + Cc) =f(A,B, C)
where A = x + mz + ny, B = ey + mx + nz, C = ez + my + nx, which estab-
lishes the result.If a = b, this resultassumesthe following form which can be
presented in several ways.

Theorem9.
-
f(x2 + 2yz, y2 + 2zx, z2 + 2xy) = (f(x, y, z))2 =f(x2 yz, y2 - zx, z2 - xy).
We can of course, continue this process to get
(f(x, y, z))3 =f(x3 + y3 + z3 + 6xyz, 3(xy2 + yz2 + zx2), 3(x2 y + y2 z + z2
x)) etc.
Manyof the propertiesoff(x, y, z) stem from the fact that it can be expressed
as a determinant:
x y z
f(x,y,z)= z x y
y z x
The factorization(*) can be achieved now as follows
x y z y+z+x y z 1 y z
z x y = x+-y+z x y = (x+y+z) 1 x y
y z x x+y+z z x 1 z x
= (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 - xy - yz -zx).

Using determinants also gives rise to the following alternative proof of

Theorem 8.

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164 THE MATHEMATICAL
GAZETTE

Proof (Aliter)
ab =f(t, m, n)f(x, y, z)
e m n x y z
n { m z x y
m n e y z x
ex + mz + ny ty + mx +nz z+ my + nx
= &z+my+nx 1x+mz+ny4 y+mx+nz
y+ mx + nz ez+my+nx (x+mz+ny
(using the fact that IABI= IAIIBIfor 3 x 3 matrices)
=f({x + mz + ny, ey + mx + nz, ez + my + nx).
Theorem 7 may also be proved using elementary row operations on
determinants.Finally, we characterisethe set S.

Theorem10. S consists of all integers except multiples of 3 which are not

multiple of 9.

Proof. By direct calculation for each xeZ we see f(x + 1, x, x) = 3x + 1,

f(x + 1, x + 1, x) = 3x + 2 andf(x + 1, x, x - 1) = 9x. We completethe proof
by showing that if 31f(x, y, z) then 9|f(x, y, z). Since 313xyz,we may assume
that 31(x3 + y3 + z3). Working mod 3 we see that

if x- 0 1 2
then x3 0 1 2

The possibilities(mod 3) for x3 + y3 + z3 are therefore,using symmetryto cut

down the number of cases:

x3_ 0 00 01 1 1 200
y3= 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 2
1 1
z3- 0 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2

x3+y3+z3-- 0 1 2 2 0 1 0 1 2 0

This leaves us with four possibilities to consider.

(i) x = 3a, y = 3b, z = 3c; f(x, y, z)= 27f(a, b, c) = 0 mod 9.
(ii) f(3a, 3b + 1, 3c + 2) = 27(a3+ b3 + c3) + 27(b2+ c2) + 9(b + 4c)
+ 9 - 9a(3b+ 1)(3c + 2) = 0 mod 9.
(iii) f(3a + 1, 3b + 1, 3c + 1) = 27(a3+ b3+ c3 + a2+ b2+ c2 - ab - bc
- ca - 3abc)= 0 mod 9.

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MY FAVOURITEPOLYNOMIAL 165

(iv) f(3a + 2, 3b + 2, 3c + 2) = 27(a3+ b3 + c3 + 2(a2 + b2 + c2 - ab- bc

- ca) - 3abc)= 0 mod 9.
which completes the proof.
This providesus with yet anotherproof of Theorem 8 since integersof the
forms {3a + 1, 3b + 2, 9c} are closed under multiplication according to the
following table, which is of course a semigroup.

3a+l 3b+2 9c
3a+1 3a+1 3b+2 9c
3b+2 3b+2 3a+l 9c
9c 9c 9c 9c

Note however that 3?S and 6 S but 18eS.

It is obvious thatf(x, y, z) is a pretty versatile polynomial because in the
courseof this shortarticlewe have managedto relateit to the followingtopics:
homogeneous symmetric polynomials; remainder theorem; undetermined
coefficients; factorization; inequalities; arithmetic and geometric means;
polynomialidentities; connexionsbetweenthe rootsof a cubic; trigonometry;
Diophantine equations, complex cube roots of unity; infinite series,
exponential function; solution of cubic equations; binomial coefficients;
numbertheory; determinants;matrices; elementaryrow operations;congru-
ences; semigroupsand De Moivre's theorem. And there is more! Here are a
few suggestions for furtherexploration:
1. What are the integer solutionsof the equationf(x, y, z) = n, for a given
n?
2. Investigate the polynomial x4 + y4 + z4 + w4- 4xyzw. Does it factor?
What are its properties?
3. Investigate x+ 4 + ex2- nx1 x2 ... x,.
4. What does the surfacef(x, y, z) = c look like, where c is a constant?
5. Add to the list of polynomialidentities involvingf(x, y, z) as detailed in
Theorem 6.
6. Investigate other functions which have "persistence of form under
multiplication"as in Theorem 8.
7. Investigate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
x y z
z x y
y z x
DESMONDMACHALE
Departmentof Mathematics,UniversityCollege,Cork,Ireland

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