i

DESIGN, FABRICATION, ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF AUTOMOBILE

STRUT BY USING GFRP COMPOSITES

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

ABBISAKE A V (201405001)
GOKULNATH K O C (201405040)
KENNETH GODWIN S (201405257)

In the partial fulfilment of the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENTOF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEPCO SCHLENK ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI

(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Anna University Chennai)

APRIL 2018
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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “DESIGN, FABRICATION, ANALYSIS AND
TESTING OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT BY USING GFRP COMPOSITES” is the bonafide
work of the following students ABBISAKE A V (201405001), GOKULNATH K O C
(201405040), KENNETH GODWIN S (201405257) who carried out the project work under my
supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not
form part of any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was
conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Mr. K. Kandakodeeswaran, M.E, Dr.P.Nagaraj, M.E., Ph.D.,

Internal guide, Head of the Department

Assistant Professor, Senior Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College,
Sivakasi. Sivakasi.

Submitted for Viva-Voce Examination held at MEPCO SCHLENK ENGINEERING

COLLEGE, SIVAKASI (AUTONOMOUS) on ……………..............

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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ABSTRACT

Today Automobile industries are looking for Safety, Quality & Optimum Cost in Vehicle
components and the replacements of any components are very expensive. In such cases many
components in automobiles are failed due to fatigue. And the major characteristics of fatigue
failure are components are failed suddenly without any warning. This failure damages the other
part of the vehicle. In order to avoid this type of failure there is a need to analyse fatigue conditions
of each component. From this analysis the fatigue strength & life of component can be estimated.
Conventionally, Stainless steel strut bars which are used in automobiles are designed to increase
the structural rigidity and for the prevention of permanent deformation and cracking. When the
suspension structure used in automobiles is increased in hardness and to further increase the
operational performance, the strut bars, which is the mechanical part that joins with the suspension
system, is easily deformed by impact forces that result from passing over road surface
irregularities, such as a pothole or bump in the road. In this work, the stress distribution of a strut
bar made of a glass fibre-reinforced composite and a back-up metal was analysed by using the
finite element (FE) method, and an optimum stacking sequence for reducing the materials cost was
suggested based on the FEA analysis results . The GFRP composite strut bars were fabricated, and
the dynamic characteristics were analysed by performing various tests. When compared to the
conventional suspension system , the composite strut model has improvement in specific modulus
and specific strength.

Keywords: GFRP composite, Impact test, Automobile strut, Dynamic characteristics, FE analysis,
Road surface irregularities.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we deeply express our thanks and respect to our beloved

parents for their invaluable love, moral support and constant encouragement in every

walk of life.

We express our heartiest gratitude and sincere thanks to our beloved Principal

Dr. S.ARIVAZHAGAN, M.E., Ph.D., and the Senior Professor and Head of the

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. P.NAGARAJ, M.E., Ph.D., for allowing

and providing us with all resources for doing this project successfully.

We acknowledge our gratitude to our guide Mr.K.KANDAKODEESWARAN,

M.E., Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for having given expert

guidance, kind and cooperative encouragement, inspiring and keen interest shown

throughout the course of this project.

We whole heartedly thank the professor in charge Mr. B.VIJAYARAGAVAN,

M.E., Asst. Professor and Dr. A.VASANTHANATHAN, M.TECH., Ph.D.,

Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his guidance and

scholarly advice imparted throughout the course of this project.

We extend our hearty thanks to all the STAFF MEMBERS and

TECHNICIANS Of Department of Mechanical Engineering for their extended

assistance and support. Last but not least we thank our family, friends who helped us

immensely for the successful completion of our project.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO
NO
ABSTRACT III
LIST OF SYMBOLS VIII
LIST OF FIGURES XI

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 6
3. PROJECT OBJECTIVE 9
3.1 PROJECT METHODOLOGY 10
4. AUTOMOBILE STRUT 11
4.1 INTRODUCTION 11
4.2 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 12
4.2.1 MCPHERSON STRUT 12
4.2.2 CHAMPMAN’S STRUT 13
4.2.3 DOUBLE WISHBONE STRUT 13
4.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION 14
4.4 PROBLEM DEFINITION 14
5. 3D MODEL AND ANALYSIS 15
5.1 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE 15
STRUT MODEL
5.2 FRONT VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 15
MODEL

5.3 TOP VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 16

MODEL
5.4 SIDE VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 16
MODEL
6. CALCULATIONS 17
6.1 CALCULATIONS OF LAMINA 17
6.1.1 VOLUME FRACTIONS 17
6.1.2 DENSITY FRACTIONS 17
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6.1.3 WEIGHT FRACTIONS 18

6.1.4 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S 19
MODULUS
6.1.5 DETERMINATION OF SHEAR 19
MODULUS
6.1.6 DETERMINATION OF POISSON’S 20
RATIO
6.1.7 STRESS CALCULATION 21
6.2 CALCULATIONS OF LAMINATE 22
6.1.8 STIFFNESS MATRIX 22
6.1.9 REDUCED STIFFNESS MATRIX 22
6.1.10 LAMINATE STIFFNESS MATRIX 23
6.1.11 CALCULATIONS OF [A] MATRIX 23
6.1.12 CALCULATIONS OF [B] MATRIX 24
6.1.13 CALCULATIONS OF [D] MATRIX 24
7. MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF 25
GFRP COMPOSITE
7.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING 25
7.2 FILAMENT WINDING PROCESS 26
7.3 HANDLAY UP PROCESS 27
7.4 SPRAY LAY UP PROCESS 29

8. FABRICATION 30
8.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING 30
8.2 WEIGHT RATIO 31
8.3 FABRICATED MODEL OF GFRP 32
COMPOSITES
8.4 STRUT MODEL OF GFRP COMPOSITES 32
9. ANALYSIS AND TEST RESULTS 33
9.1 TENSILE TEST 33
9.1.1 NUMERICAL VALUES FOR TENSILE TEST 34
9.2 OMPRESSION TEST 34
9.2.1 NUMERICAL VALUES FOR COMPRESSION 35
 vii

TEST
9.3 FLEXURAL TEST 36
9.3.1 NUMERICAL VALUES FOR FLUXURAL
TEST 37
9.4 TESTING 37
9.4.1 TENSILE TEST RESULTS 37
9.4.2 COMPRESSION TEST RESULTS 38
9.4.3 FLEXURAL TEST RESULTS 38
9.5 COMPARISION BETWEEN ANSYS AND 39
TESTED VALUES
9.5.1 TENSILE TEST 39
9.5.2 COMPRESSION TEST 39
9.5.3 FLEXURAL TEST 40
9.5.4 HARDNESS TEST 40
9.5.5 SEM IMAGES 40
9.5.6 IMPACT TEST 41
10 COST ANALYSIS 42
11 CONCLUSION 43
12 REFERENCES 45
 viii

LIST OF SYMBOLS:

Vf - VOLUME FRACTION OF FIBRE

Vm - VOLUME FRACTON OF MATRIX
vf - VOLUME OF FIBRE
vm - VOLUME OF MATRIX
Wf - WEIGHT FRACTION OF FIBRE
Wm – WEIGHT FRACTION OF MATRIX
ρf - DENSITY OF FIBRE
ρc - DENSITY OF COMPOSITE
ρstd - STANDARD DENSITY
Ef - YOUNG’S MODULUS OF FIBRE
Em - YOUNG’S MODULUS OF MATRIX
S - STIFFNESS MATRIX
Q - COMPLIANCE MATRIX
[A] - EXTENSIONAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
[B] - COUPLING STIFFNESS MATRIX
[D] - BENDING STIFFNESS MATRIX
h -HEIGHT OF THE MATRIX LAYERS
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIG.NO FIGURE NAME PAGE NO

1.1 GLASS FIBRE 4

1.2 EPOXY RESIN 5
4.2.1 MCPHERSON STRUT 12
4.2.3 DOUBLE WISHBONE STRUT 13
5.1 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE 15
STRUT MODEL
5.2 FRONT VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 16
MODEL
5.3 TOP VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 17
MODEL
5.4 SIDE VIEW OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT 17
MODEL
7.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING MACHINE 34
7.2 FILAMENT WINDING PROCESS 35
7.3 HAND LAY UP PROCESS 36
8.1 MALE DIE 38
8.1.1 FEMALE DIE 38
8.2 WEIGHING MACHINE 39
8.3 FABRICATED GFRP COMPOSITE 40
8.4 STRUT MODEL 40
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Composite materials of polymers reinforced by fibres have shown remarkable
performance and wide range of applications in many areas of construction. This is due to
their distinctive characteristics of light weight, chemical stability and corrosion resistance
against environment and harsh conditions, in addition to ease of fabrication, use and
implementation in comparison to traditional materials used in construction areas and
automobile sectors.

1.1 GLASS FIBRE FORMATION:

Glass fibre is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass
are extruded into many fibres with small diameters suitable for textile processing. The
technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibres has been known for millennia;
however, the use of these fibres for textile applications is more recent. Until this time, all
glass fibre had been manufactured as staple (that is, clusters of short lengths of fibre). The
modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games Slayter working at
the Owens-Illinois Glass Co. (Toledo, Ohio). He first applied for a patent for a new process
to make glass wool in 1933. The first commercial production of glass fibre was in 1936. In
1938 Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-
Corning Fiberglas Corporation. When the two companies joined to produce and promote
glass fibre, they introduced continuous filament glass fibres. Owens-Corning is still the major
glass-fibre producer in the market today.

The most common types of glass fibre used in fiberglass is E-glass, which is alumino-
borosilicate glass with less than 1% alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics.
Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-
glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali
oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content,
used for glass staple fibres and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its
low Dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high
mechanical requirements as reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO
but with high MgO content with high tensile strength).
 2

Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true
melting point, can be used as a glass fibre for fiberglass, but has the drawback that it must be
worked at very high temperatures. In order to lower the necessary work temperature, other
materials are introduced as "fluxing agents" (i.e., components to lower the melting point).
Ordinary A-glass ("A" for "alkali-lime") or soda lime glass, crushed and ready to be
remelted, as so-called cullet glass, was the first type of glass used for fiberglass. E-glass ("E"
because of initial electrical application), is alkali free, and was the first glass formulation used
for continuous filament formation. It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the
world, and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to
chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "Strength")
is used when high tensile strength (modulus) is important, and is thus important in
composites for building and aircraft construction. The same substance is known as R-glass
("R" for "reinforcement") in Europe. C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T"
is for "thermal insulator" – a North American variant of C-glass) are resistant to chemical
attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of blown fiberglass.

The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or pristine fibres—
those that have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibres are the strongest because
the thinner fibre are more ductile. The more the surface is scratched, the less the
resulting tenacity. Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same
along the fibre and across the fibre. Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength.
Moisture is easily adsorbed and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and
lessen tenacity.

1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

1.2.1 Melting:

There are two main types of glass fibre manufacture and two main types of glass fibre
product. First, fibre is made either from a direct melt process or a marble remelt process.
Both start with the raw materials in solid form. The materials are mixed together and melted
in a furnace. Then, for the marble process, the molten material is sheared and rolled into
marbles which are cooled and packaged. The marbles are taken to the fibre manufacturing
facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted. The molten glass is extruded to
the bushing to be formed into fibre. In the direct melt process, the molten glass in the furnace
goes directly to the bushing for formation.
 3

1.2.2 Formation:

The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery for making the fibre.
This is a small metal furnace containing nozzles for the fibre to be formed through. It is
almost always made of platinum alloyed with rhodium for durability. Platinum is used
because the glass melt has a natural affinity for wetting it. When bushings were first used
they were 100% platinum, and the glass wetted the bushing so easily that it ran under the
plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside. Also, due to its cost and the
tendency to wear, the platinum was alloyed with rhodium. In the direct melt process, the
bushing serves as a collector for the molten glass. It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the
correct temperature for fibre formation. In the marble melt process, the bushing acts more
like a furnace as it melts more of the material.

Bushings are the major expense in fibre glass production. The nozzle design is also
critical. The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200. The important
part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit
region. It was found that inserting a counter bore to reduce wetting. Today, the nozzles are
designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit. As glass flows through the nozzle, it forms
a drop which is suspended from the end. As it falls, it leaves a thread attached by
the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the viscosity is in the correct range for fibre formation.
The smaller the annular ring of the nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit, the faster the drop
will form and fall away, and the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle. The
surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus. For E-glass it
should be around 400 μN/m.

The attenuation (drawing) speed is important in the nozzle design. Although slowing this
speed down can make coarser fibre, it is uneconomic to run at speeds for which the nozzles
were not designed.

1.2.3 Continuous filament process:

In the continuous filament process, after the fibre is drawn, a size is applied. This size
helps protect the fibre as it is wound onto a bobbin. The particular size applied relates to end-
use. While some sizes are processing aids, others make the fibre have an affinity for a certain
resin, if the fibre is to be used in a composite. Size is usually added at 0.5–2.0% by weight.
Winding then takes place at around 1 km/min.
 4

1.2.4 Staple fibre process:

For staple fibre production, there are a number of ways to manufacture the fibre. The
glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation machine. Usually
these fibres are made into some sort of mat. The most common process used is the rotary
process. Here, the glass enters a rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force is thrown out
horizontally. The air jets push it down vertically, and binder is applied. Then the mat is
vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven. Glass Fibre is shown in Fiqure 1.1

Figure 1.1 Glass Fibre

1.3 EPOXY RESIN:

Epoxy is either any of the basic components or the cured end products of epoxy
resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional group. Epoxy resins, known
as polyepoxides, are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide
groups. Epoxy resins may be reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic
homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines,
acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols and thiols. These co-reactants are often
referred to as hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to
as curing. Reaction of polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners forms
 5

a thermosetting polymer, often with favourable mechanical properties and high thermal and
chemical resistance.

Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including metal coatings, use in

electronics/electrical components/LEDs, high tension electrical insulators, paint brush
manufacturing, fibre-reinforced plastic materials and structural adhesives. Epoxy Resin is
shown in Fiqure 1.3

Figure 1.2 Epoxy Resin

 6

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The GFRP composites has wide number of applications in automobile and construction sites.
Mainly the composites are used to reduce weight and enhance the performance and strength.
The journals of GFRP composite has been summarized as the applications suits as follows:
Amal A.M. Badawy suggested that the impact behaviour of glass fibres reinforced
polyester (GFRP) was experimentally investigated using notched Izod impact test specimen.
The experimental program was carried out on unidirectional laminate of GFRP in directions
0_, 45_ and 90_ in addition to cross-ply laminate ð0=90=_0Þs. The effect of fibre volume
fraction, Vf% (16%, 23.2% and 34.9%) was considered. The impact specimens were tested
after exposure to temperatures of 10 K, 20 K, 50 K and 80 K for exposure time of 1 h and 3
h. Test results showed that the effect of exposure temperature and fibre volume fraction on
impact strength of GFRP composite depends on the parameter controlling the mode of
failure, i.e. matrix or fibre. The failure characteristic changed from fibre pull-out to fibre
breakage with increasing the exposure temperature.
Yoon Ji Yim explained the composites used in automotive industry because they
are lightweight as well as strong enough to withstand harsh conditions including incredible
stress and strain. The composite strut top plate is designed to reinforce the car’s strut tower
that affects alignment and structural rigidity. Tensile, flexural, and impact tests were carried
out to determine the properties of woven fabric laminated composite w.r.t. stacking
sequences and analyse the stress on the composite strut top plate. The optimum dimensions of
glass reinforced epoxy composite strut top plate were suggested using the FE analysis results.
Morris Hassan suggested that the improved deflection composite jounce bumper
for a vehicle suspension strut. The bumper comprises an inverted metal cup-shaped shell
insert embedded within a moulded elastomeric body. The body defines a hollow elongated
sleeve portion which surrounds a piston rod upper end with its upper portion in turn
concentrically surrounded by the annular side wall of the shell. The sleeve portion has a
predetermined height such that upon its lower end face impacting on the strut support casing
upper end cap an initially high spring dampening rate is achieved. The shell outer side wall is
operative to restrict the expansion of the sleeve portion as it undergoes progressive controlled
deformation and compaction providing a substantially uniform spring rate while obviating
over stressing of the jounce bumper.
 7

M.kuhl explained and suggested that the Brittle fracture of fiberglass reinforced
polymer (FRP) rods can lead to mechanical failures of composite insulators even at low
mechanical loads during operational service. In order to find countermeasures against brittle
fracture, a study was carried out in the early eighties. It turned out that brittle fracture is a
problem of FRP material and that material compositions exist, resistant to brittle fracture.
This study deals with details of brittle fracture of FRP rods. Test setups were established to
induce brittle fracture artificially It was realized that brittle fracture is some kind of stress
corrosion related to the composition of the FRP material. A broad variety of FRP materials
was evaluated, showing the influence of the components of FRP material on the brittle
fracture behaviour of FRP rods as well as the effects of different manufacturing processes.
The compositions of brittle fracture resistant FRP rods are disclosed. The results from
artificial testing are compared with brittle fracture of FRP rods that occurred in composite
insulators in operational service. Although no quantitative correlation could be established,
the trend concerning the material behaviour of FRP rods is similar.
K. Vogel suggested that the mechanical properties of fibre-reinforced composites are
essential for the design of new lightweight structures. Therefore, digital image correlation and
strain gages
are utilized to measure the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of unidirectional and biaxial
reinforced glass fibre-reinforced composites in parallel. While the Young’s modulus of
unidirectional reinforced samples obtained by the different measurements methods is in the
same range, larger deviations occur for the Poisson’s ratio. Furthermore, the influence of
embroidered sensors on the stiffness is characterized for biaxial reinforced samples.

V. Nagaradjane explained and suggested that the strengthening of structures using

Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) shows better promise for extending the life span of
structures. The advantages of using FRP include light weight, ease of installation, minimal
labour costs and site constraints, high strength-to-weight and durability. The objective of this
work is to evaluate the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams with externally
bonded FRP reinforcement. Beams bonded with four different types of Glass Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) having 3.50 mm thickness were used. Totally five rectangular
beams of 3 m length were cast. One beam was used as reference beam and the remaining
beams were provided with GFRP laminates on their soffit. The variable considered for the
study is type of GFRP laminate. The study parameters of this investigation included first
crack load, yield load, ultimate load, first crack deflection, yield deflection, ultimate
 8

deflection, crack width, deflection ductility, energy ductility, deflection ductility ratios and
energy ductility ratios of the test beams.
The performance of FRP plated beams was compared with that of unplated beam. The
test results showed that the beams strengthened with GFRP laminates exhibited better
performance.
Vikram s. Deshpande suggested that the dynamic out-of-plane compressive response
of E-glass composite corrugated sandwich cores have been measured for impact velocities
ranging from quasistatic to 175 ms1. Laboratory scale sandwich cores of relative density N
33% were manufactured from 3D woven E-glass and stitched to S2-glass face-sheets via a
double line of Kevlar yarn. Two variants of the sandwich cores were investigated: sandwich
cores with the empty spaces between the corrugations filled with a PVC foam, and unfilled
corrugations. The stresses on the rear faces of the dynamically compressed sandwich cores
were measured using a direct impact Kolsky bar. The compression tests on both the
corrugated cores and the parent strut wall material confirmed that these relatively high
relative density corrugated cores failed by microbuckling of the strut wall material under
quasistatic loading. Moreover, the foam filling did not have any significant effect on the
measured responses. The peak stresses of both the strut wall material and corrugated cores
increased approximately linearly with strain rate for applied strain rates less than about 4000
s�1. This increase was attributed to the strain rate sensitivity of the composite matrix
material that stabilised the microbuckling failure mode of the E-glass composite. At higher
applied strain rates the response was reasonably rate insensitive with compressive crushing of
the glass fibres being the dominant failure mode. A simple model utilising the measured
dynamic properties of the strut wall material accurately predicts the measured peak strengths
of the filled and unfilled corrugated cores.
Dawn C. Jegley suggested that the structural efficiency of glass-epoxy tapered struts
is considered through trade studies, detailed analysis, manufacturing and experimentation.
Since some of the lunar lander struts are more highly loaded than struts used in applications
such as satellites and telescopes, the primary focus of the effort is on these highly loaded
struts The trade study results indicate that the most efficient glass-epoxy struts are 30 percent
lighter than the most efficient aluminum-lithium struts. Structurally efficient, highly loaded
struts were fabricated and loaded in tension and compression to determine if they met the
design requirements and to verify the accuracy of the analyses. Experimental evaluation of
some of these struts demonstrated that they could meet the greatest Altair loading
requirements in both tension and compression.
 9

CHAPTER 3

PROJECT OBJECTIVE

By using GFRP composites the enhancement in strengthening of strut and weight

reduction is to be achieved and to reduce vibrations. Glass Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites can be considered a new class of construction material when compared with
classical materials such as steel, concrete, timber and masonry. The relatively recent and
growing interest in FRP in the domain of structural engineering can be traced to its
advantageous properties like very high strength to weight ratio, electromagnetic neutrality,
excellent fatigue behaviour, superior durability including corrosion resistance. The GFRP
composite materials will be optimized in function of structural performance for appliance in a
new field of applications (infrastructure and tunnel).The expected performance/impact on
defined needs are: by using of a new GFRP reinforcement it will be possible to save cost by
using less concrete and longer life to the structure. The main advantages are no corrosion,
lighter material, no conductivity. Even from environmental point of view this product can be
considered as an environmental friendly material, it is well know that much less energy is
needed, compared to steel and aluminium, to produce composite material. Application of
GFRP composites in automobile strut in cars, Light motor vehicle to reduce permanent
deformation, cracking and to increase the structural rigidity.
 10

PROJECT METHODOLOGY:
 11

CHAPTER 4
AUTOMOBILE STRUT
4.1 INTRODUCTION

The components of automobile chassis, struts can be passive braces to reinforce the
chassis and/or body, or active components of the suspension. An automotive suspension strut
combines the primary function of a shock absorber, with the ability to support sideways loads
not along its axis of compression, somewhat similar to a sliding pillar suspension, thus
eliminating the need for an upper suspension arm. This means that a strut must have a more
rugged design, with mounting points near its middle for attachment of such loads. The most
common form of strut is the MacPherson strut. MacPherson struts are often purchased by the
automakers in sets of four completed sub-assemblies: These can be mounted on the car
bodies as part of the manufacturers' own assembly operations. The MacPherson strut
combines a shock absorber and a spring in a single unit, by means of which each wheel is
attached to the car body. Transportation-related struts are used in "load bearing" applications
ranging from both highway and off-road suspensions to automobile hood and hatch window
supports to aircraft wing supports. The majority of struts feature a bearing, but only for the
cases, when the strut mounts operate as steering pivots. For such struts, the bearing is the
wear item, as it is subject to constant impact of vibration and its condition reflects both wheel
alignment and steering response. In vehicle suspension systems, struts are most commonly an
assembly of coil-over spring and shock absorber. Other variants to using a coil-over spring as
the compressible load bearer include support via pressurized nitrogen gas acting as the spring,
and rigid (hard tail) support which provides neither longitudinal compression/extension nor
damping. Signs of strut failure include a popping or clicking noise when the steering wheel of
the vehicle is turned, especially when the vehicle is not in motion. This noise is caused by a
worn out bearing. Most strut failure is gradual, and becomes evident as a more "trampoline"-
like ride, rough travel over bumps, and tire noise/ vibrations. This wear affects all of the strut
components in a feedback loop: the more worn out the shock absorbers become, the more
worn out the spring will become, the more worn out the mount will become, and the more
this will affect the shock absorbers. A tendency for the front of the vehicle to "nose dive"
when applying the brakes and to rear upwards when accelerating are other signs of strut
failure, as is difficulty handling the vehicle generally.
 12

4.2 TYPES OF AUTOMOBILE STRUT:

4.2.1 Mcpherson Strut:

A MacPherson strut uses a wishbone, or a substantial compression link stabilized by a

secondary link, which provides a mounting point for the hub carrier or axle of the wheel. This
lower arm system provides both lateral and longitudinal location of the wheel. The upper part
of the hub carrier is rigidly fixed to the bottom of the outer part of the strut proper; this slides
up and down the inner part of it, which extends upwards directly to a mounting in the body
shell of the vehicle. The line from the strut's top mount to the bottom ball joint on the control
arm gives the steering axis inclination. The strut's axis may be angled inwards from the
steering axis at the bottom, to clear the tyre; this makes the bottom follow an arc when
steering. To be really successful, the MacPherson strut required the introduction
of unitary construction, because it needs a substantial vertical space and a strong top mount,
which unibodies can provide, while benefiting them by distributing stresses. This strut is
shown below in figure 4.2.The strut will usually carry both the coil spring on which the body
is suspended and the shock absorber, which is usually in the form of a cartridge mounted
within the strut. The strut can also have the steering arm built into the lower outer portion.
The whole assembly is very simple and can be preassembled into a unit; also by eliminating
the upper control arm, it allows for more width in the engine compartment, which is useful
for smaller cars, particularly with transverse-mounted engines such as most front wheel
drive vehicles have. It can be further simplified, if needed, by substituting an anti-roll bar for
the radius arm. For those reasons, it has become almost ubiquitous with low cost
manufacturers. Furthermore, it offers an easy method to set suspension geometry.

Figure 4.2. Mcpherson Strut

 13

4.2.2 CHAMPMAN’S STRUT:

Chapman struts were introduced in Lotus' first single-seater car, the Lotus
Twelve. This was developed as a 1.5-litre Formula 2 in 1957, but re-engine in 1958 it also
competed in Formula 1. This same car also introduced Lotus' wobbly-web wheel. There were
two differences from these precursors to the Chapman strut. As the Lotus Twelve had inboard
disk brakes, there was no need to pass the braking torque through the radius rods. Chapman
also avoided the swing axle and its camber changes with suspension travel, in favour of a
drive shaft with two universal joints. The connection between the hub carrier and the shock
absorber base was made rigid, making the spring unit into a strut and also controlling the
camber angle. Using the drive shaft itself to control the rear track meant that the shaft could
be of fixed length, avoiding the need for a sliding spline joint and its satiation problems.

4.2.3 DOUBLE WHISHBONE STRUT:

Double wishbone suspension is an independent suspension design using two

(occasionally parallel) wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone or arm has
two mounting points to the chassis and one joint at the knuckle. The shock absorberand coil
spring mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. Double wishbone designs allow
the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension travel,
controlling such parameters as camber angle, caster angle, toe pattern, roll
centre height, scrub radius, scuff and more. This strut is shown below in the Fiqure 4.3

Figure 4.3 Double Wishbone Strut

 14

4.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

• Maintenance cost is high.

• Manufacturing is difficult.
• Polishing cost for stainless steel is higher.
• Material requirement is more.
• Thermal conductivity is poor.

4.4 PROBLEM DEFNITION

• Composite fibres acts as a good load bearing member.

• Manufacturing is easier.
• High load carrying capacity.
• Heavy compressive strength and provides more compression than steel.
• Reduction in weight leads to increase in performance.
 15

CHAPTER 5
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS
The modelling of strut is carried out by solid works software 2016.
The Isometric view of the automobile strut model is shown in the figure and it is carried out
by means of solidworks 2016.

Fiqure 5.1 Isometric View of the Automobile Strut Model

The Front view of the automobile strut model is shown in the figure and it is carried out by
means of solidworks 2016.

Figure 5.2 Front view of the Automobile Strut Model

 16

The Top view of the automobile strut model is shown in the figure and it is carried out by
means of solidworks 2016.

Figure 5.3 Top View of the Automobile Strut Model

The Side view of the automobile strut model is shown in the figure and it is carried out by
means of solidworks 2016.

Figure 5.4 Side view of the Automobile strut

 17

CHAPTER 6
CALCULATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GFRP
COMPOSITES
6.1 CALCULATION OF LAMINA:
6.1.1 Volume Fractions (By Rule of Mixtures):
𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚 = 1
FIBRE content-60% & MATRIX content- 40% (Taken)
𝑣𝑓 60
𝑉𝑓 = = =0.60
𝑣𝑐 100
𝑣𝑚 40
𝑉𝑚 = = =0.40
𝑣𝑐 100

0.4+0.6 =1
𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚 = 1

6.1.2 DENSITY FRACTIONS

Specific gravity of glass fibre= 2.5 (Data from “Mechanics of composite
materials”)
By rule of mixtures,
𝜌𝑐= 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝜌𝑓
= Specific gravity
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑑

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑓 = 2.5 × 1000 = 2500
𝑚3
Specific Gravity of matrix= 1.2 (Data from “Mechanics of Composite
Materials”)
𝜌𝑚
= 1.2
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑑

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑚 =1.2 × 1000 = 1200
𝑚3

𝜌𝑐= 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
 18

= (1200 × 0.4) + (2500 × 0.6)

𝑘𝑔
ρc = 1980
𝑚3

6.1.3 WEIGHT FRACTIONS:

By rule of mixtures: 𝑊𝑓+ 𝑊𝑚 = 1

𝜌𝑓
𝑊𝑓 = × 𝑉𝑓
𝜌𝑐
2500
= × 0.40
1980
𝑊𝑓 = 0.51
𝜌𝑚
𝑊𝑚 = × 𝑉𝑚
𝜌𝑐
1200
= × 0.60
1980
𝑊𝑚 = 0.49
𝑊𝑓+ 𝑊𝑚 = 1

Mass of the fibre 𝑤𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 × 𝑣𝑓

Volume of the fibre 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑉𝑓 × 𝑣𝑐

VOLUME OF THE COMPOSITE,

= l× 𝑏 × ℎ
Assuming l =0.25m, b=0.15m, h=0.003m
=0.25× 0.15 × 0.003
vc =1.125× 10−4 m3
WEIGHT OF FIBRE AND MATRIX
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 × 𝑣𝑐
= (0.6× 1.125 × 10−4 )
 19

𝑣𝑚 = 6.75× 10−5 m3
= 0.4 × (1.125 × 10-4 )
𝑣𝑓 = 4.5 × 10-5 m3

𝑊𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 × 𝑣𝑓

𝑊𝑓 = 90 g (calculated)

𝑤𝒎 = 𝜌𝑚 × 𝑣𝑚
𝑤𝒎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔 g (calculated)
6.1.4 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS:

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑓 + 𝐸𝑚 𝑉𝑚

𝐸𝑓 = 85 𝐺𝑃𝑎 (Data from “Mechanics of composite materials”)

𝐸𝑚 = 3.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎
= (85 × 0.4) + (0.6 × 3.4) × 109
𝐸𝑥 = 36.04 𝐺𝑃𝑎
(𝐸𝑓 +𝐸𝑚 +(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑚 )𝑉𝑓 )
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑚
(𝐸𝑓 +𝐸𝑚 −(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑚 )𝑉𝑓 )

(85×109 )+(3.4×109 )+((85−3.4)109 )0.4)

= (3.4 × 10 )
9
((85+3.4)×109 ) −(85−3.4)×109 )0.4)

𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑦 = 7.38GPa

6.1.5 DETERMINATION OF SHEAR MODULUS:

(𝐺𝑓 + 𝐺𝑚 + (𝐺𝑓 − 𝐺𝑚 )𝑉𝑓 )
𝐺𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝑚
(𝐺𝑓 + 𝐺𝑚 − (𝐺𝑓 − 𝐺𝑚 )𝑉𝑓 )

=1.31 ×
(35.42× 109 )+( 1.31×109 )+(35.42 −1.31)× 109 ×0.4)
109
((35.42× 109 )+(1.31× 109 ) −(35.42−1.31)× 109 ×0.4))

𝐺𝑥𝑦 = 0.77421GPa
𝐸𝑦
𝐺𝑧𝑥 = 𝐺𝑦𝑧 =
(2+2𝛾23 )
 20

7.38×109
=
(2+2(0.512))

𝐺𝑧𝑥 = 𝐺𝑦𝑧 = 2.77 GPa

6.1.6 DETERMINATION OF POISSON’S RATIO:

𝛾 12 = 𝛾 𝑓 𝑉𝑓 + 𝛾 𝑚 𝑉𝑚

= ((0.2) (0.4)) + (0.3) (0.6))

𝛾 12 = 0.26
𝐸𝑚
(1 + 𝛾𝑚 − 𝛾12 (
𝐸1 ))
𝛾13 = 𝛾23 = 𝛾12
2 + 𝛾 𝛾 (𝐸𝑚 )
(1 − 𝛾𝑚 𝑚 12 𝐸
1
3.4
(1 + 0.3 − (0.225 ( ))
= 0.225 36
3.4
(1 − 0.32 + (0.3 × 0.225) ( ))
36

1.288157
= 0.225 ( ) =0.512
0.91353

DETERMINATION OF STRAIN: (Formula from “Mechanics of composite

materials”)
 21

6.1.7STRESS-CALCULATION:
𝑃
𝜀𝑥 = (assuming design load=1KN)
𝐴𝐸𝑥

1000
=
.25×0.15×36.6×109

= 7.9273 × 10−7
−𝛾𝑃
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 =
𝐴𝐸
−0.225×1000
=
0.25×.15×64.6×109

𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = −1.108664 × 10−7
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥 𝜀𝑥 = 64.6 × 109 × 7.9273 × 10−7

= 28.998 𝐾𝑃𝑎 (TENSILE)

𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐸𝑦 𝜀𝑦 = 𝐸𝑧 𝜀𝑧
= 7.8 × 109 × −1.108664 × 10−7
= −0.864 𝐾𝑃𝑎
= 0. 864 𝐾𝑃𝑎 (COMPRESSIVE)
 22

6.2CALCULATION OF LAMINATE
6.2.1 Stiffness Matrix
1 1
𝑆11 = = = 1.9098 × 10−11 𝑃𝑎−1
𝐸𝑥 52.36 × 109
𝛾12 −0.24
𝑆12 = - = = −4.5836 × 10−12 𝑃𝑎−1
𝐸𝑥 52.36 × 109

1 1
𝑆22 = = =0.6988 × 10−10 𝑃𝑎−1
𝐸𝑦 14.31 × 109

1 1
𝑆66 = = = 2.17 × 10−10 𝑃𝑎−1
𝐺12 4.61 × 109
𝛾12 𝐸
2
𝛾21 = =0.057385
𝐸1

6.2.2 Reduced Stiffness Matrix

𝐸1
𝑄11 =
1−(𝛾12 𝛾21 )

52.36 × 109
=
1−(0.24 ×0.05738)

𝑄11 = 5.309 × 1010 Pa

𝐸1
𝑄11 =
1−(𝛾12 𝛾21 )

52.36 × 109
=
1−(0.24 ×0.05738)

𝑄11 = 5.309 × 1010 Pa

𝛾12 𝐸2
𝑄12 =
(1− 𝛾12 𝛾21 )

0.24 ×14.308 × 109

=
(1−0.24 ×0.05738)

𝑄12 = 3.482 × 109 Pa

𝐸2
𝑄22 =
(1 − 𝛾12 𝛾21 )

= 1.45077 × 1010 𝑃𝑎
 23

𝑄66 = 𝐺12

= 4.61 × 109 𝑃𝑎
6.2.3 Laminate Stiffness Matrix
At𝟎𝟎 :
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑄11 = 𝑄11 𝐶 4 +𝑄22 𝑠 4 +2(𝑄12 +2𝑄66 ) 𝑠 2 𝐶 2
= 53.1 GPa
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑄12 = (𝑄11 +𝑄22 +2(𝑄12 − 4𝑄66 ) 𝑠 2 𝐶 2
= 3.482 GPa
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑄22 = (𝑄11 𝑠 4 +𝑄22 𝐶 4 )
= 14.51 GPa
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑄16 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑄26 = 0
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑄66 =4.61 GPa

6.2.4 Calculation Of [A] Matrix

ℎ 15
ℎ0 = -( ) =-( ) =0.0075 m
2 2
ℎ 15
ℎ1 = -( ) +𝑡1 =-( ) +5 =-0.0025 m
2 2
15
ℎ2 = ( ) - 5 =0.0025 m
2
15
ℎ3 = = 0.0075 m
2

3
𝐴𝑖𝑗 =𝛴𝑘=1 [𝑄 − 𝑖𝑗 ]𝑘 ( ℎ𝑘 - ℎ𝑘−1 ) (“Mechanics of composite materials”)

0.56 0.145 0.115

[A] =[0.145 0.269 0.065] × 109
0.115 0.065 0.162
 24

6.2.5 Calculation Of [B] Matrix

ℎ 15
ℎ0 = - ( ) =-( ) =0.0075 m
2 2
ℎ 15
ℎ1 = - ( ) +𝑡1 =-( ) +5 =-0.0025 m
2 2
15
ℎ2 = ( ) - 5 =0.0025 m
2
15
ℎ3 = = 0.0075 m
2

13
𝐵𝑖𝑗 = 𝛴𝑘=1 [𝑄− 𝑖𝑗 ]𝑘 ( ℎ𝑘 2 - ℎ𝑘−1 2 )
2

−7.49 × 10−4 8.24 × 10−3 2.48 × 10−4

9 2
[B] =[ 8.24 × 10−3 9.44 × 10−4 2.32 × 10−4 ] × 10 (Pa -𝑚 )
2.48 × 10−4 2.32 × 10−4 4.94 × 10−4

6.2.6 Calculation of [D] Matrix

ℎ 15
ℎ0 = - ( ) =-( ) =0.0075 m
2 2
ℎ 15
ℎ1 = - ( ) +𝑡1 =-( ) +5 =-0.0025 m
2 2
15
ℎ2 = ( ) - 5 =0.0025 m
2
15
ℎ3 = = 0.0075 m
2
13
𝐷𝑖𝑗 = 𝛴𝑘=1 [𝑄− 𝑖𝑗 ]𝑘 ( ℎ𝑘 3 - ℎ𝑘−1 3 )
3

1.07 × 10−5 6.50 × 10−6 1.47 × 10−6

[D] = [2.49 × 10−6 5.29 × 10−6 1.29 × 10−6 ] × 109 (Pa.𝑚3 )
1.47 × 10−6 1.25 × 10−5 2.81 × 10−6
Above all referred from the book “Mechanics of composite materials”
 25

CHAPTER 7
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF GFRP COMPOSITE
7.1 Compression Moulding
Compression Moulding is a method of moulding in which the moulding material,
generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mould is closed with
a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all
mould areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the moulding material has cured.
The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of
granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

Compression moulding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for moulding

complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can
also be compression moulded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented
fibre mat or chopped strand. The advantage of compression moulding is its ability to mould
large, fairly intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost moulding methods compared
with other methods such as transfer moulding and injection moulding; moreover it wastes
relatively little material, giving it an advantage when working with expensive compounds.

However, compression moulding often provides poor product consistency and

difficulty in controlling flashing, and it is not suitable for some types of parts. Fewer knit
lines are produced and a smaller amount of fibre-length degradation is noticeable when
compared to injection moulding. Compression-moulding is also suitable for ultra-large basic
shape production in sizes beyond the capacity of extrusion techniques. Materials that are
typically manufactured through compression moulding include: Polyester fiberglass resin
systems (SMC/BMC), Torlon, Vespel, Poly(p-phenylene sulfide) (PPS), and many grades
of PEEK.

Compression moulding was first developed to manufacture composite parts for metal
replacement applications, compression moulding is typically used to make larger flat or
moderately curved parts. This method of moulding is greatly used in manufacturing
automotive parts such as hoods, fenders, scoops, spoilers, as well as smaller more intricate
parts. The material to be moulded is positioned in the mould cavity and the heated platens are
closed by a hydraulic ram. The compression moulding machine is shown below in the
Fiqure7.1
 26

Bulk moulding compound (BMC) or sheet moulding compound (SMC), are

conformed to the mould form by the applied pressure and heated until the curing reaction
occurs. SMC feed material usually is cut to conform to the surface area of the mould. The
mould is then cooled and the part removed.

Figure 7.1-Compression Moulding Machine

7.2 FILAMENT WINDING PROCESS:

Filament winding is a fabrication technique mainly used for manufacturing open

(cylinders) or closed end structures (pressure vessels or tanks). This process involves winding
filaments under tension over a rotating mandrel. The mandrel rotates around the spindle (Axis
1 or X: Spindle) while a delivery eye on a carriage (Axis 2 or Y: Horizontal) traverses
horizontally in line with the axis of the rotating mandrel, laying down fibres in the desired
pattern or angle. The most common filaments are glass or carbon and are impregnated in a
 27

bath with resin as they are wound onto the mandrel. Once the mandrel is completely covered
to the desired thickness, the resin is cured.

Depending on the resin system and its cure characteristics, often the rotating mandrel
is placed in an oven or placed under radiant heaters until the part is cured. Once the resin has
cured, the mandrel is removed or extracted, leaving the hollow final product. For some
products such as gas bottles, the 'mandrel' is a permanent part of the finished product forming
a liner to prevent gas leakage or as a barrier to protect the composite from the fluid to be
stored. Filament winding is well suited to automation, and there are many applications, such
as pipe and small pressure vessel that are wound and cured without any human intervention.
The controlled variables for winding are fibre type, resin content, wind angle, tow or
bandwidth and thickness of the fibre bundle. The angle at which the fibre has an effect on the
properties of the final product. A high angle "hoop" will provide circumferential strength,
while lower angle patterns (either polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal / axial
tensile strength.

Figure 7.2-Filament Winding Process

7.3 HAND LAYUP PROCESS:

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The

infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are quite
simple. First of all, a release gel is sprayed on the mould surface to avoid the sticking of
polymer to the surface. Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mould plate
 28

to get good surface finish of the product. Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or
chopped strand mats are cut as per the mould size and placed at the surface of mould after
3empera sheet.

Then thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion

with a prescribed hardener (curing agent) and poured onto the surface of mat already placed
in the mould. The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush. Second layer of mat is
then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-
polymer layer to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present. The process is
repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After placing
the plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mould plate which is
then kept on the stacked layers and the pressure is applied. After curing either at room
temperature or at some specific temperature, mould is opened and the developed composite
part is taken out and further processed. The time of curing depends on type of polymer used
for composite processing. For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing time at room
temperature is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer based
composites. Capital and infrastructural requirement is less as compared to other methods.
Production rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the
processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft
components, automotive parts, boat hulls, daises board, deck etc.,

Figure 7.3 –Hand Layup Process

 29

7.4 SPRAY LAY-UP PROCESS

The spray lay-up technique can be said to be an extension of the hand lay-up method.
In this technique, a spray gun is used to spray pressurized resin and reinforcement which is in
the form of chopped fibres.

Generally, glass roving is used as a reinforcement which passes through spray gun
where it is chopped with a chopper gun. Matrix material and reinforcement may be sprayed
simultaneously or separately one after one. Spray release gel is applied on to the mould
surface to facilitate the easy removal of component from the mould. A roller is rolled over the
sprayed material to remove air trapped into the lay-ups. After spraying fibre and resin to
required thickness, curing of the product is done either at room temperature or at elevated
temperature. After curing, mould is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and
further processed further. The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for composite
processing. The schematic of the spray lay-up process is shown. Spray lay-up method is used
for lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath tubs, fairing of trucks etc. This method
provides high volume fraction of reinforcement in composites and virtually, there is no part
size limitation in this technique.

Figure 7.4 –Spray Layup Process

 30

CHAPTER 8

FABRICATION

8.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING

Compression Moulding is a method of moulding in which the moulding material,

generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mould is closed with
a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all
mould areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the moulding material has cured.
The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of
granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

Figure 8.1 Male Die

Figure 8.2 Female Die

 31

8.2 WEIGHT RATIO

The weight ratio is calculated based on volume of die density and volume
fraction of fibre and epoxy resin. Weight of fibre = 90gm, Weight of the rein = 156gm.

FIGURE 8.2 WEIGHING MACHINE

FIGURE 8.2 WEIGHING MACHINE

 32

8.3 FABRICATED PRODUCT:

The fabrication by compression moulding machine according to ASTM STANDARD

has been prepared as is shown in the figure 8.3

Figure 8.3 Fabricated GFRP Composite

8.4 STRUT MODEL BY GFRP COMPOSITE

The strut model has been prepared by hand lay-up method as shown in figure 8.4

Figure 8.4 Strut Model

 33

CHAPTER 9
ANALYSIS AND TEST RESULTS
9.1 TESNILE TEST
Common standards for the tensile testing of laminates are ASTM D 3039, EN 2561,
EN 2597, ISO 527-4, and ISO 527-5. The specimens are parallel sided with bonded tabs to
prevent the grip jaws from damaging the material and causing premature failures.

9.1.1 Numerical Values for Tensile Test

FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

NODAL DISPLACEMENT PLOT

 34

VON MISES STRESS PLOT

SERIAL NUMBER AREA OF THE YIELD LOAD(N) NUMERICAL
SPECIMEN VALUES FOR YIELD
(𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) STRESS (MPa)
1. 0.9 294.3 1.55

2. 0.9 842.19 5.3

3. 0.9 828.8469 4.45

Table 9.1.1 Tensile test

9.2 COMPRESSION TEST
Common composites compression test standards include: ASTM D695, ASTM D3410,
ASTM D6641, ISO 14126, and prEN 2850.
9.2.1 Numerical Values for Compression Test
 35

FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

NODAL DISPLACEMENT PLOT

VON MISES STRESS PLOT

SERIAL NUMBER AREA OF THE YIELD LOAD(N) NUMERICAL

SPECIMEN VALUES FOR YIELD
(𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) STRESS (MPa)
1. 0.9 156.76 0.201

2. 0.9 29.43 0.21

3. 0.9 29.8 0.19

Table 9.2.1 Compression test

 36

9.3 FLEXURAL TEST

FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

NODAL DISPLACEMENT PLOT

VON MISES STRESS PLOT

 37

9.3.1 Numerical values for flexural test

SERIAL NUMBER AREA OF THE YIELD LOAD(N) NUMERICAL
SPECIMEN VALUES FOR YIELD
(𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) STRESS (MPa)
1. 0.9 37.5 0.35

2. 0.9 35.4 0.4

3. 0.9 35 0.2

Table 9.3.1 Flexural test

9.4 TESTING
ASTM's composite standards are instrumental in the evaluation and determination of
the physical, shear, tensile, flexural, and compressive properties of various forms of
composite materials used in structural applications. Various test have been carried out for our
application.
 Tensile test
 Compression test
 Flexural test
 Hardness test
 Impact test
 SEM images

9.4.1 TENSILE TEST RESULTS:

In-plane tensile testing of plain composite laminates is the most common test. Tensile
tests are also performed on resin impregnated bundles of fibres (“tows”), through thickness
specimens (cut from thick sections of laminates), and sections of sandwich core materials.

Figure 9.4.1 Tensile Test Result

 38

9.4.2 COMPRESSION TEST RESULTS:

Composite compression test methods need to provide a means of introducing a

compressive load into the material while preventing it from buckling. Common composites
compression test standards include: ASTM D695, ASTM D3410, ASTM D6641, ISO 14126,
and prEN 2850.

Figure 9.4.2 Compression Test Result

9.4.3 FLEXURAL TEST RESULTS:

Flexural testing is used to determine the flex or bending properties of a material.

Sometimes referred to as a transverse beam test, it involves placing a sample between two
points or supports and initiating a load using a third point or with two points. ASTM
referred:D790-17.
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Figure 9.4.3 Flexural Test Result

9.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN ANSYS AND TESTED VALUES:

9.5.1 Tensile Test

SERIAL AREA OF YIELD EXPERIMENTAL NUMERICAL %ERROR

NUMBER THE LOAD(N) VALUES FOR VALUES
SPECIMEN YIELD FOR YIELD
(𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) STRESS(MPa) STRESS
(MPa)
1. 0.9 294.3 3.26 1.55 32
2. 0.9 842.19 9.38 5.3 25
3. 0.9 828.8469 9.34 4.45 20

Table 9.5.1 Tensile test

9.5.2 Compression Test

SERIAL AREA OF YIELD EXPERIMENTAL NUMERICAL

NUMBER THE LOAD(N) VALUES FOR VALUES %ERROR
SPECIMEN YIELD FOR YIELD
(𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) STRESS(MPa) STRESS
(MPa)
1. 0.9 37.5 0.43 0.35 25.2
2. 0.9 35.4 0.326 0.4 27.56
3. 0.9 35 0.3376 0.2 29

Table 9.5.2 Compression test

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9.5.3 Flexural Test

SERIAL AREA OF YIELD EXPERIMENTAL NUMERICAL %ERROR

NUMBER THE LOAD(N) VALUES FOR VALUES
SPECIMEN YIELD FOR YIELD
(𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) STRESS(MPa) STRESS
(MPa)
1. 0.9 37.5 605 299 26

2. 0.9 35.4 545 500 25.63

3. 0.9 35 646 380 30

Table 9.5.3 Flexural test

9.5.4 Hardness Test

SERIAL NUMBER DISTANCE(cm) SHORE’D HARDNESS

NUMBER
1. 7 63.75
2. 12 67.25
3. 21 59.5
AVERAGE 63.5

Table 9.5.4 Hardness test

9.5.5 SEM Images

FIBRE 60% AND RESIN 40%

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9.5.6 Impact test

SERIAL NUMBER SAMPLES IMPACT STRENGTH

JOULES

1 1 5

2 2 7

3 3 8

AVERAGE 7J

Table 9.5.6 Impact test

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CHAPTER 10

COST ANALYSIS

PRODUCT COST

EPOXY WITH HARDENER Rs.450

GLASS FIBRE Rs.1100(2 sq.m)

PVC PIPE Rs.60

POLY VINYL ALCOHOL Rs.150

HAND GLOVES Rs.100

TESTING OF SPECIMENS-TENSILE TEST Rs.450

COMPRESSION TEST Rs.450

FLEXURAL TEST Rs.450

IMPACT TEST Rs.450

TOTAL ESTIMATED COST Rs.3360

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CHAPTER 11

CONCLUSION

Where the composite material is replacing traditional material due its weight
saving property and economic cost due to which most of the industries work with
composite material it is very obvious that efficient only efficient manufacturing is not
enough to reduce the cost ,main thing is that design ,material, process ,tooling must
also taken to the consideration .composite materials will be widely used in aerospace,
marine, civil, automobile, sports, chemical industries, nano composite, natural fibre
composite, consumer and sport good etc. because of best construction capability and
also resist the vibration and absorb the shock.
Composites have made an entry into diverse end-user segments, with ongoing
developmental efforts for finding newer composites for existing & novel applications.
This growth is much evident, owing to the increasing demand of composite products,
majorly from aerospace, automobile, defence, railway, mass transportation, renewable
& wind energy, chemical and infrastructure. There are three main sectors that are
growing in India: marine with +25% expected growth, wind energy with +28%,
railways with 20% per year, while the automotive and aerospace industry is not far
behind. The use of composites in aerospace and defence sectors have shown rapid
technological developments. Extensive use of composites in applications such as
rockets, satellites, missiles, light combat aircraft, advanced light helicopter and trainer
air craft reinstates that India is at almost on par with the advanced countries in the
development and use of composites in this area. The building and construction sector
could do more to make optimum use of composite materials. An emerging interest is
the development of a new texture and touch to construction materials. This is a new
field being increasingly explored by architects and designers. The Indian composites
industry has grown significantly in the last two decades to cater to the requirements
from the various sectors. The Indian composites market, currently at about Rs.16,000
Crores, has been on an upswing over the last five years with a growth of 15.6%,
spurred by a strong demand in pipes & tanks, renewable energy (wind & solar
energy), mass transit, automotive, trucks, and power sector. India’s consumption of
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composites, which is expected to grow by 1.5 times from 2012 to 2017, undoubtedly
presents a host of new opportunities as well as challenges to the supply chain.

Figure 11 Composite Usage Chart

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CHAPTER 12
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