INTRODUCTION

MEANING OF RESEARCH

One can also define research as scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic. It is an art of scientific investigation.

According to V. Clover and H. Balsley “research is the process of systematically obtaining

accurate answers to significant and pertinent questions by the use of scientific method for
gathering and interpreting information”.

Research is a systematic investigation to search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Research helps to arrive at new conclusions. It enables to find solutions to certain problems.

Research is often referred to as scientific inquiry into a specific problem or situation. This is
because; the search for facts needs to be undertaken systematically and not arbitrarily. The
systematic approach to research enables the research to search for facts in a rational manner
and to arrive at logical conclusions, whereas, the arbitrary approach attempts to find solutions
to problems based on one's belief and imagination.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

Few of the many objectives of research are:

To verify and test existing laws or theories:

Research may be undertaken to verify and test existing laws or theories. Such verification and
testing of existing theories helps to improve the knowledge and ability to handle situations and
events.

To establish generalizations and general laws:

Research can be undertaken to establish generalizations and general laws' 1n a particular

society. In other words, statements of generality can be stated through research. For instance,
various laws, principles and models have been developed through research. The law of demand
and supply, the law of gravitation, etc., have been developed through observation,
experimentation, and other methods of research.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH

MAJOR TYPES OF
RESEARCH

BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

OTHER TYPES OF
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH

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 BASIC RESEARCH

Basic research is also called as pure or fundamental research. It is undertaken to develop a

theory or a body of knowledge. The main goal of basic research is to expand man’s
knowledge. For instance, basic research can be undertaken to study the origin of the universe.
Basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows.

Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the world. It focuses on refuting or
supporting theories that explain observed phenomena. Pure research is the source of most new
scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or
explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common.

Basic research generates new ideas, principles, and theories, which may not be immediately
utilized. However, the new theories or ideas form the basis of progress and development in
different fields. For instance, todays computers could not exist without research in pure
mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical application
at the time.

Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns; nevertheless, it
stimulates new ways of thinking that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically
improve how practitioners deal with a problem in the future.

APPLIED RESEARCH

Applied research is a scientific study designed to solve practical problems, rather than merely
acquiring knowledge. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, and
develop innovative technologies.

Psychologists working in human factors or organizations undertake applied research. The goal
of applied research is to improve the human condition. It is generally used to handle a particular
situation or to solve a particular problem.

For instance, a social research scholar may undertake research to find out job satisfaction of
college teachers affiliated to University of Mumbai. The research findings can be applied by
colleges or the University to improve the level of job satisfaction of the teachers. Also, a
research can be undertaken to study the job satisfaction of nurses in Govt. hospitals vis-à-vis
private hospitals in the city of Mumbai. The research findings can be used by Govt. hospitals
and private hospitals to improve the job satisfaction levels of the nurses.

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The applied research can be undertaken by business organizations as well. For instance, a
business organization may undertake applied research to find out the causes of poor sales of a
particular brand in the market. The research findings can be used to design necessary measures
to overcome the problem of poor sales.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the population or universe being
studied. But it can only describe the “who, what, when, where and how” of a situation. It does
not describe what caused a particular situation. Therefore, descriptive research is used when
the objective is to provide a systematic description that is as factual and accurate as possible.
It provides the number of times something occurs, or frequency of occurrence. It lends itself to
statistical calculations such as determining the average number of occurrences or central
tendencies. The two most common types of descriptive research methods include observation
method and the survey method.

One of its major limitations is that it cannot help determine what causes a specific behaviour,
motivation or occurrence. It cannot establish cause-effect relationship between variables. The
descriptive research provides facts of a particular event or situation. It gives a description of
the state of affairs, as it exists of a particular event or situation. The researcher has no control
over the situation or event. He can only report what has happened or what is happening. For
instance a researcher may report on the absenteeism in a particular organization or several
organizations in a particular industry or even in different industries. Details can be given for a
particular period - in terms of the total number of absentees, the number of days which the
employees have remained absent, the department or section in which there is more absenteeism,
the class of employees who remain absent the most, and such other details. The research will
not indicate why the employees remained absent.

Another example of descriptive research is in respect of the study to understand the general
pattern of buying behaviour of consumers during a particular season or- in general throughout
the year - the quantity of purchases, the frequency of purchases, the type of purchases, and so
on. This research will not provide answers as to why (reasons) the customers buy certain
quantity or quality or the reasons for low/ high frequency of purchases and so on.

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 ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

Analytical research is undertaken to collect facts or data, or the facts or data may be readily
available. The researcher attempts to critically evaluate such facts and data so as to arrive at
conclusions. This type of research may establish the cause and effect relationship. The
researcher may provide necessary recommendations to improve or solve the problem or to
handle certain situation.

A research may be conducted to find out the relationship between two variables such as
advertising and sales. For instance, the marketer sells the product in two periods say Period I
(January to March) and Period II (April to June). The marketer increases advertising in Period
II. The sales data indicate increase in sales in Period II. The marketer may like to know through
causal or analytical research whether or not advertising has caused the increase in sales during
Period II.

The analytical research helps to understand the cause-effect relationship between variables. It
also helps to focus on those variables that have greater positive effect, and to eliminate certain
variables that have negative effect on the situation.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Empirical Research can be defined as research based experimentation or observation.

Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation
or experience or experiment. Such research is conducted to test a hypothesis.

The word empirical means information gained by experience observation, or experiment. The
central theme in scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical which means it is based
on evidence. In scientific method the word empirical refers to the use of working hypothesis
that can be tested using observation and experiment.

Empirical evidence (based on one’s direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed

quantitatively or qualitatively. Through quantifying the evidence, a researcher can answer
empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence
collected. Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated. Many
researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions
which cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social sciences.

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 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many disciplines, especially in the

social sciences. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human
behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the
‘why and how’ of decision making, not just what, where, and when. Hence, smaller but focused
samples are more often used than large samples.

This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research, i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research
is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance
from experimental psychologists.

For instance, a research undertaken to find out the reasons as to why employees remain absent
from work or why people behave in certain manner. The motivational research is an important
type of qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural
sciences where the main aim is to find out the underlying motives of human behaviour.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is defined as ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that

are analysed using mathematically based methods.’ The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models, theories and / or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides
the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of
quantitative relationships. It is conclusive in its purpose as it tries to quantify the problem and
understand how prevalent it is by looking for projectable results to a larger population.

In quantitative research, the researcher asks a specific, narrow question and collects a sample
of numerical data from the respondents. The researcher analyzes the data with the help of

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statistics. The analysed data may provide unbiased result that can be generalized to some larger
population.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, asks broad questions and collects data from
participants. The researcher looks for themes and describes the information in themes and
patterns exclusive to that set of participants.

More generally, quantitative research is widely used in social sciences such as psychology,
economics, sociology, marketing, community health, health & human development, gender
and political science, and less frequently in anthropology and history.

OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified into various other types such as:

 Field research or laboratory research.

 One-time research or multi-period research.
 Conclusion-oriented research or decision oriented research.
 Historical research or current-situation research.
 Exploratory research

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 DATA PROCESSING

MEANING

After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes
data processing, data analysis, and data interpretation and presentation. Data processing
involves main stages such as editing, coding, classification, tabulation and graphic presentation
of data.

Data processing is a process of skillfully organizing data for the purpose of data analysis
and interpretation. Data processing can be done manually when the data collected is limited
or it can be done mechanically when the collected data involve huge quantities.

NEED FOR DATA PROCESSING

Data processing is the intermediary stage between data collection and data analysis. The
completed instruments of data collection, such as interview questionnaires, data sheets, and
field notes contain a vast mass of data. The collected data instruments are like raw materials
and therefore, they cannot straightaway provide answers to research questions. Therefore, there
is a need for skillful manipulation of data, i.e., data processing.

STAGES OF DATA PROCESSING

GRAPHIC
EDITING CODING CLASSIFICATION TABULATION REPRESENT
ATION

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 I. EDITING OF DATA

Editing is the process of checking errors and omissions in data collection, and making
corrections, if required. Editing is required when:

 There is inconsistency in responses given by the respondents.

 Respondents may provide incorrect or false responses.
 Some vague/ incomplete answers given by the respondents.
 No responses are provided by the respondents for certain questions.

The changes made by the editor must be done in separate ink preferably green ink or in pencil.
The ink should not match with the ink used by the respondent or interviewer.

Example:

A respondent may mark two options in the case of multiple choice responses, instead of only
one for a particular question. For instance, respondent may tick mark twice for a particular
question how often you read a newspaper the respondent may reply every day as well as once
in a week.

Types of Editing:

 Field Editing:

Editing undertaken at the time of field survey is called as field editing. At the time of interview,
the interviewer may use several abbreviations due to time constraint. These abbreviations need
to be spelt out fully, at the time of processing of data. The interviewer must also go through the
completed questionnaire to find out whether or not there is a need for completing partial or
correcting vague answers.

 Central Editing:
Editing done at the central office is called central editing. A single editor should carry out this
task so that consistency in editing can be ensured. But in the case of large studies, two or more
editors can handle the task. The multiple editors must be given proper guidelines for
consistency in editing. Sometimes, the entire questionnaire may be divided in two parts, and
each part can be edited by separate editor.

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 Importance of Editing
 Accuracy of Data;
Editing checks the accuracy of data collection. At times, the respondent may provide incorrect
responses to certain questions. The editor uses his judgement to correct the inconsistencies in
responses given by some respondents.
 Completeness of Data
Editing ensures completeness of data. At times, the respondents may provide responses only to
certain questions and not to all questions. Also, the responses to certain questions may be
incomplete, especially in the case of open ended questions. The editors may use judgement to
deduce proper answer to unanswered or incomplete responses based on other responses.

II. CODING OF DATA

It is a process of assigning codes to the various statements or questions in the questionnaire.

Coding is specially required when the sample size is large and there is large amount of data
collection from respondents. Coding facilitates proper tabulation and analysis of data.

Types of Coding

 Numerical Codes such as Code 1, Code 2, Code 3 and so on.

 Alphabetical Codes such as Code A, Code B, Code C and so on
 Alpha-Numerical Codes such as Code A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, etc.

Coding can be considered as an element of classification.

For example: The researcher may conduct a study on TV Viewership. The categories may be
Males (Code M) and Females (Code F). The main categories may be further divided into four
age groups:

 Upto 12 years
 13 to 19 years
 20 to 39 years
 40 years and above

Thus, there will be 8 codes = M1, M2, M3, M4 and F1, F2, F3, F4.

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 Significance of Coding

 Facilitates Classification of Data:

Coding facilitates classification of data. After providing codes to various responses, the data
can be classified into various categories. The coded responses can be classified into categories
such as age, gender, educational level, income level, area wise, occupation wise, and so on.

 Facilitates Tabulation of Data :

Since coding facilitate classification of data, it becomes easier for the researcher to tabulate the
data. The code responses are classified into different categories, and accordingly the data is
transferred to statistical tables. The tabulated data can then be used for analysis and
interpretation.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA.

It is the process of grouping of collected data into different categories. Therefore, coding is an
element of classification. The classification can be according to different categories: Age
Group Wise, Gender Wise, Educational Level Wise, Income Group Wise, Occupation Wise,
etc.
Each of the categories can be further divided into sub-groups. For example: The age group can
be further divided into different categories such as: Children, Teenagers, Young Adults, Middle
Aged, and Senior Citizens.

Significance of Classification

 Facilitates Speedy Searches of Data:

The classified data is easy to locate and to retrieve. The classified data helps in speeding up
data searches. For instance, the classified data can help an organization to retrieve quickly
certain data which may be required for legal and regulatory requirements within a set
timeframe.

 Grouping of Data :

Classification facilitates grouping of data into different categories. The collected data can be
grouped in different categories such as age, gender, education, etc. Each of the categories can
be further sub classified.

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 IV. TABULATION OF DATA

It refers to transferring the classified data in a tabular format for the purpose of analysis and
interpretation. It involves sorting of data into different categories and counting the number of
responses that belong to each category.

Methods of Tabulation:

Manual Tabulation:

When tabulation is done manually without the help of computers, it is called as manual
tabulation. Manual tabulation is possible when the number of variables is few and the sample
size is limited.

Mechanical Tabulation:

When tabulation is done with the help of computers, it is called as mechanical tabulation.
Mechanical tabulation is necessary when the number of variables is large and also the sample
size is large.

Significance of Tabulation

 Detects errors in Coding and Classification:

Tabulation may help to find out errors in coding and classification of data. For instance, certain
coded and classified data may not fit in the statistical table. Therefore this may require changes
in coding and classification of data.
 Ease in understanding of Data:
Tabulation helps the researcher to determine and communicate the findings in a form which
can be easily understood by others. For instance, the tabulated data may indicate high literacy
in one state as compared to another state. Therefore, one can easily understand that the former
state is more literate than the latter.

V. GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF DATA

The research data needs to be presented effectively for quick and clear understanding. Bar
graphs, pie charts, line graphs, histograms and other pictorial devices are an excellent means
to present the data.

Few ways of graphical representation are:

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 PIE CHART:

Sales

9%
10%

23% 58%

1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

A pie chart is a circular chart used to compare parts of the whole. It is divided into sectors that
are equal in size to the quantity represented. For instance, a pie chart is divided into different
parts to indicate percentage sales of a company during the year. The reader can understand at
a glance the relationship between various parts of a pie-chart.

BAR GRAPHS

A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values
that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally. A bar chart is very useful
for recording discrete data.
Importance of Graphical representation
 Quick Communication :
The graphs and charts can communicate the information at a glance. It does not take much time
to read and understand the message. One can easily understand the data presented in the bar
charts or pie diagrams,
 Condenses Large Volumes of Data:
Graphs and charts condense large amounts of information into easy-to-understand format.

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 TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
MEANING OF SAMPLE

A sample is a part of the universe that can be used as respondents to a survey or for the purpose
of experimentation, in order to collect relevant information to solve a particular problem.

Donald Tull and Dell Hawkins define sample as “those individuals chosen from the population
of interest as subjects in an experiment or to be the respondents to a survey.”

Thus, sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger population for
measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that we can
generalize the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SAMPLING IN RESEARCH

 Time Saving:
Sampling helps to save time in respect of collection and analysis of data. For instance, if 1000
respondents are selected out of total universe of 10 lakh, then data collection can be done at a
faster rate, and so also data analysis. Therefore, the researcher can get quick research results,
and accordingly he/she can take timely action.
 Overcomes Complexities:

Sampling helps to reduce complexities in research work. If a limited sample is used, then fewer
respondents are required to collect data. As a result, the researcher may require less time for
editing, coding, and interpretation of data. Therefore, the analysis can be quick and without
complexities.

MEANING OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability sampling is also known random sampling. Probability means possible chance.
Therefore, each element of the population has known chance or opportunity of being selected
or included in the sample. For example, if a sample of 100 students is to be selected from a
population of 1000 students, then each student has a 10% chance of being selected.

It is the only systematic and objective method of sampling that provides equal chance to every
element of the population in getting selected in the sample. The results of probability sampling
are more accurate and reliable.

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 METHODS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

SIMPLE RANDOM

PROBABILITY METHODS
SAMPLING

SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING

CLUSTER SAMPLING

STRATIFIED
SAMPLING

I. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

This is the most popular method which is normally followed to collect research data. This
technique provides every element or unit (such as household) an equal chance of being selected
in the sample. It is suitable for selecting a sample from a small homogeneous group like M.Com
students in the University of Mumbai or Upper Income Households in the city of Mumbai

Simple random sampling is a very basic type of sampling method and can easily be a
component of a more complex sampling method. The main attribute of this sampling method
is that every sample has the same probability of being chosen.

The sample size in this sampling method should ideally be more than a few hundred so that
simple random sampling can be applied in an appropriate manner. It is sometimes argued that
this method is theoretically simple to understand but difficult to practically implement.
Working with large sample size isn’t an easy task and it can sometimes be a challenge finding
a realistic sampling frame.

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 SUB- METHODS OF SIMPLE
RANDOM SAMPLING
METHOD

LOTTERY METHOD
Where each element is given a number
and then the numbers are mixed or
placed in a box or urn. By draw 0f lots,
the sample is selected.
RANDOM TABLES
The elements or units are given
numbers and the numbers are placed in
tows. The sample is selected from the
rows at random. For example, the
researcher may decide that all elements
in 2nd and 8th row to be the sample.

II. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

This technique is superior to simple random method. In this case, a sampling fraction is
calculated based on the total population under study. After the sampling fraction is calculated,
a certain number is selected at random and the process continues to select the sample size.

Formula: Skip Interval = Population Size

Sample Size

Example:

If the total population or universe is 500 and the sample size is 50 then the interval will be 10.
The population will be grouped into 10 groups of 50; then the skip interval will be 10.
Therefore, the population will be grouped into 10 groups of 50, i.e., 1 to 50, 51 to 100, 101 to
150 and so on.

A certain number is selected say ending with No. 5. So the sample will consist of 5, 15, 25, 35,
45 from the first group, 55, 65, 75, 85, 95 from the second group, 105, 115, 125, 135, 145 from
the third group, and so on.

Advantages of this methodology include eliminating the phenomenon of clustered selection

and a low probability of contaminating data.

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III. CLUSTER SAMPLING

Cluster sampling is also called as Area Sampling- Under this method, instead of selecting
individual units, the researcher divides the population into clusters or groups and accordingly
sample is selected.

For example:

If there are 500 people out of which 50 members to be selected, then the 500 people will be
first divided into certain groups based on certain characteristics or on the basis of area. If the
researcher wants to study the reading habits of the students of the University of Mumbai, then
the students may be divided into various groups on the basis of area, say Western Mumbai,
Eastern Mumbai, South Mumbai, and North Mumbai. If the total sample is 200 students boys
and girls, then 50 students can be selected from each zone.

Suitability

Area sampling or Cluster sampling method is employed where the population is concentrated
over a wide area and it is not possible to study the whole population at one stage.

Advantages:

Cluster sampling is less expensive and quicker. It is more economical to observe clusters of
units in a population than randomly selected units scattered over throughout the state.

The loss of precision per individual case is more than compensated for by the possibility of
studying larger samples for the same cost.

Cluster sampling procedure enables to obtain information from one or more areas.

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IV. STRATIFIED SAMPLING

The population is divided into various strata or segments based on income, occupation, age,
religion, gender, etc. After dividing the population into different segments, certain number of
sample members is selected from each stratum or segment.

METHODS OF
STRATIFIED
SAMPLING

Proportionate Stratified Sampling Disproportionate Stratified

Sampling
In this method, certain fixed
percentage is taken of each stratum There is no such fixed
to represent the sample. percentage considered to
represent the sample.

For example:

Income No. of Proportionate Disproportionate

Households sampling (1%) sampling
Upto Rs. 90000 20000 200 180
Rs. 90000 to 10 Lakh 5000 50 60
Rs. 10 Lakh to 100 Lakh 2000 20 30
Sample Size 270 270

Using stratified sampling, it may be possible to reduce the sample size required to achieve a
given precision. Or it may be possible to increase the precision with the same sample size.

Because it provides greater precision, a stratified sample often requires a smaller sample, which
saves money.

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 CONCLUSION
Hence, from this study we conclude that there are various types of research, out of which major
one’s have been explained such as Basic Research, Applied Research, Descriptive Research,
Analytical Research, Empirical Research, Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research and
various other types of research. Each type of research is used to obtain a different kind of data
and hence their use varies according to the object of research.

Research aids a business organization in many ways and hence is important to the organization.
It helps in development of correct product according to the tastes and needs of customers
through market research. Through research, areas where high costs are involved could be
identified and thus such costs could be controlled by the Firm to save money and avoid wastage
of resources.

Further, in this study we also covered the meaning, scope and stages of data processing and
their relative importance. Data processing is the organization of data so collected in a way that
conclusions can be drawn from such data and the purpose of research is furthered through this
process. The various stages in data processing include editing, coding, classification, tabulation
and graphical presentation of the data so collected.

Lastly, we also covered the types of probability sampling, wherein, four methods were studied
which included Simple Random Sampling where the samples are selected randomly by the
researcher, Systematic Sampling wherein the researcher would select the samples on basis of
a systematic formula, Cluster Sampling is a method wherein the Researcher divides the samples
into groups or clusters and then selects an entire cluster to perform his/her Research. The last
method of probability Sampling is Stratified sampling where the population is divided into
strata and samples are collected from each strata.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS REFERRED

Research Methodology for Business by Michael Vaz

Methodology of Research in Social Sciences by O.R Krishnaswami

WEBLIOGRAPHY

https://stattrek.com/survey-
research/stratified-sampling.aspx

https://www.questionpro.com/blog/sim
ple-random-sampling/
https://www.thh.nhs.uk/documents/_Depa
rtments/Research/InfoSheets/16_sampling
_research.pdf
https://www.mbaknol.com/research-
methodology/the-basic-types-of-research/

https://www.sisinternational.com/what-is-
quantitative-research/

https://www.scribd.com/document/26310
0029/Business-Research-Methods-Mcom-
Mcom-CA

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