Generated Voltage

The generated voltage of a synchronous generator is given by

E  K c f fe
where f = flux in the machine (function of If)
fe = electrical frequency
Kc= synchronous machine constant

If

Saturation characteristic of a synchronous generator.

 EMF Equation
According to Faraday’s law,
the induced emf in the armature coil of Nsta turns is given by:

d  link (t )
E s (t )  N sta Esta  Emax cos(t  90)
dt
 link (t )   rot cos( t ) Emax  N sta  rot 
N sta  rot 
E s (t )   N sta  rot  sin( t )
where Erms 
2
 N sta  rot  cos( t  90)
Erms  4.44 N sta  rot f
  2 f
Generator Application
– Power angle: Angle between the dc excitation current
generated induced voltage and the terminal voltage
X syn Rsta
Flux
Esta Ista Vt
DC

Loading: power is less than angle 90 deg

All generators in the system are connected in parallel
All generators rotates with the synchronous speed
The load can be increased by increasing the input mechanical
power by regulating the turbine impute power
The speed does not change, the power angle increases
Maximum power angle is 90 degree, beyond that operation is
unstable
 Equivalent Circuit
• The internal voltage Ef produced in a machine is not usually the
voltage that appears at the terminals of the generator.
• The only time Ef is same as the output voltage of a phase is when
there is no armature current flowing in the machine.
• There are a number of factors that cause the difference between Ef
and Vt :

– The distortion of the air-gap magnetic field by the current

flowing in the stator, called the armature reaction

– The self-inductance of the armature coils.

– The resistance of the armature coils.

– The effect of salient-pole rotor shapes.

 Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
• Just like 3-phase loads, it is useful to look at just a single
phase of the generator.

XS RS
A
Ia 
+
Einduced
EAN
-
N

Single-phase equivalent
3-Phase Generator
 Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
• EAN is the phase voltage of the a-phase Ia is the line
current
• Einduced is the induced armature voltage.
• RS is the resistance of the generator’s stator coil.
• XS is the synchronous reactance of the stator coil.

XS RS
A

Ia +
Einduced
EAN
-
N
 Synchronous Generator Equation Circuit.
(Armature Reaction)
• To model effect of armature reaction, note:
1- Estat lies at an angle of 90◦ behind plane of maximum current
IA
2- Estat directly proportional to IA and X is constant of
proportionality
 Estat = - jX IA
 voltage in one phase Vφ = EA- jX IA
• Following equation circuit can be developed
 Synchronous Generator Equation Circuit.
(Armature Reaction)
• Armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an
inductor in series with internal induced voltage
• In addition to armature reaction, stator coils have a
self-inductance and a resistance
• stator self-inductance named LA (its reactance XA) and
stator resistance is RA :
Vφ= EA – jXIA – jXAIA – RAIA
• Armature reaction & self-inductance in machine both
represented by reactance, normally they are combined
to a single reactance as : XS = X + XA
Vφ= EA – jXSIA – RAIA
 Synchronous Generator Equation Circuit.
(Armature Reaction)
• equivalent circuit of a 3 phase synchronous
generator can be shown as follows:
 Synchronous Generator Equation Circuit.
(Armature Reaction)
• Figure shows a dc source, supplying rotor winding,
modeled by coil inductance & resistance in series with
an adjustable resistor Radj that controls current
• Rest of equivalent circuit consists of model for each
phase
• the voltages and currents of each phase are 120◦ apart
with same magnitude
• Three phases can be connected in Y or Δ
• If connected in Y : VT = √3 Vφ
• If connected in Δ: VT = Vφ
 Synchronous Generator Equation Circuit.
(Armature Reaction)
• The per phase equivalent circuit is shown
below

• can be employed when loads of 3 phase are

balanced
 Synchronous Generator

Equivalent circuit model – synchronous

generator
 Synchronous Generator
In real synchronous machines of any size, the armature resistance
RS is more than 10 times smaller than the synchronous reactance
XS (XS >> RS). Therefore, RS can be ignored
Contoh Karakteristik tanpa beban sebuah generator

Xsyn Rsta
Flux
Esta Ista Vt
DC
 Synchronous Generator
Transformer Transmission line Network
One-line diagram of
synchronous
generator network
Generator

Xsy Xtr ZLine

Single-phase equivalent
circuit of synchronous
Eg_ln Ig Vg_ln Vtrs_ln Isy Vnet_ln generator network.

Xsy_s Xtr ZLine

Simplified single-phase
Eg_s Isy Vnet_ln equivalent circuit of
synchronous generator
network.
 Synchronous Generator
Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator
The phasor diagram is to shows the relationship among the
voltages within a phase (Eφ,Vφ, jXSIA and RAIA) and the
current IA in the phase.

Unity P.F (1.0)

Synchronous Generator
Lagging P.F

Leading P.F.
 Voltage Regulation
A convenient way to compare the voltage behaviour of two
generators is by their voltage regulation (VR). The VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load, power factor, and at rated
speed is defined as

Enl  V fl
VR   100%
V fl

Where Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage, and Enl (equal to Ef)
is the no-load terminal voltage (internal voltage) at rated speed
when the load is removed without changing the field current.
For lagging power factor (PF), VR is fairly positive, for unity PF,
VR is small positive and for leading PF, VR is negative.
 Per Phase Equivalent Circuit

Ra = armature resistance per phase

XL = leakage reactance.
Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

Generator power
flow => out

Motor power flow

=> in
 Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

 = Load angles Eδ  Vt 0  I L f . jX s

In practical
synchronous machines,
except for small ones, Xs
>> Ra so we could
assume that Zs = jXs in
the analysis.
Therefore we get
E = Vt + jILXs

Power: P = VIcosf
Considering the diagram h = ILXscosf = Esin
Therefore ILXscosf = Esin
Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

E A sin 
so I L cosf 
XS
Now Pout  VI cosf
E A sin 
from the two equation we can get Pout  V
XS
EV
 sin 
Xs

For maximum power sin  = 1

Therefore  = 90 
EV
In which case Pout 
XS
 The Synchronous generator operating alone
Although most of the synchronous generators in the world operate
Effects
as parts of
of load
large changes
power systems, we start our discussion assuming
that the synchronous generator works alone.

An increase in the load is an

increase in the real and/or
reactive power drawn from
the generator.

Assuming the same power factor of the load, change in load will change
the magnitude of the armature current IA. However, the angle will be the
same (for a constant PF). Thus, the armature reaction voltage jXSIA will be
larger for the increased load. Since the magnitude of the internal generated
voltage is constant
EA  Vf  jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial
position.
 Concept of the infinite bus
When a synchronous generator is connected to a power
system, the power system is often so large that nothing
the operator of the generator does will have much of an
effect on the power system. This idea is idealized in the
concept of an infinite bus.
An infinite bus is a power system so large that its voltage and
frequency do not vary regardless of how much real or reactive
power is drawn from or supplied to it.
• Synchronous generators
Xs1 work in parallel with the
Ef1
Xs2 interconnected system.
Generator Ef2
• Frequency and voltage
are constant.
Xsn
G
Infinite bus
• The behivor is examined
Efn V, f are based on a generator
constant connected to an
Xs eq = 0 INFINITE BUS.
 Parallel operation of synchronous generators

Most of synchronous generators are operating in parallel with

other synchronous generators to supply power to the same
power system. Obvious advantages of this arrangement are:

1. Several generators can supply a bigger load;

2. A failure of a single generator does not result in a total
power loss to the load increasing reliability of the power
system;
3. A single generator not operating at near full load might be
quite inefficient. While having several generators in
parallel, it is possible to turn off some of them when
operating the rest at near full-load condition.
4. Individual generators may be removed from the power
system for maintenance without shutting down the load
 The conditions required for Paralleling
Synchronization Generators
Before connecting a generator
in parallel with another
generator, it must be
synchronized. A generator is
said to be synchronized when
it meets all the following
conditions:
1. The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
2. The two generators must have the same phase sequence (aa’
bb’ cc’).
3. The phase angles of the two a phases must be equal.
4. The oncoming generator frequency is equal to the running
system frequency.
26
 General procedure for paralleling generators
When connecting the generator G2 to the running system, the following
steps should be taken:

1. Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal
voltage equal to the line voltage of the system (use a voltmeter).
2. Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the
running system. This can be done by different ways:
1) Connect a small induction motor to the terminals of the oncoming
generator and then to the terminals of the running system. If the
motor rotates in the same direction, the phase sequence is the same;
2) Connect three light bulbs across the
open terminals of the switch. As the
phase changes between the two
generators, light bulbs get brighter
(large phase difference) or dimmer
(small phase difference). If all three
bulbs get bright and dark together,
both generators have the same phase
sequences.
 General procedure for paralleling generators
If phase sequences are different, two of the conductors on the oncoming
generator must be reversed.

3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly higher

than the system’s frequency.
4. Turn on the switch connecting G2 to the system when phase angles are
equal.
The simplest way to determine the moment when two generators are in
phase is by observing the same three light bulbs. When all three lights go
out, the voltage across them is zero and, therefore, machines are in phase.

A more accurate way is to use a synchroscope – a

meter measuring the difference in phase angles
between two a phases. However, a synchroscope
does not check the phase sequence since it only
measures the phase difference in one phase.

The whole process is usually automated…