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End-Of-Line, Vent-To-Atmosphere Type (Speaking non-technically, deflagration means rapid burning,
and detonation means explosion.) These units are installed
Most flame arrestor applications and designs fall into two
major categories. One group consists of end-of-line flame in pipes to prevent flames from passing, as shown in Figure 5.
arrestors, also known as the vent-to-atmosphere type
(Figure 3).
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1. End-of-line, Group B
Figure 7. An in-line flame arrestor used in an end-of-line
2. End-of-line, Group C
application (below a pressure and vacuum relief valve for a
3. End-of-line, Group D
liquid storage tank).
4. In-line, low/medium-press. deflagration, Group B
5. In-line, low/medium-press. deflagration, Group C For example, the primary flame safety devices in a vapor
6. In-line, low/medium-press. deflagration, Group D control system are usually active ones such as liquid
7. In-line, high-pressure deflagration, Group B seals and oxygen analyzers as shown before in Figure 6.
8. In-line, high-pressure deflagration, Group C However, active devices can be rendered ineffective by
9. In-line, high-pressure deflagration, Group D loss of power, failure of mechanical components, failure of
10. In-line, detonation, Group B electronic communication, or human error. Flame arrestors,
11. In-line, detonation, Group C in turn, are the system’s secondary or fail-safe provision. In
12. In-line, detonation, Group D other words, if the active, primary method malfunctions, the
passive, secondary method will be the last defense against
In applying flame arrestors, it should be remembered that an explosion.
these safety devices are passive ones, and they are often
used together with active safety devices. Active devices
Flame Propagation
used in flame safety include hydraulic (liquid) seals, isolation
valves, blankets of inert gas or enriching (fuel) gas, gas The differences between the various types of flame arrestors
analyzers, and oxygen analyzers. Unlike active devices, are based mainly on the nature of the flame which is
passive devices such as flame arrestors do not depend on expected (especially how fast it moves) and on the expected
a power source, have no moving parts, and do not require intensity of the pressure pulse created by the flame. A flame
human attention except to be cleaned periodically. is a volume of gas in which a self-sustaining exothermic
(heat-producing) chemical reaction is occurring. The reaction
is presumed to be oxidation, also known as combustion.
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suitable proportions called a combustible mixture. So long propane’s UEL is 9.5%, and hydrogen’s is 75.0%.
as these requirements remain available, a flame can burn
The flammable range of a gas is the difference between its
indefinitely. Flame arrestors operate by removing one of
lower and upper explosion limits. Hydrogen has a much
these requirements: high temperature.
wider flammable range than propane.
In a stationary flammable mixture, a flame seems to move
A mixture with exactly the right amount of oxygen for
toward the unburned gas, leaving combustion products
complete combustion—no more, no less, producing
behind. That apparent motion is called flame propagation.
the maximum energy per volume of gas—is called
The flame exists only within a relatively narrow volume at the
stoichiometric. Air-to-gas ratios at or near stoichiometric
boundary between the unburned gas and the combustion
provide the highest flame propagation velocities and thus
products.
the most intense pressure impulse waves. However, as long
The speed at which the flame propagates is measured at as the mixture is well within the flammable range, the flame
the front edge of the flame. This speed depends on several velocity ordinarily does not vary a great deal.
variables, including the speed of the chemical reaction, the
air-to-gas mixture ratio, and whether the flame is confined Unconfined Propagation Of Flame
or unconfined. Flames generally propagate much faster in pipes than in
the open atmosphere. Flames which are not restricted
Chemical Reaction Kinetics by physical barriers such as pipes are called unconfined.
The speed of a chemical reaction, such as that between An unconfined flame is free to expand by consumption of
fuel gas and oxygen, is called its kinetics. This is determined unburned gas into an ever-widening volume. This expansion
mainly by the amount of energy released by each molecule provides quick dissipation of the heat and pressure energy
of flammable gas when it combines with oxygen. For generated by the flame.
instance, hydrogen burns much faster than propane.
The most common example of unconfined propagation
Thus, given ideal air mixtures at room conditions, an open
occurs when gas venting from a process system or liquid
(unconfined) hydrogen flame propagates at 3 meters per
storage tank contacts an ignition source (Figure 8). From
second, compared to only 0.4 meters per second for
that point, flame propagates outward and towards the
propane. However, reaction speed also depends strongly on
unburned gas until it comes to the gas source.
the temperature and pressure: the hotter a flame, and the
higher its pressure, the faster the reaction that sustains it.
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a detonation, which is an explosion strong enough to cause speeding the combustion reaction. This process feeds
shock waves in the gas. Some gases can detonate without on itself, producing flame velocities, temperatures, and
being confined, but it is not a common occurrence. pressures much higher than those seen in unconfined
conditions.
As the subsonic flame moves in the direction of the
unburned gas, it produces heat. The heat, in turn, expands
the unburned gas in a layer in front of the flame, called the
boundary layer. The rapid expansion of the boundary layer
along with the fast-moving flame is commonly called an
atmospheric explosion and percussion wave. The pulse of
elevated temperature and pressure quickly spreads out and
dissipates into the atmosphere in a relatively simple manner.
Figure 9. Elements of flame propagation from the closed end
Confined Propagation Of Flame of a pipe of indefinite length.
The most common example of confined flame is
To be more precise, suppose a pressure gauge capable of
propagation inside a pipe or explosion inside a process
extremely quick response is placed 10 meters away from
vessel or liquid storage tank. The flame is usually a
the ignited end. As the flame moves towards the gage,
flashback, meaning that it propagates upstream, against
the reading increases. When the flame reaches the gage,
the flow of gas and towards its source. The heat and
it causes a pressure spike as high as 100 psig (7 bars) or
pressure energy of a confined flame is not relieved as readily
higher.
as that of an unconfined flame. This restriction of energy
dissipation makes a tremendous difference in how the flame While propagating down a pipe, the flame functions not
propagates and thus what kind of flame arrestor is required only as a chemical reaction, but also as a mechanical
to stop it. reaction—like a piston in a cylinder—compressing the
gas before consuming it and im-parting more energy and
In a readily combustible mixture, the velocity of an
velocity. If the pipe is long enough, in some cases the flame
unconfined flame depends primarily on the kinetics of
can reach hyper-sonic (much faster than sound) velocities
the combustion reaction. Most of the combustion heat
as high as 6,500 miles per hour (2,900 meters per second).
and resulting pressure are dissipated in the surrounding
The pressure may approach 4,900 pounds per square inch
atmosphere, without influencing propagation speed very
(34,000 kilopascals).
much.
Confined flames also rely on the kinetics of burning for flame Development Stages Of Confined Flame
propagation velocity. However, since the flame is confined, Selection of an appropriate in-line flame arrestor depends
the heat energy and pressure remain concentrated, causing on how intense any flame in the pipe is expected to be, in
a much stronger effect on the kinetics of burning and terms of velocity and pressure. Studies of flame propagation
therefore the flame propagation velocity. in pipes reveal
More particularly, imagine a very long, straight pipe about seven distinct stages or phases which a flame may reach if
six inches in diameter, closed by a cap at one end and the pipe is long enough and the combustion is fast enough
filled with combustible mixture at room temperature and and energetic enough.
pressure. Suppose the gas is ignited by a spark plug at the
closed end as suggested in Figure 9. A flame propagates
in the unburned gas along the pipe. As described before
for an unconfined flame, the heat of the flame expands
the gas boundary layer directly in front, causing a pulse of
pressure. However, the energy is not allowed to dissipate
by spreading into an ever-widening region of atmosphere.
Instead, as the flame propagates down the pipe, it
encounters gas with higher temperature and pressure,
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gage pressure is less than about 100 kPag). This initial flame
propagation state develops in a short length of pipe—for
example, approximately 3 meters for a propane-air mixture.
Hydrogen is in its low-pressure deflagration state only to
about 1.0 meter from the point of ignition.
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meters for a propane/air mixture and between 2.5 and 6
meters for hydrogen and air.
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If the gas feeding a flare or waste gas burner slows down
below the burn-back velocity at the flare tip or burner, then
the flame moves upstream toward the process source. If the
gas velocity is only slightly lower than the burn-back velocity,
the flame will creep slowly upstream. However, at zero gas
velocity in a long pipe, the flame will accelerate as explained
before and flash back at high speed. Zero flow allows the
Figure 17. Concept of stable detonation confined in a pipe, most severe flame propagation conditions. All flame arrestor
showing typical distance from ignition point. products should be tested by the manufacturer at static
(zero) flow so that they will work in the most severe flame
Galloping Detonation propagation conditions (flashback).
A detonation that periodically fails and reinitiates during
propagation is known as a galloping detonation. “This type Initial Operating Pressure (IOP)
of detonation is typically observed in near-limit mixtures The initial operating pressure (IOP) is the absolute pressure
(they have been observed near the lean and possibly of a flammable gas mixture in a given piping system when
near the rich limit). Since it reinitiates via DDT, a galloping the velocity falls below the burn-back velocity. The IOP
detonation is periodically overdriven and results in large is usually less than the normal operating pressure of that
overpressures at periodic distances along a pipe. Over system. For example, when a vapor control system is
these periodic cycles the wave oscillates between a fast operating properly, so that the flow stream velocity is above
deflagration and a leading shock, transition to an overdriven the burn-back velocity of the process gas, then the system
detonation, and a short lived apparently steady detonation pressure is within some normal operating range above
phase.”1 atmospheric pressure. But when the system is shut down
during normal or emergency conditions and the process
stream slows down, the pressure also falls. At some point
Selection Considerations For In-Line before the velocity reaches zero, a flashback can occur. The
Flame Arrestors pressure in the system in this shutdown situation or static
Selecting an appropriate in-line flame arrestor for a given flow condition is the IOP for that particular system.
application requires understanding several considerations. Remember that pressure affects flame: the higher the
These considerations are based on the foregoing general pressure, the more energy the flame releases per unit
understanding of how an accidental gas flame behaves in volume. That equates to higher flame intensity and energy
pipes. exchange per unit volume and faster flame acceleration. The
explosive pressure of a given gas is roughly proportional
Burn-Back Gas Velocity to the initial absolute pressure. For instance, doubling the
When a flammable mixture is flowing in a pipe, one absolute pressure approximately doubles the explosive
especially important condition is the burn-back gas velocity. pressure.
It is the gas velocity at which a flame is stationary when Therefore, the IOP in a given system determines two things
propagating upstream in a condition of low-pressure pertaining to selection of a flame arrestor product. The
deflagration. This refers to the "superficial" average gas first is flame velocity and pressure relative to the distance
velocity across the pipe—the volumetric flow rate divided the flame has traveled down the pipe. For example, when
by the crosssectional flow area. If the gas flows slower than a flame has propagated 10 meters in a stoichiometric
the burn-back velocity, a flame can propagate upstream. propane-to-air mixture at atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa
The burn-back velocity depends on the type of gas and absolute), the flame velocity is approximately 200 m/s, and
its air-to-gas mixture ratio as well as the temperature and the pressure front is at about 800 kPa absolute. If instead
pressure. At stoichiometric mixture and standard room the IOP is increased to 150.0 kPa, the flame velocity and
conditions, propane’s burn-back velocity is approximately pressure at 10 meters will be approximately 300 m/s and
3.2 m/s, whereas hydrogen’s is approximately 20 m/s. 1,200 kPa. Thus, in this example, increasing the static
pressure 50% causes an increase of 50% in the velocity of
1 Grossel, Stanley, Deflagration and Detonation Flame Arresters (AIChe, 2002), 66.
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the flame front and 50% in its pressure. This consideration Flame Stabilization
can affect how close to the ignition source the arrestor must There are two types of flame stabilization: open and
be placed. It can also require the use of one arrestor device confined. An open stabilized flame occurs when a flammable
rather than another. mixture emerges from confinement at a velocity such that an
The second selection consideration affected by IOP pertains open flame fed by the gas is stationary. For example, when
to the energy which an arrestor must absorb per unit a flare is burning, the stationary flame at the tip experiences
volume of gas in order to quench a flame. When pressure open flame stabilization. If for some reason the process
increases in a process system, the energy released by stream slows down below the burn-back velocity of the gas,
flame per unit volume also increases. Thus the arrestor the flame begins moving down the flare stack. It may then
must absorb more heat to lower the flame’s temperature stabilize at the arrestor device or somewhere else down
sufficiently. However, that task can be difficult for the the pipe. This condition is referred to as confined flame
arrestor, since it was designed with a certain heat transfer stabilization. (See Figure 18.) If the process stream velocity
capacity. If an arrestor is placed in an application for which were to go to zero, the flame would not creep down the flare
the IOP is higher than it has been tested or designed for, but would accelerate in a flashback and possibly detonate.
the arrestor could fail to stop the flame. Therefore, to enable The possibility for a stabilized flame in the system during
proper selection and system design, manufacturers must flashback is very slight, but it sometimes happens.
indicate the maximum IOP which their flame arrestors can Each flame arrestor design performs differently when
handle for various flammable gas mixtures. Every flame exposed to flame stabilization, depending on the mass and
arrestor product should be tested at a series of increasing type of material of the flame-arrestor element. Users should
pressures to determine its IOP performance threshold contact the manufacturer of a given arrestor for information
for commonly encountered gas mixtures. For example, a on how its products perform when exposed to flame
standard low-pressure deflagration arrestor typically has a stabilization. A good way to safeguard against flashback
maximum allowed IOP of around 5% above atmospheric due to flame stabilization is to install a temperature sensing
condition, or 106.0 kPa (15.4 psia), while that for detonation device on the exposed side of the arrestor. The heat of a
flame arrestors ranges up to 160 kPa (23 psia). stabilized flame triggers automatic controls designed to
extinguish the flame.
Transient Momentum Pressure
Flame stabilized on Flame arrestor element
Piping can withstand a propagating flame driving a pressure arrestor element absorbs and quenches
pulse which may be thousands of times greater than the flame front
Piping
maximum pressure for which the pipe is rated. This pressure
caused by flame propagation is not a static pressure,
because the pressure wave is moving so fast it exerts its
force on the piping walls for only a fraction of a second.
Exposed side Protected side
Instead, flame pressure is considered a dynamic impulse
pressure, called transient momentum pressure or TMP.
Because the transient motion of gas in the forward direction Figure 18. Concept of flame stabilization at aflame arrestor.
is so rapid when a pressure wave passes, the wave carries Flow is from right to left.
a tremendous amount of momentum (mass multiplied by
velocity) and resulting energy (one-half of mass multiplied Air-To-Fuel Mixture Ratios
by the square of velocity). Anything which changes the The ratio of combustible gas to air, described earlier, has a
direction of that momentum, such as pipe bends, shut-off profound effect on how a flame burns. It influences not only
valves, blower housings, or an arrestor device, experiences flame speed as mentioned before, but also heat intensity,
transfer of energy via momentum. This momentum energy ignition energy, auto-ignition temperature, pressure piling,
can have a catastrophic effect on equipment. and others.
Standard flame arrestors are designed for low transient
momentum pressures (TMPs) and can fail mechanically
when exposed to very high TMPs. Enardo detonation
arrestors are designed to withstand TMPs of any magnitude.
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Grouping Of Gases immersed in a stoichiometric mixture of the test gas and
air at standard room conditions, and the mixture inside the
Hundreds of different flammable gases are generated as
sphere is ignited with an electric spark. The experiment
products or by-products of industrial processes. One gas
is repeated with a wider and wider gap between the two
may vary widely from another in its characteristics pertaining
flanges, until the mixture outside the sphere is ignited. The
to flame propagation. It is necessary to have means for
MESG is the greatest distance between flanges at which the
describing those characteristics in order to design safety
flame fails to pass through. The more hazardous the gas,
equipment, instrumentation, etc. Several testing and
the narrower the MESG. An arrestor must be designed for
regulatory bodies, including the NEC, IEC, NFPA, and NTIS,
the MESG value of the process gas.
classify flammable gases based on the following criteria,
some of which are explained later:
Multiple Gas Mixtures
Some vapor collection systems deal with a single, relatively
MESG (maximum experimental safe gap) pure combustible gas—for instance methane or acetylene—
Flame temperature mixed with air. However, most processes requiring flame
Flame velocity
arrestors involve mixtures of several combustible gases,
AIT (auto-ignition temperature)
each having its own set of hazard characteristics. Some
LEL-to-UEL range
gases consume air more efficiently than others in a
Ignition energy
mixture, thus making the mixture behave much like a single
constituent gas. One gas component may act as a catalyst
NEC IEC MESG Test Gas List
Group A 0.25 Acetylene to another, making the mixture more dangerous than the
Group B Group IlC 0.28 Hydrogen single most hazardous gas by itself. Not much experimental
Group IIB 0.50 Enriched H2 data is available on the hazardous characteristics of
Group C Group IlB3 0.65 Ethylene combustible gas mixtures.
Group D Group IIA 0.90 Propane
The MESG of mixed gases is not normally known and
G.M 1.15 Methane
it is impractical to test all gas mixtures for their MESG.
The industry standard has been to select an arrestor
Table 1. Hazardous gas groups according to NEC and IEC
design based on the worst case gas component in the
Each testing or regulatory authority has its own system for mixture. This method is in most cases, overly conservative.
classifying gases according to combustion hazard groups. NFPA 497 provides a new method to estimate the group
Classifications are based on severity of explosion hazard as classification based on knowing the MESG of each
indicated by low AIT, broad LEL-to-UEL range, higher flame flammable gas component and calculating the effective
temperature, faster flame velocity, or a combination of any MESG by applying a form of Le Chatelier’s relationship.
of these characteristics. Most of them relate directly to the Enardo can assist you with this calculation if provided the
MESG of the combustible gas. (See Table 1.) gas mixture composition.
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Length To Diameter (L Over D) Ratio The ignition energy is defined as the amount of energy
required to ignite a flammable gas mixture. That amount
In explaining the various stages of flame propagation earlier,
depends on the type of gas and the air-to-gas mixture ratio.
each stage was said to occur within a certain range of
The closer the air-to-gas ratio is to stoichiometric, the lower
distances from the ignition source. Those distances were
the ignition energy. This is illustrated in Figure 19. In that
specified for a certain inside pipe diameter of 12 inches. It
diagram, note that the energy required to ignite methane
turns out that the distances are directly proportional to the
at stoichiometric is 0.2 joules, compared to the energy
diameter. What matters is not the actual distance from the
required at its UEL, which is 3.5 joules. Different gases
ignition point, but the distance relative to the diameter—the
require different amounts of energy to ignite them; some
distance divided by the diameter. That relative distance is
require little, while others are almost impossible to ignite.
called the length-to-diameter ratio, or the L/D ratio (L over D
The lower the ignition energy, the more dangerous the gas is
ratio). For example, for a stoichiometric air-propane mixture
to the system and its surroundings.
at room conditions, a low-pressure deflagration will occur
within an L/D ratio less than 10, and a stable detonation
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20-foot stack for a group "D" gas with flame arrestor near the 2. Flame stabilization performance characteristics of
base of the flare. If the process stream velocity falls below the arrestor compared to the system potential for flame
the burn-back velocity of the gas at the tip, a flashback could stabilization for sustained periods of time
occur. Since the length of pipe from the tip of the flare (ignition 3. Process gas temperature
source) to the arrestor is relatively short, the flame dynamics 4. Pressure drop across the arrestor during venting flow
will probably be no more severe than a medium-pressure conditions, relative to the system's maximum allowable
pressure and vacuum
deflagration, and thus the deflagration flame arrestor will
quench the flame. However, if the flare is struck by lightning 5. Materials of construction that meet the ambient and
process conditions – for example, extremely cold
(high energy ignition) while the flow is below burn-back climate, salt spray, chemically aggressive gas, etc.
velocity, the flame could be in a more severe state when it 6. Connection type and size
reaches the flame arrestor, such as high-pressure deflagration
7. Instrumentation requirements
or overdriven detonation. In that case, the flame arrestor will
probably fail, because it is not designed for a high-pressure Selecting In-Line Flame Arrestors
deflagration or detonation. If there is a chance for high-energy
The various dynamic states explained earlier for confined
ignition, an unstable detonation flame arrestor should be used
flames can be very dangerous for a process system due
instead of a standard deflagration flame arrestor.
to the tremendous energies associated with detonation
pressure and flame velocity. Things happen fast and can
Enriched Oxygen turn catastrophic. These multiple dynamic states increase
In most vapor control systems, the source of oxygen in the the challenge of providing a flame arrestor product or
combustible mixture is ambient air. However, some processes products which stop the flame and withstand the enormous
have a larger content of oxygen than standard air-gas mixture. pressures caused by explosions within the confined piping.
Passive flame arrestor products discussed here are not
designed for the more dangerous and severe condition of The very wide range of possible behavior for a confined
enriched oxygen. flame causes two particular problems for flame arrestor
products. First, the high-pressure deflagration and stable
detonation states have very stable kinetics of burning, and
Dust Versus Gas
the flame is moving very fast. Therefore the arrestor must
When pulverized into dust suspended in air, combustible be able to absorb the flame’s heat much faster than is
solids burn, propagate in piping, and explode much like required by standard low-to-medium-pressure deflagration
combustible gases. Passive flame arrestor products conditions. Second, the instantaneous impulse pressures
discussed here are not designed for use with flammable caused by the shock waves of overdriven detonation
dust suspensions because of special concerns such as subject the arrestor to forces of up to 20995 kPa(g) (3000
plugging. psig). Thus, the arrestor must be structurally superior to
standard low-pressure deflagration arrestors.
Selecting End-Of-Line Flame Arrestors
As explained before, end-of-line deflagration flame arrestors Confined Deflagration Flame Arrestors
are designed for unconfined flame propagation, also referred In-line deflagration flame arrestors are designed for confined
to as atmospheric explosion or unconfined deflagration. They flame propagation, also referred to as flashback or confined
simply bolt or screw onto the process or tank connection. deflagrations. Like the end-of-line variety, flame arrestors of
These designs incorporate well-established but simple this type have been used in numerous applications for many
technology. Most use a single element of crimped wound decades. They resemble end-of-line flame arrestors in many
metal ribbon that provides the heat transfer needed to quench ways. However, things are much different for these arrestors,
the flame before it gets through the arrestor element. because they are subject to more severe flame states. For
The main points of concern when selecting an arrestor for almost every state of flame, there is a special type of arrestor.
end-of-line applications are as follows: For example, a standard in-line deflagration flame arrestor is
designed to stop flame propagation in short lengths of pipe,
1. Hazardous group designation or MESG value of the gas involving low-pressure and medium-pressure deflagrations.
The high-pressure deflagration flame arrestor is an enhanced
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version of the standard deflagration flame arrestor, designed These capabilities do not come without some trade-offs.
to stop flames in the low, medium, and high pressure Detonation flame arrestors impose higher pressure drops than
deflagration states. deflagration flame arrestors due to heat-transfer requirements,
they are heavier because of structural requirements, and they
are typically more expensive. Therefore in-line deflagration flame
arrestors will always have a place in industry.
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*Enardo recommendation
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