14

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of conceptual and research

literatures with the end view of identifying the constructs of the study.

Likewise, the synthesis of the literature reviewed, the theoretical and

conceptual frameworks, hypotheses as well as the definition of key terms

were included.

Conceptual Literature

The following review includes concepts on State Universities in

Region IV-A; Academic Leadership and Management; Managerial Stress;

and Stress Management Planning.

State Universities in Region IV-A. The Philippine Public Higher

Education Reform Roadmap 2011-2016‟s educational vision reiterates the

significance of State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) in national

development. This education roadmap states that “The publicly-funded

higher education institutions especially the state universities and colleges

are made more capable and accountable to the State through enhanced

public investments which are main instruments in developing high-level

professions to meet the manpower needs of industry, public service and

civil society. Through their triadic functions, namely instruction, research

 15

and extension, SUCs significantly contribute to the urgent tasks of

alleviating poverty, hastening the pace of innovations, creating new

knowledge and functional skills; and increasing the productivity of the

workplace and the dynamism of communities.”

The underlying reason for the creation and maintenance of SUCs is

to provide access to more affordable, quality education for poor and

disadvantaged, to ensure equity of access to higher education while at the

same time serving as instrument of development in regional and national

contexts. SUCs should therefore ideally focus on priority programs in

instruction, research and extension, which the private sector cannot

adequately provide. These Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), as a

matter of priority, also cater to the geographic areas that are not covered

by the private sector.

The directional transformation from which SUCs anchor their

educational reforms was framed from the Public Higher Education Reform

2011-2016‟s objectives and initiatives. These include the following

overriding objectives: to improve efficiency by rationalizing the public

higher education system; to upgrade quality of public Higher Education;

and to enhance access to quality higher education by modernizing facilities

of developing SUCs, strengthening Student Financial Assistance Programs

 16

and strengthening Public HEI Management through Executive

Development (CHED‟s Roadmap Public Higher Education Reform, 2014).

Region IV-A is located in the southwestern part of Luzon, bounded

by the National Capital Region (NCR) and Central Luzon Regions in the

north, and the MIMAROPA (Mindoro, Marinduque, Romblon and Palawan)

and the Bicol Regions in the south. It is the fifth smallest region in terms of

land area but has the largest population as of the last 2010 census

surpassing NCR at 12.6 million (National Economic and Development

Authority, 2015). Region IV-A is composed of five southern Luzon

provinces that make up its acronym, CALABARZON, namely: Cavite,

Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon province.

The National Economic and Development Authority shared the

region‟s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) performance rankings: second in

regional share, accounting 17.4 percent of the Philippines‟ GDP, first in the

proportion to total industry output providing 32.3 percent, second in share

of service sector output with 10 percent, and second in share of total

agricultural production with 10.2 percent. In a 2008 survey on household

literacy, CALABARZON got high marks for both male and female

respondents age 10 and over for the simple literacy category at 97.70 and

98.20 respectively. For functional literacy of households with ages 10 to

 17

64, females got 95.10 while males got 91.90 marks. These statistical

numbers would imply exemplary performance of CALABARZON regarding

economic and educational performances.

On the educational front, the CALABARZON has five SUCs that

provide academic services to the region‟s populace. Based on brief

introductions made by the Department of Budget and Management (DBM)

2012, the following are the five SUCs of CALABARZON Region: Cavite

State University (CvSU), Laguna Polytechnic State University (LPSU),

Batangas State University (BatStateU), University of Rizal System (URS),

and Southern Luzon State University (SLSU).

The Cavite State University visualizes to be a premier research

center equipped with complete laboratory facilities and well-managed

central experimental station where the most qualified researchers shall

develop new knowledge, verify, and improve the technologies on current

commodity thrusts and disciplined that can be packaged into usable

materials by its target clienteles. It aims to generate, verify, package and

disseminate information/technologies on coffee, urban agriculture and high

value fruits and vegetables along with other important commodities and

disciplined through research and development activities.

 18

Furthermore, the Laguna Polytechnic State University aspires to be

the center for sustainable development, transforming lives and

communities.The said university aims to provide quality education through

responsive instruction, distinctive research, sustainable extension and

production services for improved quality of life towards nation-building.

Likewise, the Batangas State University aims to be a globally

recognized institution of higher learning that develops competent and

morally upright citizens who are active participants in nation building and

responsive to the challenges of the 21st century. It is committed to the

holistic development of productive citizens by providing a conducive

learning environment for the generation, dissemination and utilization of

knowledge through innovative education, multidisciplinary research

collaborations, and community partnerships that would nurture the spirit of

nationhood and help fuel national economy for sustainable development.

Moreover, the University of Rizal System aims to be a leading

University in human resource development, knowledge and technology

generation and environmental stewardship. It is committed to nurture and

produce upright and competent graduates and empowered community

through relevant and sustainable higher professional and technical

instruction, research, extension and production services.

 19

Additionally, the Southern Luzon State University aims to be a 21st

century state university providing a student-centered learning experience,

preparing graduates in their chosen profession, creating and disseminating

knowledge in the service to the communities, the nation, and the world. It

is committed to prepare its students for a rapidly changing world by

providing a quality education. It shall also increase the knowledge base

through research; convert new intellectual property into economic

development; and provide expertise and innovative solutions to business,

governments, and others who seek assistance.

The performances of these five SUCs could be gleaned in the 2013

SUCs Statistical Bulletin prepared by the Commission on Higher Education

(Commission on Higher Education, 2013). It showed that in School Year

2012-2013, the total enrollment population of these SUCs was 102,153

which was more than 5,223 students in School Year 2011-2012 and was

larger by 16,691 if compared with enrollment numbers for School Year

2010-2011. It reflects a continuous upward trend in enrollment that could

further strain the limited resources of SUCs, particularly its human

resource. It is a well-known fact that as private higher educational

institutions‟ tuition rate increases, Filipino families turn towards enrollment

in public educational institutions.

 20

Furthermore, it is noteworthy to mention that the Cavite State

University (CvSU) was recognized as the Center of Development (COD)

for Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine and the most outstanding SUC in

Gender and Development Implementation in the CALABARZON last 2014.

The Batangas State University (BatStateU), on the other hand, is a CHED-

designated Center of Excellence (COE) in Electronic Engineering and

CHED-designated COD in Development Communication, Electrical

Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Teacher Education in 2015.

Moreover, the University of Rizal System (URS) is one of the top

performing schools in Civil Engineering Licensure Examination in

November 2016 based on Commission Resolution No. 2011-547 series

2010. It is also worth mentioning that during the data gathering for this

study, the Southern Luzon State University (SLSU) was the only SUC in

CALABARZON that is ISO 9001:2008 certified for quality management

system. Thus, all these facts have continuously challenged SUC

executives in Region IV-A to improve their national stature that best

displays the uniqueness of their respective provinces and academic

institutions.

The organizational structures of all SUCs in the CALABARZON area

are alike in such a way that the academic administrators are designated by
 21

the University President and are under the direct supervision of the Vice-

President for Academic Affairs. In the study conducted by Sill (2014), he

noted that academic administrators particularly the deans generally report

to academic vice presidents and they supervise both faculty and staff. As

middle managers, they are entrusted to control and direct the activities of

their respective units or colleges along with their teaching responsibilities.

They are important stakeholders in an educational institution because they

provide leadership for the faculty as well as for other areas of the

university. Currie and Procter (2005) stress that organizational

performances are very much influenced by what happens in the middle of

organizations rather than at the top.

The roles of academic leaders and how they perform these roles in

the fulfilment of the university‟s mandate is undeniably crucial. Thus,

designated officials must be qualified enough to assume their positions.

The Commission on Higher Education (2008) indicated that deans of

undergraduate programs shall be at least a holder of master‟s degree and

where applicable, a professional license, requiring at least a bachelor‟s

degree. Rice (2010) emphasized that experience, gained over time,

enhances the knowledge and skills of employees and that many

occupations consider the latter‟s years of experience as a relevant factor in

 22

human resource policies including the compensation system, benefit

packages and promotion decisions.

Academic Leadership and Management. As distinct concepts and

practices, the terms leadership and management are sometimes used

interchangeably. They formed complementary systems of action, with

management being necessary for the smooth functioning of an

organization and leadership needed to achieve change. Middlehurst (2012)

underscored that these two systems are complementary and equally

necessary to a work unit or organization‟s success. Excessive

management produces compliance, passivity, and order for order‟s sake. It

discourages risk-taking and represses creativity and long term vision. But

excessive leadership without the compensating force of strong

management produces inconsistent, delayed and off budget results, while

emphasizing change for change‟s sake.

In a more recent work, which focused on the future of management

in organizations, Hamel (2012) reasoned that people need to re-think both

management structures and leadership processes in organizations in ways

that are better fitted to complex and uncertain environments, globalization,

connectivity and knowledge-societies.

What leaders need to know and be able to do require both

management and leadership (Wolverton, et al., 2005). For them,

 23

management is generally seen as being more about routine tasks in the

context of existing practice and sustaining what is currently working well.

Leadership, on the other hand, is seen as having more focus on setting

and motivating new directions-so leadership referred to as “the new” and

management considered as “the current” go hand in hand. Osse-Assare,

et al. (2005) noted that leaders do the right things whereas managers do

things right. This is synonymous to saying that the first part relates to

leadership effectiveness and the second part relates to management

efficiency. This suggests that there is a functional relationship between

effectiveness and efficiency.

Moreover, Yielder and Codling (2004) suggested that academic

leadership can be based on authority being placed in the individual‟s

personal characteristics and expertise, and in the ability to win followers in

the collegial culture of the academy. While management is based on

authority being placed in the position, the individual may or may not have

the capabilities to exercise this leadership. They pointed out that position

does not equate with leadership-although few would argue that a position

of authority does not carry with it an explicit expectation of leadership.

Generally, a distinctive feature of leading is, therefore, an individual‟s

or group‟s capacity to influence the goal-directed behavior of others

 24

(Bryman, 2007). House (2004) sees it as being the ability of an individual

to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the

effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are

members. Some authors noted that the focus of leading is on change,

identifying the important role for the transformational leader in the current

rapidly shifting operating context of universities (Leithwood and Jantzi,

2005).

Furthermore, DeBoer, et al. (2010) made a distinction between

management and leadership. They explained that management is a way of

imposing regulation and keeping the organization on time and on budget.

Management is about „doing things right‟, about looking at present

activities and ensuring they work consistently and well. On the other hand,

leadership is about change, about looking forward and outward, about

ensuring the enterprise stays in alignment with a constantly changing

environment. It is about establishing direction, and „doing the right thing.‟ It

enables people to adapt to work with change rather than resist it. They

explained that when academic administrators focus more on structure,

policies, processes, and paperwork, they are functioning as managers but

when they focus on organizational cultures and transformative thinking

such as engagement and adaptability, they are functioning as leaders.

 25

Since in the academic setting, effective academic administrators can

distinctly be identified by their ability to combine leadership and

management skills (Hassan, et al., 2016).

Effective leadership in any organization, according to Gmelch

(2013), involves considering the mental models from which leaders make

sense out of uncertain situations, determine possible drawbacks, and

make decisions that address the reality of problems as they arise. He

distinguished these mental models into structural, human resource,

symbolic, and political frames. For him, leaders with the structural frame

tend to value organizational goals, rules, policies, and hierarchies. Those

in the human resource frame are likely to recognize the interdependence

between people and organization and focus on fit between individuals and

the organization. Academic leaders in the symbolic frame use images,

rights, and rituals. While Political frame leaders tend to use power,

coalitions, and bargaining in their work lives.

These mental models were also identified by Bolman and Deal

(2008) in their Four-Frame Model as leadership styles - structural, human

resource, symbolic, political. They averred that these frames were

designed to be the framework on how managers and leaders view

 26

organizations, how decisions are made and how the culture of

organizations is derived.

Furthermore, Washington (2015) differentiated these leadership

styles. He emphasized that the structural frame of leadership highlights

that leaders put importance on the integral characteristics of the

organization. These characteristics include clear goals, rationality,

efficiency, accountability, formal roles and relationships. This frame was

based on assumptions that organizations exist to achieve set goals and

objectives; to increase efficiency and enhance performance through

specialization and appropriate division of labor; to safeguard the diverse

efforts of individuals and units; and to value rationality over personal

agenda and extraneous pressures. Moreover, it is said that troubles arise

and performance suffers from structural deficits but these can be alleviated

through problem solving and restructuring.

The human resource frame, on the other hand, focuses on the

needs of people rather than the needs of the organization. The core

assumptions for this frame include the idea that organizations exist to

serve human needs rather than the reverse; that people and organization

need each other; that one or both suffer when the fit between individual

and system is poor while good fit benefits both - individuals find meaningful
 27

and satisfying work and organizations get the talent and energy they need

to succeed. This frame is challenged to custom-fit the organization to

people and find the right mix for individuals to get the job done while

enjoying what they are doing.

In the political frame of leadership, the source of power is found

through authority, expertise, controlling rewards and personal power. It is

based on the assumptions that organizations are coalitions of diverse

individuals and interest groups and that there are enduring differences

among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests and

perceptions of reality. In addition, allocating scarce resources and

enduring differences make conflict central to organizational dynamics,

making power as the most important asset. The success of the

organization depends on political skill, the ability to negotiate and the

ability to determine whether to consider an open and collaborative

approach or to use a more argumentative strategy. This frame believes

that problems will arise when organizational power is concentrated in the

wrong places or is too widely dispersed.

Conversely, the symbolic frame is hinged on the assumptions that

what is important is not what happens but what it means; that since people

interpret experience differently, events have multiple meanings; and that

 28

culture is the one that binds people together in an organization, helping

them find purpose and passion in their personal and work lives as they

share common values and beliefs. In this frame, many events are more

important based on what is expressed rather than what is produced; that

is, meaning, metaphor, ritual, ceremony, stories, belief, and faith are

central to the symbolic frame. These symbols provide a shared sense of

community and human behavior to give meaning and predictability to a

disordered world.

Successful managers and leaders, according to Clark (2013),

incorporate the use of multi-frame or more than one frame, allowing for a

balanced and holistic view of what organizations are, what people do and

how problems are solved. They reframe situations until they gain a full

understanding of what is truly happening and how they should proceed.

New approaches to leadership in higher education are being

explored as universities face dual challenges of competing in a globally

competitive world while at the same time designing opportunities to build

and develop sustainable leadership (Jones, et al., 2012). They noted that

while challenges are experienced in all industries, higher education

occupies a unique position given its role in the development of new

knowledge and dissemination of existing knowledge.

 29

According to Szekeres (2004), the higher education sector has been

subject to a plethora of change over the last 20 years that has several

elements such as an increase managerial control or managerialism; an

increase in competition or marketization; an increased scrutiny alongside

greater devolved responsibility or audit; and a remodeling of structures and

operations on corporate organizations or corporatization. This gave rise to

an intensified staff resentment as their autonomy has been reduced, new

administrative units have been established, and an imminent crisis of

leadership facing the sector (Coates, et al., 2009). This steered Lumby

(2003) to label this as a wave of managerialism that diverge from explicit

oppression to restrained manipulation.

Higher Education leaders, according to Black (2015) need a

combination of leadership and management competencies in order to

address the challenges faced in the sector. The separation of these facets

is counterproductive and will not address the negative impact of

managerialism perceived within institutions. Within a changing world

effective leaders must be both students and teachers who are always

eager to learn more about how to enthuse, engage and empower those

who follow them. For the personnel in academic positions, becoming a

learner may be uncomfortable, so these individuals should be encouraged,

 30

through the active, visible and credible example of senior academic

leaders and peers, to appreciate the benefits and necessity of personal

leadership development.

Managerial Stress. Behind the achievements of many great

academicians lies the factor of stress and how it interacted with their

productivity. A moderate amount of stress helped them reach the peak of

their performance. However, when stress reached excessive proportions

or what people consider as distress or burnout, their performance

significantly declines. Note also that without sufficient stress or lack of

motivation or challenge-rust out, their performance also declines.

Academic administrators often experience excessive stress. It is at

this point that stress becomes the most potent factor which may lead to a

variety of illnesses. However, when stressors are properly managed, the

end result is not illness but wellness. The stress experience can be a

positive one if it is geared towards mental and physical well-being of

individuals. To achieve complete equilibrium and a full sense of health

requires going beyond stress management to adaptive holistic stress

reduction practices.

The key to stress reduction rests on the identification of stress traps.

This may help understand the more common stressors that beset
 31

academic administrators. Gmelch and Miskin (2011) disclosed five sets of

characteristics namely: administrative tasks, faculty role, role-ambiguity,

hierarchical authority, and perceived expectations. Moreover, the Center

for Academic Leadership (2017) likewise noted the specific stress factors

that beset academic administrators particularly the deans in relation to

those disclosed by Gmelch and Miskin.

The administrative task stress factors include meeting deadlines

related to meetings, reports and other paperwork; preparing budgets and

allocating resources; seeking financial support for department programs;

writing letters, memos, and responding to other paperwork; evaluating

faculty and staff performance; making decisions that affect the lives of

faculty, staff and students; perceiving an excessive workload; supervising

and coordinating the tasks of many people; complying with college and

university rules and regulations; attending excessively long meetings;

handling student concerns and conflicts; handling faculty conflicts and

desires and dealing with faculty bullies; and balancing institutional,

departmental and personal goals. The aforecited stress arises from the

academic administrators‟ daily duties, work overload, the time demands of

coordinating activities and communication, as well as their day-to-day

responsibilities.
 32

Moreover, academic administrators seem to be caught between both

administrative stresses and those of the regular faculty role. As regards the

faculty role stress factors, these include: preparing manuscripts for

publication; securing financial support for research; believing one‟s

academic career progress is not what it should be; feeling insufficiently

recognized for research performance; and having insufficient time to stay

current in academic field.

Out of this Janus position emerges the role-ambiguity factor. Here,

academic administrators basically experience stress from the uncertainties

and inadequacies of their position. It seems that the percentage of

academic administrators suffering from these stressors is higher in most

cases. The paradoxical situation of trying to fill a “swivel” position causes

them to feel the double pressure - that is to be effective managers and

productive faculty members.

The role-ambiguity stress factors include the feeling of inadequately

trained to handle responsibilities; feeling too much responsibility delegated

by the dean; resenting low expectations by the dean; feeling insufficiently

informed to perform the job; feeling others do not understand one‟s goals

and expectations and trying to satisfy the concerns of constituent groups

such as alumni, community, donors, etc. The aforementioned stress

 33

results from conflict over job responsibilities not expressed or understood

clearly in an organization. Likewise, this kind of stress factors highlights the

academic administrators who are trying to satisfy the concerns of their

stakeholders.

The hierarchical authority stress factors, on the other hand include:

not knowing how the dean evaluates one‟s performance; trying to influence

the actions and decisions of the dean; receiving insufficient recognition for

administrative responsibilities; having insufficient authority to perform

departmental responsibilities; resolving differences with the dean; feeling

unreasonable expectations for job performance; believing administrative

career progress is not what it should be; feeling required paperwork is not

utilized; and receiving inadequate salary. The above-mentioned stress

arises from the academic administrator‟s relationship with higher

authorities and inadequate recognition, rewards and career progression.

Moreover, this kind of stress factors is evident when academic

administrators have insufficient authority to perform departmental

responsibilities.

Finally, and probably the most problematic for academic

administrators, is the fifth factor, perceived expectations, which reflects the

commitments and obligations designated deans perceive as necessary to

 34

fulfill the expectations of their positions. The most notable and powerful

stressor in this factor is self-imposed excessively high self-expectations.

These include: having to travel to fulfill perceived job expectations;

participating in work-related activities outside regular working hours that

conflict with personal activities; meeting social obligations like clubs,

parties, volunteer work perceived to be expected of academic deans;

making presentations at professional meetings; and imposing excessively

high self-expectations. The foregoing stress results from expectations to

achieve more than can be delivered based on commitments and

obligations inherent to one‟s position as academic administrators.

While demands surrounding the academic administrators‟ position

cannot always be moderated, one‟s perception, attitude and approach to

them is under the control and is, ultimately, the deciding factor that

determines whether these demands become stress traps. Feelings of

anxiety are usually attributed to outside conditions rather than internal

attitudes. Academic administrators typically place the blame on college or

university administration, state or corporate funding, regents or other

demanding stakeholders. In actuality, much of the stresses experienced by

academicians are self-imposed. In fact, individual personalities play an

important role in determining how stressful academic conditions are.

 35

Stressors, by themselves, represent objective demands that become

stress traps only when one subjectively perceives them to be troublesome.

Considering the foregoing definition of managerial stress, one

realizes the role of perception in this process: the anticipation of a person‟s

inability to respond adequately to a perceived demand, accompanied by

one‟s anticipation of negative consequences for an inadequate response.

This definition is based on the individual‟s perception of his or her ability to

meet the challenges of the academic administrator position. Thus, it is how

one approaches the job and life that causes most stress. Perception plays

the major role in one‟s resilience to, or acceptance of, job stress. Although

it is difficult to establish clear causal links between personality factors and

disease, research finds sufficient evidence that they do contribute to a

range of illnesses, including migraine headaches, asthma, arthritis, heart

disease, and cancer. This evidence is too strong to dismiss and too critical

to overlook.

Stress Management Planning. A Stress Management Plan breaks

up stressors into two types: those internally controlled and those beyond

one‟s control. Those within one‟s control should be managed at the cause

level by self-management techniques while those beyond one‟s control

should be attacked at the symptom level with stress absorbers, such as

relaxation, nutrition, exercise and coping attitudes.

 36

The majority of top stressors relate directly to time, administrative

tasks, academic endeavors, and personal expectations. Certainly, some of

these stressors are more controllable than others. Most academic

administrators would concur that they could become better managers of

their time and personal expectations, but it is more difficult to change

salaries and other organizational constraints in difficult economic and

administrative times.

On that ground, one must identify the causes of academic

administrators‟ stress that can be controlled and resolved. For those that

are inherent in the job and cannot be controlled, one must learn to live with

and absorb the pressure and attack the symptoms rather than the causes.

It is essential to note that the first and most critical step in controlling

stress is to take charge of the stressors. A good Stress Management Plan

may help reduce these menacing stressors. Its purpose is to systematically

dissect and redirect stressors by analyzing the causes of each stressor,

examining potential solutions, and finally taking corrective actions.

Specifically, the steps of the plan include identifying a bothersome

stressor over which one has some control; searching for the causes of the

stressful event; generating a set of possible solutions to remedy the

causes; specifying a plan to alleviate the cause; developing a timetable to

 37

implement the plan; setting a date and method of follow-up and evaluate

the effectiveness of the plan; and investigating potential problems or

unintended consequences the plan may have created.

While such a Stress Management Plan may be seen as mechanical

and systematic, its logic is exactly what makes it work. Eliminating the

cause is the only way to truly alleviate stress. For those stressors beyond

one‟s control, three other steps are needed to absorb the pressure:

exercise, proper nutrition and relaxation. These will provide the sound

body and mind needed to cope with the onslaught of daily tensions and

frustrations. Together with the holistic coping techniques, they can provide

a full range of stress reduction strategies, from managing to making, from

solving the problems to absorbing the symptoms.

For many academic administrators, work has become their entire

life, defining both its pressures and its pleasures. According to Gmelch

(2006), over 60 per cent of administrators have nothing of greater meaning

in their lives than work - and since they work an average of 56 hours per

week, over half of their waking hours are consumed by work. Work and

their roles as deans often define identity and self-concepts that can dictate

with whom they socialize, where they live and for how long, and the

lifestyle they lead.

 38

He also noted that the academic administrators do not have to

accept the leadership challenges at the expense of professorial pleasures

and personal enjoyments. The ability to manage stress depends on how

well trade-offs are made between the demands and pressures on

professional and personal time and balance kept among academic,

leadership, and personal roles.

To reduce stress, they must highlight the positive side of being

academic administrators called payoffs and balancing strategies used. He

also stressed that when developing a coping strategy, academic

administrators specifically the deans should consider the following

propositions as a basis for their responses to stress: Individual is the most

important variable. No single coping technique is effective for all academic

deans in all colleges and universities. Therefore, coping techniques must

be sensitive to each individual‟s character and particular cultural, social,

psychological, and environmental circumstances; Individuals cannot

change the world around them, and academic deans cannot change all the

pressures they encounter in higher education but they can change how

they relate to them; and individuals who cope best develop a repertoire of

techniques to counteract different stressors in different situations.

 39

To systematically address the stress of academic administrators, the

following identifiable categories of coping, which, if used holistically, can

help them in handling the pressures of their jobs. These include social

support, physical activities, intellectual stimulation, entertainment, personal

interest, self-management, and supportive attitudes.

With reference to social support, the academic administrators

indicated that social support activities helped them break out of stress

traps. They suggested coping responses such as discussing problems with

former deans of the college and current deans from other colleges; sharing

frustrations with a spouse and spending leisure time with the family;

consulting with the other academic administrators; lunching and chatting

informally with departmental colleagues; developing companionship with

friends outside the department; confiding in the office staff; relying on

advice of selected colleagues; and having a couple of confidants.

As regards physical activities, academic administrators likewise

reported that physical activities helped break the stress cycle. Such

activities ranged from walking, jogging, swimming, and sailing, to more

competitive sports, like golf, tennis, racquetball and basketball. Many

suggested structuring regular physical workouts. Many universities and

 40

colleges resemble or outdo resorts in what they offer in sports and physical

exercise facilities. The key is to find time to take advantage of them.

In line with intellectual stimulation, academic administrators

emphasized the importance of staying active in, and setting aside time to

concentrate on, research and attending professional conferences. They

also highlighted the significance of getting out of the office for field work or

going to the library; teaching at least once a year; and enjoying cultural

events such as plays, concerts and art exhibits.

Relative to entertainment, academic administrators averred the

significance of attending cultural events as well as reading and listening to

music, going to movies, sporting events, and out to dinner. They also

noted the value of taking vacations, even if only for a few days or a week-

end. However, in connection with personal interests, academic

administrators underscored personal hobbies, such as playing a musical

instrument, hiking or taking nature walks, enrolling in a vocational class,

gourmet cooking, gardening, and other personal interests not related to

work.

With reference to self-management, academic administrators

highlighted a number of self-management techniques to use their time

 41

effectively and efficiently and to cope with the pressures, including seeking

help from, sharing decision making with, and delegating authority to faculty

and staff; using committees to share the workload; planning strategically

and prioritizing work focusing on goals; scheduling time off and reserving

inviolable blocks of time for family and research; setting realistic goals for

the college and for oneself; hibernating perhaps in a laboratory or private

office or the library to work on activities requiring intense concentration;

and clearing the desk every day.

Finally, with regard to supportive attitudes, academic administrators

identified numerous coping techniques which could be categorized simply

as supportive attitudes. They cited such attitudinal techniques as being

optimistic, developing a sense of humor, and keeping a positive outlook;

going home guilt-free; emotionally distancing oneself from the job or

leaving the worry at the workplace; not taking on others‟ anxieties;

depersonalizing issues; being patient; minimizing self-importance; knowing

one‟s limitations; and recognizing that some stress is normal.

Taking the foregoing specific coping strategies collectively,

academic administrators can view them as a coping taxonomy from which

to seek their own stress reduction. Effective coping consists of building a

 42

repertoire of techniques equally balanced in the social, physical,

intellectual, entertainment, managerial, personal and attitudinal categories.

The goal is to reduce one‟s stress by adding some of the aforecited

techniques to one‟s present repertoire of stress responses.

Although researchers from the disciplines of behavioral science,

clinical psychology, education, medicine, and psychiatry, have undertaken

studies to understand the phenomenon of stress and the coping

responses, the foremost authority on stress, Selye, has pointed out that

there is no readymade formula that will suit everyone. Blueprints for exact

techniques are not available. Coping is an art, not a science.

Research Literature

The following studies were reviewed because they contain findings

that are relevant to the present study:

The study of Probst (2011) examined the preferred leadership styles

of leaders at a Midwestern Community College in the United States using

the Leadership Style Survey developed by Dr. Lee G. Bolman and Dr.

Terrence E. Deal. The results of the study showed that there is no

significant difference in the preferred leadership styles of leaders at three

levels of leadership at a specific Midwestern Community College based on

 43

position or participation in a leadership development program. The study

also showed that the human resource frame was the preferred frame for

organization where participative and collaborative leadership are used,

such as in educational leadership. Moreover, the study found out that there

was no significant difference in the preferred frame of leadership between

participants and non-participants of a leadership development program.

The study of Joo, et al. (2014) delved into the leadership styles of a

dean of a private university in Malaysia based on Bolman and Deal‟s

Leadership Style. The study employed the descriptive method of research.

The findings of the study revealed that the dean perceived her leadership

style slightly different compared to her 35 staff who were reporting directly

to her. Gender, age, academic qualification, current position held, number

of years spent in their current job and managerial experience did not cause

any significant differences in the outcomes of the study. The dean

exhibited two frames, which implies that it is necessary for future deans to

be trained for leadership skill to meet the growing demands of the job.

Moreover, the structural frame appeared to be the strongest frame used by

the dean when evaluated by her staff. The dean rated herself highly in both

the structural and human resource frames. Neither the dean nor her staff
 44

found the other two frames - political and symbolic - were preferred frames

used by the dean.

Clark‟s (2014) study investigated the Bolman and Deal‟s Leadership

Style preferred by academic department chairs (ADCs) of Educational

Leadership or Administration programs at member colleges and

universities of the University Council for Educational Administration

(UCEA) in the United States. Likewise, the study looked at how the

preferred frame of the chairpersons varied according to the ADC‟s gender,

age, racial/ethnic identification, and years of experience in their current

chairperson position. The research employed the descriptive method of

research.

The findings of the study showed that the human resource frame

was the preferred leadership style among ADCs of Educational Leadership

or Administration programs at UCEA member institutions; that the second

preferred leadership style was the structural frame, and the symbolic frame

was the third preferred orientation; subsequently, the least preferred frame

of the ADCs was the political frame. Likewise, it was found out that there

were no statistically significant differences in preferred frames based on

the gender, age, racial or ethnic identification, or years in current chair

position. Moreover, the study indicated that they saw themselves, at a

 45

minimum, equally balanced as a faculty member and administrator or they

perceived themselves as more of an administrator than a faculty member.

Similarly, the study of Phillips (2012) looked into the leadership

styles of aviation program leaders at higher education institutions utilizing

the four leadership styles of Bolman and Deal. The analysis of the data

indicated that aviation program leaders subscribed to the structural frame

the most, followed by the human resource, political and symbolic frames,

respectively. The difference separating the frames, however, was very

small, which disclosed that aviation program leaders did not subscribe to

one of the four leadership styles more than the others, and that type of

frame did not have a significant effect on perceived leadership

effectiveness. However, it was noted that aviation leaders were perceived

to be more effective if they have implemented more than one frame in their

leadership style. The study also discovered that the majority of institutional

factors had little impact in the type of primary leadership style in place at

the respective institution.

Correspondingly, Monahan and Shah‟s (2011) study investigated the

leadership styles of university presidents in Masters I institutions in the

United States. Likewise, it determined what frames presidents used

individually or collectively and if this usage varies by specific variables.

 46

This research employed the descriptive method of research. The

respondents of the study included 494 presidents of Masters I institutions

as determined by the Carnegie Foundation. The findings showed that

majority of the respondents employed the full four frame style. This finding

did not vary by gender, ethnicity, age, marital status, or type of control.

However, differences in leadership style were found by the institutions‟

student enrollment size. Based on these results, it is clear, the role of a

university president is very complex and requires the use of versatile

abilities. Further, it is apparent that as the student population grows there

is a greater need to employ multi-faceted leadership styles. Incumbents

must deal with multiple internal and external constituencies over a vast

array of challenges and opportunities. To effectively lead, it was noted that

presidents must be able to examine and address problems from multiple

vantage points.

Congruently, the study of Little (2010) compared the selected

community college administrators‟ perception of their behavior, orientation

or style, and managerial and leadership effectiveness with the perceptions

expressed by their supervisors, peers and subordinated. This study

employed the descriptive method of research. The respondents included

sixteen selected administrators at a North Carolina community college.

 47

Those administrators involved vice presidents, associate deans, executive

directors, executive officers and an academic dean. Descriptive

comparisons indicated that leaders and their supervisors considered

leaders‟ preferred frame as the human resource frame, followed by the

structural, symbolic and political frames. On the other hand, both peers

and subordinates deemed the structural frame as leaders‟ preferred frame,

followed by the human resource, symbolic, and political frames. Individual

frame analyses revealed discrepancies in the level of rankings, with

leaders often rated themselves higher than others. Discrepancies were

also noted in leadership and managerial effectiveness, where leaders were

more inclined to rate themselves in the top 20 per cent of effective leaders

they had known and peers were more inclined to rate leaders in the next to

top 20 per cent or middle 20 per cent. The results suggested statistically

significant differences between leaders‟ perceptions of both their

leadership behavior and their leadership style when compared with the

perceptions of their supervisors, peers, and subordinates.

Moreover, Alford‟s (2014) qualitative study described the lived

experience, challenges and coping strategies of instructional deans in four

technical colleges in Georgia, USA. The data gathered via personal

interview with 11 full-time instructional deans disclosed that they never

 48

experience typical days; that is, their time was spent more on tasks such

as addressing faculty issues, general communication and administrative

duties. The study further revealed that instructional deans found it difficult

to define their position, indicating a lack of clear purpose and direction,

which contribute to stress load that deans tolerate. Most deans entered

the position unaware of the policies, procedures, physical challenges,

emotional strain, time consumption, stresses and expectations associated

with their newly acquired dean‟s role. Many of the deans in the study

claimed that they have learned about their duties in an on-the-job fashion.

The study of Strathe and Wilson (2006) explored how the faculty

members have historically served as the source of academic leadership

through their degree programs for teaching, research and scholarship, and

service responsibilities. The study also used the descriptive research

method. The result of the study disclosed the respondents‟ narrow view of

the academic institution. They stated that academic institutions are those

that likely do not extend beyond their own academic department. However,

certain faculty demonstrate characteristics that allow them to be identified

as future academic administrators: they are hardworking, visible in the

department, attentive, collegial and collaborative, successful at task

completion, and have a positive outlook toward current administrators.

 49

The study also remarked that the transition from faculty member to

administrator is a difficult process. The study also noted that faculty

members often become administrators, not necessarily because they were

driven to do so, but because it “was their turn to be the first among equals”.

The academic leadership position is often considered as a temporary role-

a place to which a professor goes to and comes from.

Leon and Jackson‟s (2009) study delved into the academic

leadership position attainment in research in higher education. The paper

also employed the descriptive research method. The finding of the study

showed that for most faculty members, academic leadership positions are

an “after thought” and not an aspiration, because for them, assuming

administrative positions is seen as changing careers. The results of the

study likewise revealed that women who became academic leaders faired

better than men in obtaining upper-level positions. Also an increase in age

augmented the likelihood that the individual would secure an academic

leadership position. Moreover, individuals with higher degrees were more

likely to assume academic leadership positions and upper-level positions.

Another finding was that faculty were more likely to become

academic leaders at institutions with teaching as their primary mission.

They found that faculty members in smaller institutions were more likely to
 50

assume administrative position because these institutions allow for the

building of more collegial relationships, making the leadership position

rewarding. And those holding academic leadership positions at public

institutions had a higher probability of securing upper-level administrative

positions.

The study of Gmelch (2006) offered a diagnosis of the common

causes of stress experienced by academic administrators specifically the

chairpersons. This paper underscored that stressors are inherent in a job

that requires that office holders continue to discharge their roles as faculty

researchers and teachers while also taking on new leadership and

management duties for which they may not have been prepared and for

which the expectations are not entirely clear. For academic administrators,

this paper offered tools for managing stress. This research also draws on

several national and international studies of academic leaders to achieve

the following objectives: understand what stress is, and what it is not;

dispel common myths surrounding the concept of stress; propose a stress

cycle that, if understood, can help to manage stress; identify common

stresses of academic leaders; explore how stress impairs and enhances

performance; suggest techniques to master stress; and explore academic

leaders‟ potential tradeoffs and payoffs in their administrative careers, in

 51

the light of their objectives and intended legacies as leaders. Coping

involves developing an action plan that will identify one‟s most serious

stressors and the causes of stressful events, and generating a set of

possible solutions and a personal management plan to remedy them. In

addition to this systematic approach to stress reduction, this paper

provided strategies for balancing tradeoffs in the academicians‟ personal

and professional lives and prioritizing their activities in the context of the

legacy they would like to leave behind as academic leaders.

McErlane‟s (2014) study explored the work-family balance of the

deans of nursing. The paper employed the qualitative phenomenological

study. Specifically, it analyzed the lived experiences and shared practices

of female baccalaureate nursing deans related to work and family balance.

One-on-one unstructured in-depth telephone interviews were conducted,

recorded and transcribed verbatim. The data were analyzed using a

hermeneutic phenomenological method. The findings of the study

disclosed the seven themes that emerged from the main study data which

illuminated the lived experiences of nursing deans. The themes included

the following: feeling stressed, deans cross borders between work and

family, sources of support for positive work-family balance, specific

experiences that hinder work-family balance, strategies to achieve work-

 52

family balance, satisfaction with the deanship position, and participant

recommendations for novice deans. The results of the study confirmed that

the deanship role is stressful and the work demands are high. Despite

intense job demands, deans were found to derive satisfaction from serving

in the role.

Melancon‟s study (2014) analyzed the perceptions of school

administrators as they relate to workplace stress factors and the type of

coping strategies selected to handle stress. This study employed the

qualitative method of research. For this study, the selected population was

68 school administrators including principals, associate principals, and

assistant principals from a school district in south Louisiana. The findings

of this study revealed that administrators‟ experiences or issues pertaining

to time management cause the most work-related stress; that school

administrators selected emotional strategies as the most often used

technique to combat stress; the demographic factor with the most influence

on stress and the type of coping strategy used is years of experience. The

findings also noted that as the role of the school administrator continues to

evolve, previous and new stimuli will emerge, causing stress in the work

setting. Developing coping strategies to reduce or eliminate symptoms of

 53

stress are non-negotiable for administrators to remain in the profession for

a number of years. If administrators expect to sustain a career spanning

decades, coping mechanisms become imperative to reduce stress and

maintain longevity as a school leader.

Similarly, the study of Engelmann (2014) looked into the adult

literacy program administrators‟ perceptions of occupational stress and

coping mechanisms related to job satisfaction, job efficacy, career

longevity, and overall ability to cope with stress. The research also defined

the demographic components, job stressors, and coping mechanisms of

adult literacy program administrators from New York State based on

Gmelch‟s Managerial Stress Cycle. Occupational stressors and coping

mechanisms were examined using a transactional approach. Adult literacy

program administrators identified their perceived levels of job satisfaction,

job efficacy, career longevity, and overall ability to cope with stress based

on the intervening variables of the study.

The study of Yepes and Duarte (2012) evaluated the factors

associated with and notions concerning stress of the administration and

academic personnel of the Southern Leyte State University (SLSU),

Philippines. The descriptive survey method was employed to gather data

from the 125 respondents using a Stress Audit instrument. The findings of

the study disclosed that, generally, the administrative and academic

 54

personnel of SLSU had manifested serious susceptibility to stress sources

and stress symptoms which were significantly affected by the academic

personnel‟s age profile, and slightly affected by the length of service of

both academic and administrative staff. The academic personnel‟s number

of office designations had affected both their perspective on stress sources

and symptoms. It can be deduced that the SLSU administrative and

academic personnel‟s notions concerning stress sources and symptoms

vary due to the nature and extent of the task they perform. It was

recommended that a comprehensive Welfare Administration Program for

the SLSU personnel be implemented to reduce health risks caused by

stress and to promote the welfare and well-being of all SLSU employees.

Poe‟s (2011) study examined the principals‟ leadership style and a

correlation with job-related stressors. Leadership was categorized into

three leadership styles based on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire:

transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and passive-avoidant

leadership. Stress was categorized into four sources of stress based on

the Administrator Stress Index (ASI): role-based stress, task-based stress,

boundary-spanning stress, and conflict-mediating stress. Thirty-four

elementary principals in an East Tennessee school system participated in

the study. The findings of the study showed three correlations that were

educational statistically significant: Conflict-mediating stress as it relates to

 55

transformational leadership, task-based stress as it relates to transactional

leadership, and boundary-spanning stress as it relates to transactional

leadership. There were no significant findings for stress as it relates to

passive-avoidant leadership. The findings also pointed out that there were

no correlations between role-based stress and transformational leadership,

which indicated that transformational leaders are not bothered by day-to-

day duties. Of the four sources of stress, tasked-based stress was

indicated to be the highest ranked based on the ASI.

The correlational study of Foy (2015) examined the existence,

strength, and direction of relationships between perceptions of social

support, work-life conflict, job performance, and workplace stress in an

Irish higher education institution. The study included an organizational

stress screening survey instrument to survey the population of 1,420

academics, research, and support staff. Multiple linear regression analysis

was used to evaluate the relationships between the independent variables

such as social support, work-life conflict, job performance; the covariates,

which include staff category, direct reports, age, gender; and the

dependent variable, which is the workplace stress. The findings of the

study revealed a negative correlation between social support and

workplace stress, a positive correlation between work-life conflict and

workplace stress, and a negative correlation between job performance and

 56

workplace stress. The results also showed significant relationships

between the covariates direct reports and gender and the dependent

variable workplace stress. By examining the findings of this study,

educational leaders can enable social change by developing and

implementing social support, work-life strategies, and potential pathways to

reduce levels of workplace stress and improve quality of life for employees

and their families.

Morrison‟s (2015) study looked at the levels of stress, and the impact

of the Common Core State Standards on stress, of superintendents.

Secondary analysis addressed demographic differences and relationships

between stress and the independent variables. The study employed the

survey research method and used descriptive and correlation statistics.

The respondents of the study included 56 superintendents in North

Carolina, USA. The key findings in this study indicated that North Carolina

superintendents experience moderate job-related stress; that the top three

reported stressors were: attempting to meet students‟ performance

standards as measured by standardized tests, imposing excessively high

expectations on myself, and preparing and allocating budget resources;

that there were no significant differences between the variables of gender,

years as superintendents, education level, size of the district, and district

poverty when compared to the superintendents‟ reported Common Core

 57

stress levels; that superintendents with 4-10 years of experience as a

superintendent reported significantly higher overall stress than

superintendents with more than 10 years of experience as a

superintendent; that there were no significant differences among

superintendents‟ mean stress indexes in terms of gender, education level,

size of the district, and district poverty; and that the top three responses

superintendents reported, in their open ended responses, were: funding

issues, stressful new policies, and federal intrusion into education.

The study of Igharo (2013) discussed the meaning of stress, the

sources of stress, factors influencing the experience of stress, the effects

of stress especially as it relates to school leadership, some methods that

are used in measuring stress level, drawing relevant inferences from some

studies that has been carried out how stress rears up its head in the school

set-up, and how stress can be managed and coped with by school leaders.

This findings of the study pointed out some basic coping strategies for

school leaders. Significant among others include: the improvement of

financial remunerations and fringe benefits, reduction of their workload and

responsibility for people and material. Likewise, the study highlighted that

school leaders must communicate more often and through more channels,

because information that people in an organization do not have creates a

vacuum filled with stress.

 58

Ambrosini‟s (2013) study investigated the relationship of

administrative stress experienced by special education administrators and

its influence on the dimensions of burnout. The study employed the

descriptive research method. The respondents of the study included

special education administrators. The findings of the study unveiled that

special education administrators reported a high level of emotional

exhaustion, a low level of depersonalization and a high level of personal

accomplishment. Task-based stress was found to bother special education

administrators most often. Based on the results of a correlational analysis,

significant relationships were found between the stresses experienced by

special education administrators and the dimension of burnout. A

regression analysis revealed that depersonalization and administrative

stresses were strong predictors of emotional exhaustion. Further,

decreased depersonalization was strong predictor of increased personal

accomplishment. The study underscored the need to recognize the

stresses that influence burnout and to continue to foster feelings of

personal accomplishment to mediate emotional exhaustion and

administrative stress.

The study of Guthals (2009) explored the relationship between

Positive Behavior Supports (PBS), student achievement, severe problem

behavior, and administrative stress. The study employed the descriptive

 59

research method. The participants of the study include 232 practicing

elementary and secondary principals in Montana. The findings of this

research indicated that Montana principals reported low to moderate levels

of administrative stress and high levels of PBS components present.

Participants indicated Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) status in all areas,

as well as levels of severe problem behavior, as similar to state averages.

No experimentally important relationships were found between district size,

school grade level, school poverty level, previous training/education, or

years of experience, nor were these variables found to have an

experimentally important relationship with any other study variables. The

results also showed that there is no experimentally important relationship

was found between PBS rates, student achievement, severe problem

behavior, or administrative stress. However, an experimentally important

relationship was found between level of PBS-related training and rates of

PBS components present.

Trimble‟s (2013) study delved into the alignment between personal

and environmental factors and stress management of superintendents in

the Midwest as viewed through the lens of the Person-Environment-Fit.

The study employed the quantitative approach and survey research

methodology with a post positivistic theoretical perspective. The

participants in this research were 992 practicing superintendents in the

 60

Midwest. The findings of the study disclosed that through a factor analysis,

five new superintendent stress constructs were identified namely: board-

relations stress, task-based stress, expectation-based stress, resource-

management stress, and self-efficacy stress. Hierarchal regression

analysis results indicated that both personal and environmental factors

predict frequency of superintendent stress.

Finally, the study of Wolverton, et al. (2001) analyzed the

challenges that brings out many of the tensions and dilemmas of deans.

The findings of the study pointed out that deans exist at the center of

complex relational webs comprising faculty, students, central

administration, and external entities and support agencies. Their primary

charge is to keep the resulting relationships finely balanced. To do this

requires creating a positive culture, having knowledge of the legal and

regulatory environments, technological literacy, financial management

skills, a strategic perspective, a healthy means of maintaining professional

and personal balance, and an enduring concern for the integrity of their

faculty and institution.

Synthesis

The review of conceptual literature has provided the present study

with some constructs that helped build up the conceptual framework of the
 61

study. These constructs were drawn from the theories, concepts, and

ideas of researchers, scholars and critics. From these insights, the

researcher drew out four general concepts which, in themselves, were

constructs such as State Universities in Region IV-A; Academic

Leadership and Management; Managerial Stress; and Stress Management

Planning.

With reference to the first construct, the concepts from the CHED‟s

Roadmap Public Higher Education Program 2011-2016, NEDA, Currie and

Procter, CHED and Rice provided inputs as regards the state universities

in Region IV-A and their significance in developing high-level professions

to meet the manpower needs of the industry, public service and civil

society. Through their triadic functions namely research, extension and

extension, they significantly contribute to the urgent tasks of alleviating

poverty, hastening the productivity of the workplace and the dynamism of

communities. Likewise, they noted that the organizational structures of all

SUCs in the CALABARZON area specifically the Cavite State University

(CvSU), the Laguna Polytechnic State University (LPSU), the Batangas

State University (BatStateU), the University of Rizal System (URS), and

the Southern Luzon State University (SLSU) are alike in such a way that
 62

the academic administrators are designated by the University President

and under the supervision of the Vice President for Academic Affairs.

As regards the second construct, the ideas of Middlehurst, Hamel,

Wolverton, et al., Osse-Assare, et al., Yielder and Codling, Leithwood and

Jantzi, Hassan, DeBoer, et al., Bolman and Deal, Washington, Clark,

Jones, et al. Szekeres, Coates, et al., Black, and Lumby on academic

leadership and management provided substantial inputs relative to

academic leadership and management. They underscored that both

leadership and management form a complementary and equally necessary

systems of action, with management being necessary for the smooth

functioning of an organization and leadership needed to achieve change.

In addition, the four leadership styles or frames were discussed signifying

the mental models designed to be the basis on how managers and leaders

view organizations, how decisions are made and how the culture of

organizations is derived.

Relative to the third construct, the notions of McErlane, Gmelch and

Miskin, and the Center for Academic Leadership on managerial stress

provided inputs about the common stressors that beset academic

administrators namely: administrative tasks, faculty role, role-ambiguity,

 63

hierarchical authority and perceived expectations. They also noted that a

moderate amount of stress helped the administrators to reach their peak

performance. However, when stress reached excessive proportions or

burnout, their performance significantly declines. Moreover, they cited that

without sufficient stress or lack of motivation or challenge, their

performance also declines.

In connection with the fourth and final construct, the concepts of

Gmelch and Selye about stress management planning breaks up stressors

into two categories: those internally controlled and those beyond one‟s

control. They averred that in stress management planning, the first and

most critical step in controlling stress is to take charge of the stressors. In

dealing with stress, academic administrators may use coping strategies

and resources that will help them to adapt to environmental demands.

These strategies play a key role in determining the nature and extent of the

stressor‟s impact. Coping correctly with stressors facilitates successful

adaptation, while a failure in this process puts individuals in risk of poor

adaptation. In planning, it is important to systematically dissect and redirect

stressors by analyzing the causes of each stressor, examining potential

solutions and finally taking corrective actions. Although, researchers from

diverse disciplines have undertaken studies to understand the

 64

phenomenon of stress and coping, they claimed that there is no

readymade formula that will suit everyone.

The studies of Probst, Clark and Little bear similarity with the present

study on the account that these researches were anchored on Dr. Lee

Bolman and Dr. Terrence Deal‟s Leadership Style. Even so, they differ in

the sense that the human resource frame was the preferred frame of the

organization leaders where participative and collaborative academic

leadership are used. The second preferred leadership style is the structural

frame, the symbolic frame was the third preferred orientation and the least

preferred frame was the political frame. However, the present study

revealed that even though the most preferred leadership style of the

academic administrators was also the human resource frame, it was

followed by symbolic frame, structural frame and political frame,

respectively.

The studies of Joo, et al. and Phillips concords with the present

study owing to the fact that both were also anchored on Bolman and Deal‟s

Leadership Style. However, they differ because in Joo, et al.‟s study, the

structural frame appeared to be the strongest frame used by the dean

when evaluated by her staff and that the dean rated herself highly in both
 65

the structural and human resource frames. Neither the dean nor her staff

found the other two frames - political and symbolic - were preferred frames

used by the dean. In Phillip‟s paper, the aviation program leaders

subscribed to the structural frame the most, followed by the human

resource, political and symbolic frames, respectively. While the present

study revealed that the most preferred leadership style of the academic

administrators was the human resource frame, followed by symbolic frame,

structural frame and political frame, respectively.

Similarly, the study of Monahan and Shah is analogous with the

present study due to the fact that both were anchored on Bolman and

Deal‟s Leadership Style and that majority of the respondents employed the

full four frame style. However, they differ because the previous study

showed that by viewing problems from numerous perspectives, leaders

may be able to perform more creative problem solving strategies to better

address stakeholders‟ concerns. On the other hand, the present study

showed that by proposing a plan, the academic administrators may be able

to moderate their workplace stress factors.

The study of Alford is congruent with the present study in the sense

that both dealt with lived experiences, and challenges of instructional

 66

deans. However, they differ because the previous study focused on coping

strategies of instructional deans while the present study centered on the

leadership style of academic administrators.

The study of White is in consonance with the present study on

account that both dealt with experiences of associate deans. On the other

hand, they differ in the sense that the previous study centered on doctoral

granting research universities, while the present study focused on

academic administrators in state universities of CALABARZON.

The study of Strathe and Wilson bears similarity with the present

study because both dealt with academic leadership of faculty members.

However, they differ in the sense that the previous study underscored the

difficulty of transition from faculty to administrator. While the present study

highlighted the leadership styles of faculty vis-à-vis the managerial stress

they experience.

The study of Leon and Jackson runs parallel with the present study

due to the fact that both dealt with academic leadership position

attainment. On the other hand, the previous study focused on investigating

leadership in relation to profile variables while the present study lends

credence to leadership style in understanding managerial stress

 67

Gmelch‟s study bears similarity with the present study in the sense

that both identified common stresses of academic leaders. However, they

differ in the sense that the previous study focused on common causes of

stresses experienced by chairpersons while the present study centered on

the common stresses experienced by academic administrators which

include the College Deans, Campus Deans, Campus Directors, Dean of

Colleges and Associate Deans.

McErlane‟s study substantiated the present study owing to the fact

that both dealt with deanship role as stressful and with work demands that

are high. However, they differ on the account that the previous study noted

that despite intense job demands, deans were found to derive satisfaction

from serving in the role. However, the present study noted a broader net

and provided the leadership role with valuable information to mentor new

leaders and create healthy work environments.

Melancon‟s study concords with the present study on the account

that both dealt with the perceptions of academic administrators as they

relate to workplace stress factors and the type of coping strategies

selected to handle stress. However, they differ because the previous study

was focused on the administrators‟ experiences pertaining to time

management, which cause the most work-related stress and that

 68

emotional strategies as the most often used technique to combat stress.

The present study, on the other hand, centered on the academic

administrators‟ workplace stress factors and the proposed a Stress

Management Plan to combat pressure.

Engelmann‟s study is analogous with the present study owing to the

fact that both dealt with occupational stress and coping mechanisms.

However, they differ in the sense that the previous study was focused on

job stressors and coping mechanisms of adult literacy program

administrators from New York State while the present study centered on

job stressors and coping mechanisms of academic administrators of state

universities in the Philippines.

Yepes‟ and Duarte‟s study runs parallel with the present study by the

reason that both dealt with the factors concerning administrative and

academic personnel‟s stress. However, they differ because the previous

study recommended a comprehensive Welfare Administration Program for

the Southern Leyte State University. The present study, on the other hand,

proposed a Stress Management Plan for Academic Administrators of State

Universities in Region IV-A as its output in order to moderate managerial

stress.

Poe‟s study is in harmony with the present study due to the fact that

they both dealt with the leadership styles and job-related stressors.
 69

However, they differ because Poe‟s study focused on administrative role

conflict, ambiguity stress and burnout, as well as administrator-preparation

program while the present study centered on the characteristics of

managerial stress such as perceived expectation stress factor, role-

ambiguity stress factor, administrative task stress factor, and authority-

relationship stress factor.

Foy‟s study bears similarity with the present study owing to the fact

that both dealt with workplace stress and potential pathways to reduce

level of workplace stress. However, they differ in the sense that the

previous study focused on the existence, strength and direction of

relationships between perceptions of social support, work-life conflict, job

performance, and workplace stress in an Irish higher education institution.

The present study, on the other hand, centered on the significant

relationships among identified profile variables, leadership style and

managerial stress factors of selected academic administrators in five

Philippine higher education institutions.

Morrison‟s and Guthal‟s studies are analogous with the present

study in the sense that both dealt with the stress. However, they differ

because the Morrison‟s study focused on the levels of stress of

superintendents in North Carolina, USA. Guthal‟s paper, on the other

hand, centered on the investigation of administrative stress among

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elementary and secondary principals in Montana. Conversely, the present

study was focused on the characteristics of managerial stress among

academic administrators in Region IV-A, Philippines.

Igharo‟s study runs parallel with the present study due to the fact

that both dealt with stress factors and effects. However, they differ

because the previous study highlighted that school leaders must

communicate more often and through more channels in order to refrain

from creating a vacuum filled with stress while the present study

underscored that academic administrators may adhere to the proposed

stress management plan in order to moderate managerial stress.

Ambrosini‟s study bears semblance to the present study on account

of the fact that both used the regression analysis as they reveal

administrative stress as a strong predictor of the academic administrators‟

exhaustion. However, they differ in the sense that the previous study was

focused on the relationship of administrative stress experienced by special

education administrators and influence on the dimensions of burnout. The

present study, on the other hand, centered on the relationships of the

identified profile variables, leadership styles and managerial stress factors

of selected academic administrators.

Trimble‟s study concords with the present study by the reason that it

was hinged on the Person-Environment Fit (P-E Fit) Theory, which

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provides a framework for assessing and predicting how characteristics of

the employee and a work environment jointly determine the academic

administrators‟ well-being and, how a model for identifying points of

preventive intervention may be elaborated. However, they differ because

Trimble‟s study investigated the alignment between personal and

environmental factors and stress management of superintendents in the

Midwest as viewed through the lens of the P-E Fit.

Finally, Wolverton, et al.‟s research concords with the present study

due to the fact that both dealt with academic administrators at the center of

complex relational webs and charged to keep the resulting relationships

finely balance. However, they differ in the sense that the previous study

analyzed the challenges that brings out many of the tensions and

dilemmas of Deans, while the present study centered on the challenges

that brings out many of the tensions and dilemmas of the selected College

Deans, Campus Deans, Campus Directors, Deans of Colleges and

Associate Deans.

The researches reviewed tend to point out that all of them are

related in as many ways with the present study and stance. In the light of

differences among the studies reviewed, it can be manifested safely that

this study does not in any way duplicate earlier researches.

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Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of the study is hinged on Dr. Lee G.

Bolman and Dr. Terrence E. Deal‟s Theory on Leadership and Rodgers,

and Cobb‟s Person-Environment Fit Theory.

This study was grounded on Bolman and Deal‟s Theory on

Leadership, which offers a comprehensive theory that is appropriate for

exploring leadership and organization characteristics of higher education

leaders. Bolman and Deal‟s four frames of leadership and their emphasis

on the integration of all frames to be effective reflect the complexity of

higher education and the multiple roles a leader, such as academic

administrators, must exhibit to be successful (Guidry, 2007).

Bolman and Deal‟s leadership theory comprises the following four

frames: The structural frame centers on roles within organizations and

systems that govern the organization. The human resource frame focuses

on compassion and partnership and the value of the individual in relation to

the organization. The political frame integrates bargaining, coalition

building, networking, and competition as well as sharing of scarce

resources. Finally, the symbolic frame, which acknowledges the value of

rituals, ceremonies, and organizational culture. The proponents have

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empowered and charged leaders to use these four frames and

combinations of them to triage organizational problems and leadership

challenges.

This theory posits the importance of the four frames is their capacity

to allow for reframing referred to as a process in which individuals must

view a particular decision through four different lenses before selecting the

best approach. The proponents argue that those who can reframe

situations will be most successful. Although any administrator will be more

inclined to see the world through one or two of the frames, no one frame is

better than any other; all four are needed for effective leadership and

management in higher education.

Leaders tend to favor certain frameworks over others, but a single

framework style may limit their ability to successfully address situations.

Therefore, in addition to the single frame, leaders may utilize a paired or

multi-frame strategy. This reframing will enable the leader to view, analyze,

and develop solutions from one or more different perspectives. Bolman

and Deal (2008) contend that effective leaders are multi-framed; that is,

they utilize at least three of the four frames. This multi-frame leadership

provides the leader with more potential opportunities and solutions.

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The study was also anchored on the theory the Person-Environment

Fit Theory which was initially proposed by French, Rodgers, and Cobb

(1982). In 2012, Dewe et al. asserted that the Person-Environment Fit

theory is a strong theoretical anchor for determining the strengths and

limitations of the academic administrators. The pioneers clarified that

individual's skills and abilities must match the demands and the

requirements of the job and that the job environment should satisfy the

needs of the individual. Thus, P-E theory offers a framework for assessing

and predicting how characteristics of these administrators and the work

environment jointly determine worker well-being and, in the light of this

knowledge, how a model for identifying points of preventive intervention

may be elaborated.

Person-Environment Fit (P-E Fit) is defined as the degree to which

individual and environmental characteristics match (Kristof-Brown,

Zimmerman, and Johnson, 2005). Person characteristics may include an

individual‟s biological or psychological needs, values, goals, abilities, or

personality, while environmental characteristics could include intrinsic and

extrinsic rewards, demands of a job or role, cultural values, or

characteristics of other individuals and collectives in the person's social

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environment (French, et al., 1982). Due to its important implications in the

workplace, person-environment fit has maintained a prominent position in

industrial and organizational psychology and related fields. The advocates

generally assumed that person-environment fit leads to positive outcomes,

such as satisfaction, performance, and overall well-being.

The foregoing theories presented are significant elements in the

attainment of the objective of the study. Bolman and Deal‟s Theory on

Leadership as a proven leadership approach may address the current

challenges among academic administrators of higher education institutions

since the most effective administrators are those who can reframe or those

who can understand how to artfully employ each of the four frames to

varying degrees depending upon the situation. On the other hand, French,

Rodgers, and Cobb‟s Person-Environment Fit Theory posited the

substance of the theory since it can mediate the relation of group-specific

workplace experiences or stresses with job outcomes.

Conceptual Framework

Below is the conceptual paradigm of the study which made use of

the Systems Approach with input, process, and output as framework of the

research.
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Input Process Output

 Personal
Characteristics of
Academic
Administrators Proposed
Stress
 Institutional Assessment of
Management Plan
Characteristics Variables thru:
for
 Leadership Styles of  Questionnaire Academic
Academic  Interview Administrators of
Administrators  Focus Group State Universities
Discussion In Region IV-A
 Characteristics of
Managerial Stress
Factors among
Academic
Administrators

Figure 1

Conceptual Paradigm on Stress Management Plan for Academic

Administrators of State Universities in Region IV-A

Figure 1 presents the paradigm of the study, which shows vividly the

main aspects given focus like the key factors, process and the recognized

output.
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Frame 1 reflects the input of the study. This encompasses the

personal characteristics of academic administrators, the institutional

characteristics, the leadership styles of academic administrators, the

managerial stress factors that influence the respondents.

Frame 2 shows the process of the study. This comprises the

assessment of variables through questionnaires, interviews, and focus

group discussion.

Frame 3 illustrates the output of the study. This shows the proposed

Stress Management Plan for Academic Administrators of State Universities

in Region IV-A.

Hypothesis of the Study

On the basis of the questions stated, this study tested the null

hypotheses:

There are no significant differences in leadership style factors and

managerial stress factors when grouped according to personal and

institutional variables. Also, there is no significant association between

leadership style factors and managerial stress factors.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined conceptually and/or operationally for

a better understanding of this study:

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Academic Administrators. The term refers to mid-level managers

of a department, college or university who are responsible for the

maintenance and supervision of the institution (Curran, et al. 2005).As

used within the context of the study, the term refers to the College Deans,

Campus Deans, Campus Directors, Dean of Colleges and Associate

Deans who head discipline-specific colleges in five state universities in

Region IV-A.

Administrative Task Stress. The term denotes the stress factors

that beset academic leaders particularly the deans (Gmelch and Miskin,

2011). Operationally, the term pertains to the stress arising from the

academic administrators‟ daily duties, work overload, the time demands of

coordinating activities and communication, as well as their day-to-day

tasks.

Authority-Relation Stress. The term pertains to the stress factors

that beset academic administrators which are evident when academic

deans have insufficient authority to perform departmental responsibilities

(Gmelch and Miskin, 2011).In this study, the term pertains to stress arising

from the academic administrator‟s relationship with higher authorities, and

inadequate recognition, rewards and career progression.

Human Resource Frame. The term stands for the leadership style

which centers on the assumptions that organizations exist to serve human

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needs rather than reverse; that people and organization need each other

and that one or both suffer when the fit between individual and system is

poor while good fits benefits both (Washington, 2015). As used within the

context of this study, the term refers to the leadership style which focuses

on the needs of the personnel of state universities in Region IV-A rather

than the needs of the organization.

Leadership Styles. The term signifies the mental models designed

to be the framework on how managers and leaders view organizations,

how decisions are made and how the culture of organizations is derived

(Bolman and Deal, 2008). Operationally, the term connotes the mental

models designed to be the framework on how academic administrators of

state universities in Region IV-A view their organizations, how their

decisions are made and how the culture of their organizations is derived.

Managerial Stress. The term represents a condition which occur

whenever an academic dean or director fall short of leadership effort in the

act of building programs and setting direction as well as in achieving the

expectations of stakeholders in the current challenging economic times

(Otara, 2015). In this study, the term refers to the stress that occur

whenever academic administrators fall short of leadership effort to come

up with the pressures and demands of their state university‟s environment.

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Perceived Expectation Stress. The term refers to the stress factors

that beset academic administrators which reflects the commitments and

obligations chairpersons perceive as necessary to fulfill the expectations of

their positions (Gmelch and Miskin, 2011). As used within the context of

this study, the term refers to the self-generated stress resulting from

expectations to achieve more than can be delivered based on

commitments and obligations inherent to one‟s position as academic

administrators of state universities in Region IV-A.

Political Frame. The term denotes to the leadership style which

centers on the assumptions that organizations are coalitions of diverse

individuals and interest groups and that there are enduring differences

among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests and

perceptions of reality (Washington, 2015). Operationally, the term refers to

the leadership style which focuses on the political realities that exist within

and outside organizations.

Profile Variable. As used in this study, the term pertains to the

personal and institutional characteristics of the respondents. The personal

characteristics cover current designation, educational attainment, length of

teaching experience, length of administrative experience, academic rank,

and current workload variables. The institutional characteristics include the

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number of students enrolled, programs and its nature, teaching personnel,

and office-support staff variables.

Role-Ambiguity Stress. The term pertains to the stress factors that

beset academic administrators which highlights the academic deans who

tries to satisfy the concerns of their stakeholders (Gmelch and Miskin,

2011). In this study, the term pertains to the stress that comes from conflict

over job responsibilities not expressed or understood clearly in an

organization.

State Universities in Region IV-A. As used within the context of

this study, the term refers to the five State Universities in Region IV-A

namely: the Cavite State University (CvSU), the Laguna Polytechnic State

University (LPSU), the Batangas State University (BatStateU), the

University of Rizal System (URS), and the Southern Luzon State University

(SLSU).

Stress Management. The term encompasses techniques intended

to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with

psychological stress (Psychologist World Website, 2017). Operationally,

the term refers to the wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies

aimed at controlling a person's levels of stress, especially prolonged

stress, usually for the purpose of improving everyday functioning.

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Stress Management Plan. The term refers to the specific efforts,

both behavioral and psychological, that people employ to master, tolerate,

reduce, or minimize stressful events (Mmacses.ucsf.edu Website, 2017).

In this study, the term refers to the proposed coping strategy or

intervention to moderate or get rid of the stressors that beset academic

administrators of state universities in Region IV-A.

Structural Frame. The term stands for a leadership style which

centers on the assumptions that organizations exists to achieve set goals

and objectives to increase efficiency and enhance performance through

specialization and appropriate division of labor; to safeguard the diverse

efforts of individuals and units; and to value rationality over personal

agenda and extraneous pressures (Washington, 2015). As used within the

context of this study, the term refers to the leadership style which focuses

on the structural elements within the organization as well as strategy,

implementation, and adaptation.

Symbolic Frame. The term pertains to the leadership style which

focuses on the assumptions that culture is one that binds people together

in an organization, helping them to find purpose and passion in their

personal and work lives as they share common values and beliefs; that

what is important is not what happens but what it means; and that since
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people interpret experience differently, events have multiple meanings

(Washington, 2015). Operationally, the term refers to the leadership style

which focuses on vision and inspiration.