EE 1000 Syllabus: Transformers Circuit Theory

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Syllabus Transformers (EE 1000)
Circuit Theory Electrical Machines • Construction
• Introduction • DC Machines • Emf equation
• DC Networks • Transformers • Phasor diagrams on no load

• Single phase AC Circuits • Induction Motor
• Phasor diagrams on full load
• Three phase AC Circuits • Electrical measuring
• Magnetic Circuits instruments • Equivalent circuit
• Auto transformer
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DEFINITION Construction of basic transformer

• Steel core ( C ):
• Transfers electric power from one • consists of laminated sheets, about 0.35–0.7 mm thick, insulated from one another.
circuit to another • The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy-current loss.
• Limbs : The vertical portions of the core

• Without a change of frequency • Yokes : the top and bottom portions
• Coils P and S : Windings on the limbs.
• Using principle of electromagnetic • Coil P is connected to the supply and is therefore termed the primary;
induction • Coil S is connected to the load and is termed the secondary.
• Where the two electric circuits are

in mutual inductive influence of
each other.
• A transformer is a static (or

stationary) apparatus
Classification of transformer
Conversion
Construction Transformation
quantity
Supply Application Cooling
Three Natural
Core Step-up Voltage Power
phase (Unforced)
Single
Shell Step-down Current Instrument Oil (forced)
Phase
Impedance
Air (forced)
matching
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Core and shell type laminations
• Core type transformers - windings surround a considerable • In both core and shell-type
part of the core transformers, the individual
laminations are cut in the form of
long
• Shell-type transformers - core surrounds a considerable
portion of the windings strips of L’s, E’s and I’
Core type Shell type
Flow of the chapter / increase in complexity Ideal transformer
• Ideal transformer • Assumptions:

• On No Load
• On Load
1. Core loss and I2R loss in the
primary winding to be negligible
• Transformer with losses, no magnetic leakage
• On No Load
• On Load 2. Permeability of core remain
constant, so that magnetizing
• Transformer with winding resistance, no magnetic leakage
current is proportional to flux
• On Load Imagentising α Φ
• Transformer with winding resistance and magnetic leakage 3. Primary and secondary
• On Load windings to have same number of
turns,
N1 = N2
Ideal transformer Working principle of ideal transformer and phasor
• When the secondary is on open circuit,

𝑽𝟏 , 𝑬𝟏
• has no losses  Primary current (primary ATs) just
sufficient to produce the flux necessary to
• windings have no ohmic induce EMF ~
resistance
• no magnetic leakage Magnetizing current ~ 1–5 % of the full-
load primary current.
• no I2R and core losses
EMF induced practically equal and 𝑰𝟎 𝜱
opposite to applied voltage.
Ideal transformer consists of two purely  EMFs induced in the primary and
secondary windings are equal and that the
inductive coils wound on a loss-free core primary applied voltage, 𝑬𝟐
V1 = E1
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Flux in the transformer EMF equation of transformer
• Let maximum value of flux be 𝛷𝑚

𝑉1 , 𝐸1
Wb and frequency to be 𝑓 Hertz
• Permeability of transformer core is
of the order of 1000 or more
• 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
• Reluctance of air path is 1000 times 2∅𝑚
= = 4𝑓∅𝑚
that of the parallel path through limb 1/2𝑓
carrying the secondary winding.
𝐼0 Φ
• Consequently the flux passing For sinusoidal wave RMS or effective value = 1.11 * Average value
through the air space is
negligible compared with that RMS value of induced emf on primary
through the secondary. 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝑵𝟏 ∅𝒎
𝐸2 RMS value of induced emf on primary
𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝑵𝟐 ∅𝒎
EMF equation of transformer – alternative approach Voltage transformation ratio
• ∅ = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝑵 ∅𝒎
𝑑∅ 𝜋
• = 2𝜋𝑓 ∅𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓 ∅𝑚 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + ) 𝑬𝟐 𝑵𝟐
𝑑𝑡 2 = =𝑲
𝑬𝟏 𝑵𝟏
• Max value of induced emf = 2𝜋𝑓 ∅𝑚
• This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio
• RMS value of induced emf = 0.707 2𝜋𝑓 ∅𝑚
If N > N i.e. K > 1, step-up transformer.
2 1
• RMS value of induced emf on primary and secondary

𝑬𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝑵𝟏 ∅𝒎 If N < N i.e. K < 1, step-down transformer.
2 1
𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝑵𝟐 ∅𝒎
• A single phase 500V/100V, 50Hz transformer has a maximum

core flux density of 1.5T and an effective core cross-sectional
area of 50 cm2. Determine the number of primary and secondary
turns.
The e.m.f. equation for a transformer is E = 4.44 f𝑚 N
maximum flux, 𝑚 =B×A =(1.5)(50 ×10−4) = 75 ×10−4 Wb
Since 𝐸1 =4.44 f𝑚 𝑁1 then primary turns,
𝐸1 500
𝑁1= = = 300 turns
4.44 f𝑚 (4.44)(50)(75×10−4)
Since 𝐸2 = 4.44 f𝑚 𝑁2 then primary turns,
𝐸2 100
𝑁2= = = 60 turns
4.44 f𝑚 (4.44)(50)(75×10−4)
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Ideal transformer on load

𝐸1 𝐸2
• A 4500 V/225 V, 50 Hz (a) E.m.f. per turn
𝑁1
=
𝑁2
=15
single-phase • Assume a load having a power
transformer is to have 𝐸1 4500
𝑉1 , 𝐸1
Hence primary turns, 𝑁1= = = 300 factor such that the secondary
an approx. emf/turn of 15 15
current is in phase with E2. (UPF) 𝐼′2 𝐼1
15 V and operate with a
𝐸2 255
maximum flux of 1.4 T. and secondary turns , 𝑁2 = = = 15
15 15
• Primary current, I1, must now have
Calculate, (b) E.m.f. 𝐸1 = = 4.44 f𝑚 𝑁1 from which, two components:
• A) Number of primary 𝐸1 4500
and secondary turns 𝑚 = = =0.0676Wb
4.44 f𝑁1 (4.44)(50)(300) 1. I0 : Maintain useful flux, maximum 𝐼0 Φ
value of which remains constant within
• B) The cross sectional Now flux 𝑚 =𝐵𝑚 ×A, where A is the cross- about 1-5% between NL and FL
area of the core sectional area of the core,
𝐼2
𝑚 0.0676 2. I2′ : Neutralize demagnetizing effect
hence area A = ( )=( )
𝐵𝑚 1.4 of secondary current 𝐸2
= 0.0483𝒎𝟐 or 483 c𝒎𝟐
Ideal transformer on load Ideal transformer on load
• When secondary is loaded, • Opposing secondary flux Φ2 weakens primary

𝑉1 , 𝐸1 flux Φ momentarily, hence primary back e.m.f. 𝑉1 , 𝐸1
secondary current I2 is set up.
E1 tends to be reduced
𝐼′2 𝐼1 𝐼′2 𝐼1
• Magnitude and phase of I2 with • Let additional primary current be I2′ : load
respect to V2 is determined by component of primary current - in antiphase
characteristics of the load. with I2
• Additional primary m.m.f. N1 I‘2 sets up its own

• Demagnetising amp-turns: flux Φ2′ in opposition to Φ2 (but is in the same
𝐼0 Φ 𝐼0 Φ
Secondary current sets up its own direction as Φ) and is equal to it in magnitude.
m.m.f. (=N2I2)
• Hence, the two cancel each other out.
𝐼2 𝐼2
• Its own flux Φ2 which is in opposition
• Magnetic effects of secondary current I2 are
to main primary flux Φ which is due 𝐸2 immediately neutralized by the additional 𝐸2
to I0 primary current I2′
Phasor diagram for a transformer (with losses and no leakage)

Transformation ratio on no load
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 𝑁2 × 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑁1 • No-load current, I0:

= = 𝑉1 , 𝐸1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑃 𝑁1 × 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑁2 Taken by primary consists of two components
𝐼0
• When the secondary is on open circuit, • 1. A reactive or magnetizing component, Im: 𝐼𝑤
• Terminal voltage = induced e.m.f. 𝑉2 𝑁 producing the flux and therefore in phase with the
• Primary current is small, so that applied voltage V1 is ~ =𝑁2 latter.
Φ0
𝑉1 1
practically equal and opposite to the e.m.f. induced in P. • 2. An active or power component, Iw:
supplying the hysteresis and eddy current losses
in the core and the negligible I2R loss in the
• When the secondary is on load, primary winding. 𝐼𝑚 Φ
• Since full-load efficiency of a transformer is nearly • Component Iw is in phase with the applied
100 per cent, 𝐼1 𝑉2 𝑁2
• V1I1 × pf1 = V2I2 × pf2 𝐼2
~ 𝑉1
≅ 𝑁1
voltage
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼 2 01 + 𝐼 2 0𝑚
• 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝒘
• But primary and secondary power factors at full load
𝐼01
are nearly equal cos ∅𝑜 =
• φ0 : hysteresis angle of advance 𝐸2 𝐼𝑜
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Phasor diagram for a loaded transformer (with losses and no

No-load primary current (I0) leakage ,R-L Load)
• I0 ~1-5% of the full-load current.

𝐼1
𝑉1 , 𝐸1
𝐼′2
Φ1
• I0 << full-load primary current (IFL) ~ LO
AD
Φ0 𝐼0
• As I0 is very small, the no-load primary Cu loss is negligibly
small Φ
• V2=E2 and V1=E1
• i.e. No-load primary input is practically equal to the iron 𝐼2 Φ2
loss in the transformer. • Since N1=N2
E1 = E2
𝑉2 , 𝐸2
• A single-phase transformer with a ratio of 440/110-V takes a no- Why Transformer Rating in kVA ?
load current of 5A at 0.2 power factor lagging. If the secondary
supplies a current of 120 A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, estimate the
• Cu loss of a transformer depends on current
current taken by the primary.
Solution.
• Iron loss depends on voltage.
Cos2 =0.8, 2 = 36°54´
Cos0 = 0.2 0 = 78°30´
• Hence, total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and
Now K = 𝑉2 /𝑉1 = 110/440 = 1/4 not on phase angle between voltage and current
 𝐼2 ´ = K𝐼2 =120×1/4=30 A
• i.e. it is independent of load power factor.
𝐼0 = 5 A
Angle between 𝐼0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 ´ = 78°30´- 36°54´= 41°36´ • Thus, Rating of transformers is in kVA and not in kW
𝑰𝟏 = (𝟓𝟐 + 𝟑𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟓 × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝒄𝒐𝒔41°36´ = 34.45 A
• A 25-kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary • A 5 kVA single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 10:1 and is fed
and 50 turns on the secondary winding. The primary is from a 2.5 kV supply. Neglecting losses, determine
connected to 3000-V, 50-Hz supply. • (a) the full-load secondary current,
• (b) the minimum load resistance which can be connected across the
• Find the full-load primary and secondary currents, the secondary winding to give full load kVA,
secondary e.m.f. and the maximum flux in the core. • (c) the primary current at full load kVA.
• Neglect leakage drops and no-load primary current.
• Ans: (a) 𝑁1/𝑁2 = 10/1 and 𝑉1 = 2500 V.

• K = N2/N1 = 50/500 = 1/10 𝑁 𝑉
• Now, full-load I1 = 25,000/3000 = 8.33 A. Since ( 𝑁1 ) = ( 𝑉1 ), secondary voltage 𝑉2 = 250 V
2 2
• At FL, I2 = I1/K = 10 × 8.33 = 83.3 A
The transformer rating in volt –amperes = 𝑉2 𝐼2 (at FL) i.e. 5000 = 250𝐼2
• E2 = K E1 = 3000 × 1/10 =300 V
Hence full load secondary current
• E1 = 4.44 f N1Φm; 3000 = 4.44 × 50 × 500 × Φm
𝐼2 = ( 5000/250) = 20 A
• ∴ Φm = 27 mWb
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A 2,200/200-V transformer draws a no-load primary current

of 0.6 A and absorbs 400 watts. Find the magnetising and
(b) Minimum value of load resistance, iron loss currents.
𝑉2 250
𝑅𝐿 = ( )=( ), = 12.5 Ω. • Iron-loss current
𝐼2 20
• = no-load input in watts/ primary voltage
• = 400 /2, 200
• = =0.182 A
𝑁1 𝐼2
(c) ( )=( ) from which primary current
𝑁2 𝐼1
𝐼02 =𝐼𝑤
2
+ 𝐼𝜇2
𝑁1 1
𝐼1 =𝐼2 ( ) = 20 ( )=2A
𝑁2 10 𝐼𝜇 = 0. 62 - 0182)2 = 0.572 𝐴
• A single-phase transformer has 1000 turns on the primary and

A 2,200/250-V transformer takes 0.5 A at a p.f. of 0.3 on open 200 turns on the secondary.
circuit. Find magnetising and working components of no-load • The no load current is 3 amp. at a p.f. of 0.2 lagging.
primary current. • Calculate the primary current and power-factor when the
secondary current is 280 Amp at a p.f. of 0.80 lagging.
• I0 = 0.5 A, cos φ0 = 0.3
• V2 is taken as reference. cos−1(0.80) = 36.87°
• ∴ Iw = I0 cos φ0 = 0.5 × 0.3 = 0.15 A • I2 = 280 ∠−36.87º amp
• I’2 = (280/5) ∠−36.87º amp
• φ0 = cos−1 0.20 = 78.5°, sin φ0 = 0.98
• I1 = I0 + I’2
• I1 = 3(0.20 − j 0.98) + 56 (0.80 − j 0.60)
• I1 = 45.4 − j 36.54 = 58.3 ∠-38.86º
Transformer with Winding Resistance, Transformer with Winding Resistance,

No Magnetic Leakage No Magnetic Leakage
• Due to some resistance of the primary and secondary windings,
there is some voltage drop in two windings.
• The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the

secondary induced e.m.f. E2 by an amount I2 R2
• where R2 is the resistance of the secondary winding.
• Hence, V2 is equal to the vector difference of E2 and resistive voltage
drop I2 R2
• ∴ V2 = E2 − I2 R2 ...vector difference
• Similarly, primary induced e.m.f. E1 is equal to the vector

difference of V1 and I1 R1 where R1 is the resistance of the
primary winding.
• E1 = V1 − I1 R1
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Magnetic leakage Magnetic leakage

• At no load and light loads, the primary and secondary ampere-turns are
• Assumption: all the flux linked with small, hence leakage fluxes are negligible.
primary winding also links the secondary
winding.
• But when load is increased, both primary and secondary windings carry
huge currents. Hence, large m.m.f.s are set up which, while acting on
• But, in practice, it is impossible to realize leakage paths, increase the leakage flux.
• i.e.ΦL1 completes its magnetic circuit by • A transformer with magnetic leakage is equivalent to an ideal
passing through air rather than around the transformer with inductive coils connected in both primary and
core
secondary circuits
• leakage flux is produced when the m.m.f. due to N0I1 acts along the • The terms X1 and X2 are known as primary and secondary leakage
leakage paths. Hence, this flux is known as primary leakage flux reactance resp.
• It is proportional to the primary ampere-turns alone because the

secondary turns do not link the magnetic circuit of ΦL1
• The flux ΦL1 is in time phase with I1. It induces an e.m.f. EL1 in
primary but not in secondary.
Transformer with Resistance and Leakage

Important points regarding magnetic flux
Reactance
• The leakage flux links one or the other winding but not both,
hence it in no way contributes to the transfer of energy from
the primary to the secondary winding.
• The primary voltage V1 will have to supply reactive drop I1X1

in addition to I1R1. Similarly E2 will have to supply I2 R2 and I2
X2.
• In an actual transformer, the primary and secondary windings

are not placed on separate legs or limbs, as it causes large
primary and secondary leakage fluxes would result.
• These leakage fluxes are minimised by sectionalizing and

interleaving the primary and secondary windings
Review Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance
𝑉1 , 𝐸1 𝑉1 , 𝐸1 𝑉1 , 𝐸1 𝐼1
𝑉1 , 𝐸1
𝐼′2
𝐼′2 𝐼1 𝐼𝑤 𝐼0
Φ1
Φ0
Φ0 𝐼0
𝐼0 Φ 𝐼0 Φ 𝐼𝑚 Φ Φ • 𝑍1 = 𝑅21 + 𝑋 21
𝐼2 Φ2 • 𝑍2 = 𝑅2 2 + 𝑋 2 2
𝐼2
𝐸2 𝐸2 𝐸2 All vectorial additions

𝑉2 , 𝐸2 • 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑗 𝑋1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑍1
• 𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝑗 𝑋2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑍2
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Equivalent parameters Equivalent parameters

𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝒆 = 𝑹𝟎𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹′𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 +
𝑲𝟐
𝑹𝒆 = 𝑹𝟎𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹′𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑲𝟐 𝑹𝟏
• R01 and R02 = Equivalent effective resistance of the transformer

as referred to primary and secondary resp.
Referred to primary Referred to Secondary
𝑋2
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋01 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋′2 = 𝑋1 + 2
𝐾
𝑍𝑒 = 𝑍01 = 𝑅2 01 + 𝑋 2 01
𝑋02 = 𝑋2 + 𝑋′1 = 𝑋2 + 𝐾 2 𝑋1
• X01 and X02 = Equivalent effective reactance of the transformer 𝑍02 = 𝑅2 02 + 𝑋 2 02

as referred to primary and secondary resp.
Important to remember
• (a) when shifting any primary resistance / reactance /

impedance to the secondary,
multiply it by K2 i.e. (transformation ratio)2
• (b) when shifting secondary resistance / reactance /

impedance to the primary, EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND
divide it by K2
PERFORMANCE OF T/F
• (c) however, when shifting any voltage from one
winding to another only K is used.
Equivalent Circuit Exact equivalent circuit
• R0 = E1/Iw • To make transformer calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer

voltage, current and impedance either to the primary or to the
secondary
• X0 = E1/I0
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Exact equivalent circuit Simplification of exact eqv. circuit
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‘ ‘
‘ ‘ ‘
‘
‘
‘
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‘ ‘
Approximate equivalent circuit

• A 30 kVA, 2400/120-V, 50-Hz transformer has a
high voltage winding resistance of 0.1 Ω and a
leakage reactance of 0.22Ω.
‘
• The low voltage winding resistance is 0.035 Ω
and the leakage reactance is 0.012 Ω.
‘
‘ • Find the equivalent winding resistance,
reactance and impedance referred to the
• (i) high voltage side and
‘ • (ii) the low-voltage side.
• The output stage of an amplifier has an output

• R1 = 0.1 Ω, X1 = 0.22 Ω,
resistance of 112. Calculate the optimum turns ratio of
• R2 = 0.035 Ω and X2 = 0.012 Ω
a transformer which would match a load resistance of 7
• K = 120/2400 = 1/20; to the output resistance of the amplifier.
• R01 = R1 + R2′ = R1 + R2/K2 = 0.1 + 0.035/(1/20)2 = 14.1 Ω The equivalent input resistance 𝑅1
• X01 = X1 + X2′ = X1 + X2/K2 = 0.22 + 0.12/(1/20)2 =5Ω of the T/F needs to be 112 Ω for
maximum power transfer.
Z01 = 14.1 + j5 Ω
𝑁
𝑅1 =( 1 )2 𝑅𝐿
• R02 = R2 + R1′ = R2 + K2R1 = 0.035 + (1/20)2 × 0.1 = 0.03525 Ω 𝑁2
• X02 = X2 + X1′ = X2 + K2X1 = 0.012 + (1/20)2 × 0.22 = 0.01255 Ω
𝑁 𝑅1 112
Hence ( 1 )2 = = = 16
𝑁2 𝑅𝐿 7
Z02 = 0.03525 + j 0.01255 Ω
Hence the optimum
𝑁1
i.e. = 16 = 4 turns ratio is 4:1
𝑁2
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The voltage regulation of a transformer Efficiency of transformer
• Variation of the secondary voltage between no load and full load, 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
expressed as either a per-unit or a percentage of the no-load • 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑦 𝜂 = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟+𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
voltage, the primary voltage being assumed constant, i.e.
𝑁𝐿 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 −𝐹𝐿 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = • Losses in Transformer
𝑁𝐿 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• Winding resistance
𝑉1 −𝑉′2 • Core loss (Due to Hysteresis and Eddy current)
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉1
𝑁1
• Where, 𝑉′2 = 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2
𝑁2 • 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑦 𝜂 =
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2 + 𝑃𝑐 +𝐼21 𝑅1 +𝐼22 𝑅2
𝐼1 (𝑅01 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2 +𝑋01 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑2 )
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉1
Condition for maximum efficiency Condition for maximum efficiency
• 𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅′1 = 𝑅2 + 𝐾 2 𝑅1 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2

• 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑦 𝜂 =
𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2+ (𝑷𝒄 /𝑰𝟐)+𝐼2 𝑅02
• For any load current I2

• For transformer, V2 is constant.
• 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼2 2 𝑅02
• For a load of given power the efficiency is a maximum when the
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2 denominator of above equation is minimum
• 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑦 𝜂 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2 + 𝑃𝑐 +𝑰 𝟏 𝑹𝟏 +𝑰 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
• Differentiating wrt I2, condition we get

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2
=
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2 + 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐
• 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 = 𝑷𝒄
𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2
= • Variable losses = constant losses
𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2 + (𝑷𝒄 /𝑰𝟐 ) + 𝐼2 𝑅02
• I 2 2 R 02 = Pc
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
• Current at maximum efficiency =
𝑅02
• In a 25-kVA, 2000/200 V, single-phase

transformer, the iron and full-load copper losses
• If iron loss and FL Cu loss is given, are 350 and 400 W respectively. Calculate the
• then load at which Core loss = Copper loss (i.e. corresponding to efficiency at unity power factor on
maximum efficiency) is given by
• (i) full load

𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
= 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ∗
𝐹𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
• (ii) half full-load.
𝑥 ∗𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ∗𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Efficiency at any load = ∗ 100
𝑥 ∗𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ∗𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟+𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠+𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
• Where x = ratio of actual to FL KVA
10
23-03-2020
• (i) Full-load Unity p.f.

Total loss = 350 + 400 = 750 W
F.L. output at u.p.f. = 25 × 1 = 25 kW
Efficiency η = 25/25.75 = 0.97 or 97%
• (ii) Half F.L. Unity p.f.

• Cu loss = 400 × (1/2)2 = 100 W.
• Iron loss remains constant at 350 W
• Total loss = 100 + 350 = 450 W. TESTING OF T/F
• Half-load output at u.p.f. = 12.5 kW
• ∴ η = 12.5/(12.5 + 0.45) = 96.52%
Open-circuit (OC) test Open-circuit (OC) test
• With normal voltage applied to primary, normal flux will be set up in core
• Hence normal iron losses will occur which are recorded by the wattmeter.
• The purpose of this test is to determine NL loss or core loss

• Also, NL current which is helpful in finding X0 and R0.
• Usually high voltage winding – is left open and the other is connected
to its supply of normal voltage
Short-circuit (SC) test Short-circuit (SC) test
• It is used to determine:
• Equivalent impedance (Z01 or Z02), leakage reactance (X01 or

X02) and total resistance (R01 or R02) of the transformer as
referred to the winding in which the measuring instruments
are placed.
• One winding, usually the low-voltage winding, is solidly short-circuited by
• Cu loss at any load: Used to calculate efficiency of the T/F. a thick conductor
• or through an ammeter which may serve the additional purpose of

• Knowing Z01 or Z02, the total voltage drop in the transformer indicating rated load current
as referred to primary or secondary can be calculated
• A low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal primary voltage) is applied to
the primary
• Regulation of the transformer
• It is cautiously increased till full-load currents are flowing both in primary
and secondary
11
23-03-2020
Short-circuit (SC) test
• Applied voltage is a small % of the normal voltage • Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200/400-V, 50-Hz, 1-
• Mutual flux Φ produced is also a small % of its normal value. phase transformer from the following test data :
• Hence, core losses are very small
• O.C test : 200 V, 0.7 A, 70 W – on L.V. side
• If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate rated load currents, then
• Z01 = Vsc / I1 • S.C. test : 15 V, 10 A, 85 W – on H.V. side
W= 𝑰𝟐𝟏 𝑹𝟎𝟏 • Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 5 kW

at 0.8 p.f. lagging, the primary voltage being 200V.
𝑹𝟎𝟏 =w/𝑰𝟏
𝑿𝟎𝟏 = (𝒁𝟐𝟎𝟏 −𝑹𝟐𝟎𝟏 )
• Instruments are placed in the secondary i.e. high-voltage winding

• From O.C. Test • whereas the low-voltage winding i.e. primary has been short-
circuited
• V1 I0 cos φ0 = W0 • Z02 = Vsc/I2 = 15/10 = 1.5 Ω ;

• ∴ 200 × 0.7 × cos φ0 = 70
• cos φ0 = 0.5 and sin φ0 = 0.866 • K = 400/200 = 2
• Z01 = Z02/K2 = 1.5/4 = 0.375 Ω
• Iw = I0 cos φ0 = 0.7 × 0.5 = 0.35 A • Also I22R02 = W ;

• Iμ = I0 sin φ0 = 0.7 × 0.866 = 0.606 A • R02 = 85/100 = 0.85 Ω
• R01 = R02/K2 = 0.85/4 = 0.21 Ω

• R0 = V1/Iw = 200/0.35 = 571.4 Ω
• X0 = V1/Iμ = 200/0.606 = 330 Ω • X01 = 𝑍012 − 𝑅012
= 0.3752 − 0.212 = 0.31Ω
• These values refer to primary i.e. low-voltage side.
Z02 = 1.5 Ω, R02 = 0.85 Ω ∴ X02 = 1.24 Ω
• Output kVA = 5000/0.8 ; • The following data refer to a 1-phase transformer :

• Output current I2 = 5000/0.8 × 400 = 15.6 A
• Turn ratio 19.5 : 1
• This value of I2 is approximate because V2 (which is to be
calculated as yet) has been taken equal to 400 V (which, in • R1 = 25 Ω ; X1 = 100 Ω ;
fact, is equal to E2) • R2 = 0.06 Ω ; X2 = 0.25 Ω.
• No-load current = 1.25 A leading the flux by 30°
• Total transformer drop as referred to secondary
= I2 (R02 cos φ2 + X02 sin φ2)
• The secondary delivers 200 A at a terminal voltage
= 15.6 (0.85 × 0.8 + 1.24 × 0.6)
of 500 V and p.f. of 0.8 lagging.
= 22.2 V
• ∴ V2 = 400 − 22.2 = 377.8 V • Determine by the aid of a vector diagram, the

primary applied voltage, the primary p.f. and the
efficiency.
12
23-03-2020
• K = 1/19.5
• Taking V2 as ref vector
• E1 = E2/K = 10520+ j 640 V
• V2 = 500 ∠0° = 500 + j0
• -E1 = -10520 – j 640 = 10540 ∠ 183.5 V
• I2 = 200 (0.8 − j 0.6) = 160 − j 120
• I2’= I2K = (-160+ j120)/19.5 = -8.21+j 6.16 A
• Z2 = (0.06 + j 0.25)
• I0 leds V2 by an angle = 3.5 + 90 + 30 = 123.5
• E2 = V2 + I2 Z2
• = (500 + j 0) + (160 − j 120) (0.06 + j 0.25) • I0= 1.25 ∠ 123.5 = -0.69 + j 1.04 A
• = 500 + (39.6 + j 32.8)
• = 539.6 + j 32.8 • I1 = I2’ +I0 = -8.9 + j 7.2 = 11.45 ∠ 141 A
• = 541 ∠3.5°
NL primary input power • The low voltage winding of a 300-kVA, 11,000/2500-V, 50-
= V1I0sinΦ0 Hz transformer has 190 turns and a resistance of 0.06. The
• V1 = - E1 + I1Z1
= 11540*1.25*cos60 high-voltage winding has 910 turns and a resistance of 1.6
• = -11462 – j 1350 V
= 7210 W Ω.
• = 11540 ∠ 186.7 V R02 = R2 + K2R1
=0.1257 Ohm • When the LV winding is short-circuited, the full-load current
• Phase angle between V1 is obtained with 550-V applied to the HV winding.
Total Cu loss as referred to secondary
and I1
= 186.7 -141 = I22R02 • Calculate
= 5030W
= 45.7 • (i) the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance as
Output = V2I2cosΦ2 referred to HV side
• Primary pf = 0.7 (lag) = 80000W • (ii) the leakage reactance of each winding.
Total losses = 5030 + 7210
= 12240 W • Assume efficiency = 98.5 %
Efficiency = 86.74 % • each winding the ratio (reactance/resistance) is the same
• FL primary current • Calculate the regulation of a transformer in which the

• = 300,000/0.985 × 11,000 = 27.7A percentage resistance drops is 1.0% and percentage
• K = 190/910 reactance drop is 5.0% when the power factor is
• Z01 = 550/27.7 = 19.8 Ω (a) 0.8 lagging (b) unity (c) 0.8 leading.
• R′2 = R2/K2 = = 1.38 Ω
• R01 = R1 + R′2 = 1.6 + 1.38 = 2.98 Ω %R = vr cos φ + vx sin φ
• X01 = 19.5 Ω
• each winding the ratio (reactance/resistance) is the same a) p.f. = 0.8 lag % R = 1 × 0.8 + 5 × 0.6 = 3.8%
𝑹𝟎𝟏 𝑹𝟏
• =
𝑿𝟎𝟏 𝑿𝟏 b) p.f. = 1 % R = 1 × 1 + 5 × 0 = 1%
• X1 = 1.6 * 19.5 /2.98 = 10.5 Ω
• X′2 = 19.5 × 1.38/2.98 = 9.0 Ω ; c) p.f. = 0.8 lead % R = 1 × 0.8 − 5 × 0.6 = − 2.2%
• X2 = 0.39 Ω
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23-03-2020
Auto transformer • A single phase auto transformer has a voltage ratio

320V:250V and supplies a load of 20 KVA at 250 V.
Assuming ideal transformer, determine the current in each
• Electrical T/F where section of the winding.
primary and secondary
Rating = 20 kVA =𝑉1 𝐼2
shares same common
single winding.
Hence primary current,
20×103 20×103
𝐼1 = = = 62.5 A
• often used to step up or 𝑉1 320
step down voltages in
And secondary current,
• 110-115-120 V range 20×103 20×103
• 220-230-240 V range 𝐼2 = = = 80 A
𝑉2 250
Hence current in common part of the

winding = 80 – 62.5 = 17.5 A
Advantages of Auto transformer Disadvantages of Auto transformer
• Saving in cost since less copper is needed

• Primary and secondary windings are not
• Less volume, hence less weight electrically separate
• A higher efficiency, resulting from lower I2R losses • If open circuit occurs in the secondary winding the
full primary voltage appears across the secondary
• A continuously variable output voltage is
achievable if a sliding contact is used
• A smaller percentage voltage regulation
23-03-2020 Transformers by Dr. Paresh Kale 115
14

EE 1000 Syllabus: Transformers Circuit Theory

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EE 1000 Syllabus: Transformers Circuit Theory

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23-03-2020

Syllabus Transformers (EE 1000)

Circuit Theory Electrical Machines • Construction

• Introduction • DC Machines • Emf equation

• DC Networks • Transformers • Phasor diagrams on no load

DEFINITION Construction of basic transformer

• Limbs : The vertical portions of the core

• Where the two electric circuits are

• A transformer is a static (or

Core and shell type laminations

Core type Shell type

Flow of the chapter / increase in complexity Ideal transformer

• Ideal transformer • Assumptions:

Ideal transformer Working principle of ideal transformer and phasor

• When the secondary is on open circuit,

Flux in the transformer EMF equation of transformer

• Let maximum value of flux be 𝛷𝑚

EMF equation of transformer – alternative approach Voltage transformation ratio

• ∅ = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝑵 ∅𝒎

• RMS value of induced emf on primary and secondary

• A single phase 500V/100V, 50Hz transformer has a maximum

The e.m.f. equation for a transformer is E = 4.44 f𝑚 N

maximum flux, 𝑚 =B×A =(1.5)(50 ×10−4) = 75 ×10−4 Wb

Since 𝐸1 =4.44 f𝑚 𝑁1 then primary turns,

Since 𝐸2 = 4.44 f𝑚 𝑁2 then primary turns,

Ideal transformer on load

Ideal transformer on load Ideal transformer on load

• When secondary is loaded, • Opposing secondary flux Φ2 weakens primary

• Additional primary m.m.f. N1 I‘2 sets up its own

Phasor diagram for a transformer (with losses and no leakage)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 𝑁2 × 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑁1 • No-load current, I0:

Phasor diagram for a loaded transformer (with losses and no

• I0 ~1-5% of the full-load current.

𝑰𝟏 = (𝟓𝟐 + 𝟑𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟓 × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝒄𝒐𝒔41°36´ = 34.45 A

• Ans: (a) 𝑁1/𝑁2 = 10/1 and 𝑉1 = 2500 V.

A 2,200/200-V transformer draws a no-load primary current

• A single-phase transformer has 1000 turns on the primary and

• φ0 = cos−1 0.20 = 78.5°, sin φ0 = 0.98

Transformer with Winding Resistance, Transformer with Winding Resistance,

• The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the

• Similarly, primary induced e.m.f. E1 is equal to the vector

Magnetic leakage Magnetic leakage

• It is proportional to the primary ampere-turns alone because the

Transformer with Resistance and Leakage

• The primary voltage V1 will have to supply reactive drop I1X1

• In an actual transformer, the primary and secondary windings

• These leakage fluxes are minimised by sectionalizing and

Review Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance

𝐸2 𝐸2 𝐸2 All vectorial additions

Equivalent parameters Equivalent parameters

• R01 and R02 = Equivalent effective resistance of the transformer

• X01 and X02 = Equivalent effective reactance of the transformer 𝑍02 = 𝑅2 02 + 𝑋 2 02

• (a) when shifting any primary resistance / reactance /

• (b) when shifting secondary resistance / reactance /

Equivalent Circuit Exact equivalent circuit

• R0 = E1/Iw • To make transformer calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer

Exact equivalent circuit Simplification of exact eqv. circuit

Approximate equivalent circuit

• The output stage of an amplifier has an output

The voltage regulation of a transformer Efficiency of transformer

𝑁𝐿 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 −𝐹𝐿 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Condition for maximum efficiency Condition for maximum efficiency