CONTENTS

Arijit Das
MBA-PS ENERGY MANAGEMENT

208
ELECTRICAL MOTOR AND HARMONICS
 Types of
Motors

Dc motors Ac motors

Brush DC Single phase Three phase / Linear

Brushless DC
polyphase • Induction
Separately excited Shaded pole
• synchronous
Shunt wound Reluctance • Induction
Series wound Split phase • Squirrel cage
Compound mortor
• Slip ring
• synchronous

DC motor
❖ Definitions
• Separately excited: - In case of a separately excited DC motor
the supply is given separately to the field and armature
windings. The main distinguishing fact is that, the armature
current does not flow through the field windings, as the field
winding is energized from a separate external source of DC
current as shown in the figure beside.

• Series wound: - In case of a series wound, the entire armature

current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to
the armature winding.
Characteristics: -

• Shunt wound: - A DC shunt motor (also known as a shunt wound

DC motor) is a type of self-excited DC motor where the field
windings are shunted to or are connected in parallel to the
armature winding of the motor. Since they are connected in
parallel, the armature and field windings are exposed to the
same supply voltage.
Characteristics: -
For a constant value of Rsh and supply voltage, V>>Ish is also
constant and hence flux is also constant.
, or

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ɸ = magnetic flux
T = torque
Ia = armature current
Ish = shunt resistance
Rsh= shunt resistance

• Compound wound: - A compound wound DC motor (also

known as a DC compound motor) is a type of self-excited
motor, and is made up of both series the field coils S1 S2 and
shunt field coils F1 F2 connected to the armature winding.
✓ A compound wound DC motor is basically formed by the
amalgamation of a shunt wound DC motor and series-wound
DC motor to achieve the better off properties of both these
types.
✓ Like a shunt wound DC motor is bestowed with an extremely
efficient speed regulation characteristic, whereas the DC series motor has high starting torque.

Working principle of a dc motor

F = BIL Newton

✓ The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature, connected to the supply
end through commutator segments and brushes.
✓ The armature is placed in between north pole and south pole of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown
in the diagram above.

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 Torque of motor = T ɸIa.

Pɸnz
60 A

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 2017

➢ Applications of any motor depend mostly on its speed torque characteristics.

➢ As you can see in above image, even though output torque of DC shunt motor increases comparatively
speed doesn’t fall much.

➢ DC shunt motor is also called as constant speed motor.

➢ The various applications of DC shunt motor are in
✓ Lathe Machines,
✓ Centrifugal Pumps,
✓ Fans,
✓ Blowers, 2
✓ Conveyors,
✓ Lifts,
✓ Weaving Machine,
✓ Spinning machines, etc

❖ What do you mean by back emf of DC motor? 2017

• When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the armature conductors move

through the magnetic field and hence emf is induced in them as in a generator.
• The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as Back EMF
or Counter EMF (Eb).
• The equation to find out back emf in a DC motor is given below,
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The back emf Eb (= PΦZN/60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V, although this difference is small when
the motor is running under normal conditions.
• Back emf is always 0 when the machine is stand-still.
Also
• When the motor armature is powered by a direct or rectified voltage V and the rotor is rotating, a counter-
electromotive force Eb is produced. Its value is
Eb = V – RI
RI represents the drop in ohm voltage in the armature.
The counter electromotive force Eb is related to the speed and excitation by Eb = k ω f
where: k is a constant of the motor itself,
ω is the angular speed, 4
f is the flux.

The significance of Back EMF

Back emf is very significant in the working of a dc motor.
✓ The presence of back emf makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e., it makes the motor to draw
as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque required by the load.
Armature current (Ia),

✓ When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome the friction and windage losses.
Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and the back emf is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
✓ If the motor is suddenly loaded,
o the first effect is to cause the armature to slow down.
o Therefore, the back emf Eb falls.
o The decreased back emf allows a larger current to flow through the armature and larger current means
increased driving torque. Thus, the driving torque increases as the motor slows down. The motor will stop
slowing down when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the
load.
✓ If the load on the motor is decreased,
o the driving torque is momentarily in excess of the requirement so that armature is accelerated.
o As the armature speed increases, the back emf Eb also increases and causes the armature current Ia to
decrease. The motor will stop accelerating when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the
reduced torque required by the load.
➢ Therefore, the back emf in a DC motor regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically changes
the armature current to meet the load requirement.

Pin – Pout
❖ Efficiency = x 100%
Pin

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 AC MOTORS

Two types of AC motors

1) Induction motor 2) Synchronous motor.

1) Induction motor
Construction
It consists of two parts
1. Stator
➢ The stator is a stationary part and is
built with CRGO steel to reduce iron
loss.
➢ The laminations are slotted in the
inner periphery and are insulated
from each other.
➢ The laminations are supported in a
stator frame of cast iron or
fabricated steel plate.

2. Rotor
➢ The rotor is also built up of thin laminations of the same material as stator.
➢ The laminated cylindrical core is directly mounted on a shaft.
➢ This lamination is slotted on the outer periphery to receive the rotor conductors.

❖ What is principle of induction motor? 2016

➢ If a 3-phase supply is fed to the stator windings of a 3-phase motor, a magnetic flux of constant magnitude,
rotating at synchronous speed is set up.
➢ At this point, the rotor is stationary. The rotating magnetic flux passes through the air gap between the stator
& rotor and sweeps past the stationary rotor conductors.
➢ This rotating flux, as it sweeps, cuts the rotor conductors, thus causing an e.m.f to be induced in the rotor
conductors.
➢ As per the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, it is this relative motion between the rotating
magnetic flux and the stationary rotor conductors, which induces an e.m.f on the rotor conductors.
➢ Since the rotor conductors are shorted and form a closed circuit, the induced e.m.f produces a rotor current
whose direction is given by Lenz’s Law, is such as to oppose the cause producing it.
➢ In this case, the cause which produces the rotor current is the relative motion between the rotating magnetic
flux and the stationary rotor conductors.
➢ Thus, to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts to rotate in the same direction as that of the rotating flux
on the stator windings, trying to catch it up. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is same as the supply
frequency.
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Types of induction motor
1. Squirrel cage
2. Slip ring

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1. Squirrel cage induction motor.

➢ It consists of cylindrical laminated core with slots nearly parallel to the shaft axis.
➢ Each slot contains uninsulated bar conductor of an aluminium or copper.
➢ At each end of the rotor, the rotor bar conductors are short-circuited by heavy end rings of the same
materials.
➢ The conductors and the end ring form the shape of the tyre which was commonly used for keeping squirrels,
hence the name.

2. Wound rotor or slip ring motor

Slip ring

➢ The wound rotor consists of a slotted armature.

➢ Insulated conductors are put in the slots and connected to form a three-phase double layer
distributed winding similar to the stator winding.
➢ The rotor windings are connected in star.
➢ The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them.

Comparisons of cage and wound rotor.

➢ Robust construction and cheaper
➢ The absence of brushes reduces the risk of sparking
➢ Lesser maintenance
➢ Higher efficiency and higher power-factor.

Slip or percentage slip

An induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed. Let us consider for a moment that a rotor is rotating at a
synchronous speed. Under this condition, there would be no cutting of flux by the rotor conductors, and there
would be no generated voltage, no current and no torque. Therefore, a rotor speed is always less than a
synchronous speed. For this reason, it is also known as “Asynchronous motor”. The difference between the
synchronous speed and the rotor speed is known as the slip speed. And it is given by
s = (Ns – N) x 100% Where , Ns = synchronous speed.
Ns
N= rotor speed

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Synchronous speed
The synchronous speed of 3-phase asynchronous motors is proportional to the power supply frequency and
inversely proportional to the number of pairs in the stator.
Example:
Ns = 120 f
p
Where:
Ns: synchronous speed in rpm
f: frequency in Hz
p: number of pairs of poles.
The table gives the speeds of the rotating field, or synchronous speeds, depending on the number of poles, for
industrial frequencies of 50Hz and 60Hz and a frequency of 100Hz.

For example,
If speed is 3600, frequency 3600 Hz, then,
Ns = 120f
P
Therefore, 3600 = 120 x 60
P
Therefore, P = 120 x 60
3600
Therefore, P = 2.

❖ Write the checklist of good maintenance practises for proper motor operation. 2017
A checklist of good maintenance practices to help ensure proper motor operation would include:
• Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses) and for dirt/dust
in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
• Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A change in motor load from
the last test indicates a change in the driven load, the cause of which should be understood.
• Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and when to lubricate
their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above. Over lubrication can also create
problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter the motor and saturate the motor
insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
• Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment.
• Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to both the motor
and the driven equipment.
• Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect regularly the
connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.
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❖ What are the losses in induction motor and briefly explain them? 2017
Iron or core loss consist of Ways to reduce them
1. Hysteresis loss: -
Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization.
This loss depends upon the volume and grade of using CRGO steel
the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value
of flux density.
2. Eddy current loss: -
• AC current is supplied to the stator winding which
sets up alternating magnetizing flux.
• When this flux links with rotor conductors, it
produces induced emf in it.
• But some part of this flux also gets linked with
Fixed losses other conducting parts like steel core or iron body Reducing lamination thickness
or the motor, which will result in induced emf in
those parts, causing small circulating current in
them.
• This current is called as eddy current.
Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be
dissipated in the form of heat.

3. Mechanical losses and brushes friction losses: -

Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush
friction loss occurs in wound rotor induction motor.
These losses are zero at start and with increase in
using properly selected bearings
speed these losses increase. In three phase
induction motor the speed usually remains
constant. Hence these losses almost remain
constant.

Ways to reduce them

Copper losses consist of
These are:
Variable losses I2R losses in the stator winding.
I2R losses in the rotor winding.
• These losses occur due to the resistance of rotor
winding as well as the resistance of stator
winding.
• As the load changes, the current flowing in rotor
and stator winding also changes and hence these
losses also change. Therefore, these losses are
called variable losses.
1. Use of more copper and larger
conductors increases cross sectional
area of stator windings. This lowers
resistance (R) of the windings and
reduces losses due to current flow
(I).
2. Use of larger rotor conductor bars
increases size of cross section,
lowering conductor resistance (R)
and losses due to current flow (I).

❖ Explain the impact of power supply on induction motor. 2017

• Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power, that is the actual volts and
frequency available at motor terminals vis-à-vis rated values as well as voltage and frequency variations and
voltage unbalance across the three phases.
• Voltage fluctuations can have detrimental impacts on motor performance which is given on a table.

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❖ Draw a torque slip characteristics of induction motor and explain 2018

We know that torque of an induction motor = ksR2E22

R2 2 + (sX20)
2

ks = constant
R2 = rotor resistance
E22 = emf generated in rotor
s = slip
X20 = rotor reactance
The torque-slip characteristics curve can be divided roughly into three: -
i. low-slip region
ii. medium-slip region
iii. high-slip region

Low-slip region (motoring region)

At synchronous speed s = 0, the torque is zero. When the speed is very near to synchronous speed, slip is low.
In this case sX21 is negligible; therefore, torque T = KsR21 = Ks
2
R 21 R21
If R21 is constant then T = ks,
Therefore, T α s.
Hence when the slip is small, the torque-slip characteristics is a straight line.

Medium-slip region
As slip increases, i.e., as the speed decreases with increase in load, the term sX2 becomes large, so that R222 may
be neglected in compared to sX22.
So, T = KsR22 = KR22
2 2
s X 22 sX222
If R2 and X2 are constant then T α 1
S
So, torque is inversely proportional to slip towards the stand0-still condition.

High-slip region
The torque decreases beyond the point of maximum torque. The result is that the motor slows down and
eventually stops. At this stage, the overload protection must immediately disconnect the motor from the supply
to prevent damage from over-heating.
The torque-slip curves for various values of rotor The motor works for the values of the
resistance. The torque-slip curves are shown below.
slip between s = 0 and s= sM, where sM is
the value of the slip corresponding to the
maximum torque.
Thus, the motor can handle the short-
time overload, without stalling.
The starting is about 1.5 times the full-
load torque.

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❖ Draw and explain the power factor v/s percentage loading graph of induction motor. 2018

Power factor
• Power-factor is represented by cosɸ and is ratio of active power by apparent power.
• Induction motors present a lagging (inductive) power factor to the power line.
• At starting, the power factor can be in the range of 10% to 25%, rising as the rotor achieves speed.
• Power factor (PF) varies considerably with the motor mechanical load as shown in the graph.
• An unloaded motor is analogous to a transformer with no resistive load on the secondary. Thus, the power
line sees a reactive load, as low as 10% PF.
• As the rotor is loaded an increasing resistive component is reflected from rotor to stator, increasing the
power factor.

Efficiency
• Efficiency for a lightly loaded or no-load induction motor is poor because most of the current is involved with
maintaining magnetizing flux.
• Efficiency at 75% Full load torque can be slightly higher than that at 100% Full load torque.
• Efficiency is decreased a few percent at 50% full load torque, and decreased a few more percent at 25% Full
load torque.
• The variation of efficiency with loading is shown in the graph. 4

❖ Explain in part load operation why energy efficient motor is better than normal motor. 2018

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• Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are incorporated specifically, to
increase operating efficiency over motors of standard design as shown in the graph.
• Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses such as stator and rotor I2R losses (which
constitute 50%-60% of major losses), core losses (which constitute about 20%-25% of major losses), friction
and windage losses (which accounts for 20%-25% of total losses), and stray losses (which constitute about
8%-12% of losses).
• Improvements include the use of lower-loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active material), thicker
wires (to reduce resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead
of aluminium bars in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
• Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with efficiencies that are typically 3 to 4 percentage
points higher than standard motors. In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS (bureau of Indian standards),
energy-efficient motors are designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75 % and 100 %
of rated capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load applications.
• The power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors. Furthermore, energy-
efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerate higher-
inertia loads, and are less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
• Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load efficiencies are higher by 3 to 7 %.
• The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to enable easy replacement. As a result of the
modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-efficient motors are higher than those of
standard motors. The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved operating costs, particularly in new
applications or end-of-life motor replacements.
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❖ What are the effects of harmonics on motor operation and performance? 2017
• Harmonics increase motor losses, and can adversely affect the operation of sensitive auxiliary equipment.
• The non-sinusoidal supply results in harmonic currents in the stator which increases the total current drawn.
In addition, the rotor resistance (or more precisely, impedance) increases significantly at harmonic
frequencies, leading to less efficient operation.
• Also, stray load losses can increase significantly at harmonic frequencies.
• Overall motor losses increase by about 20% with a six-step voltage waveform compared to operation with a
sinusoidal supply.
• In some cases, the motor may have to be de-rated as a result of the losses.
• Alternatively, additional circuitry and switching devices can be employed to minimize losses.
• Harmonics can also contribute to low power factor. 4

❖ What are the factors to be considered while selecting a motor? 2017

A. Torque Requirement
• The primary consideration defining the motor choice for any particular application is the torque required by
the load. The relationship between the maximum torque generated by the motor (break-down torque) and
the torque requirements for start-up (locked rotor torque) and during acceleration periods is very important.
• The thermal loading on the motor is determined by the duty/load cycle. One important consideration with
totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motors is that the cooling may be insufficient when the motor is operated
at speeds lower than its rated speed.
B. Sizing to Variable Load
• Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load conditions due to process requirements. A common
practice in cases where such variable loads are found is to select a motor based on the highest anticipated
load. In many instances, an alternative approach is typically less costly, more efficient and provides equally
satisfactory operation. With this approach, the optimum rating for the motor is selected on the basis of the
load duration curve for the particular application.
• Thus, rather than selecting a motor of high rating that would operate at full capacity for only a short period,
a motor would be selected with a rating slightly lower than the peak anticipated load and would operate at
overload for a short period of time.

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• Since operating within the thermal capacity of the motor insulation is of greatest concern in a motor
operating at higher than its rated load, the motor rating is selected as that which would result in the same
temperature rise under continuous full-load operation as the weighted average temperature rise over the
actual operating cycle.

❖ Write some strategies for correcting poor power factor in motors?

The following are strategies for correcting power factor in motors:
1. Minimise operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.
2. Ensuring correct supply of rated voltage and phase balance.
3. Installing capacitors to decrease reactive power loads.

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