Mechanical-condition

assessment of transformer
windings using Frequency
Response Analysis (FRA)

Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26

Convener: Patrick Picher, Canada

Scope of CIGRE WG A2.26

1. To provide an introduction for interested parties

with limited previous experience in FRA

2. To compare the various FRA practices and

make relevant recommendations for
standardisation

3. To develop a guide for data interpretation and

make proposals for research activities to
support further improvements.

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What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

• Frequency Response Analysis

• A tool to detect mechanical changes to
transformer windings
• When:
– Post fault (examples: through-fault or tap
changer fault)
– After relocation (transportation damage)
– Baseline measurement : in the factory or
when the transformer is commissioned at site

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 3

What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

• The frequency response of a winding is a

function of the RLC network of the windings
related to the physical geometry
• Mechanical changes within the test specimen
alter the RLC network, and in turn can alter the
frequency response
• The major transformer resonances are in the
range from a few kHz to a few MHz, depending
on the voltage and type of the winding

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 What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

Measurement of Measurement of
input voltage voltage response

Vs Vr

Application of a
voltage signal
(swept frequency or impulse)

End-to-end connection
(source on phase terminal)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 5

What is FRA?
Introduction to FRA

0
-10
-20
Amplitude (dB)

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (kHz)

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Winding Deformation Failure Mode Introduction to FRA

Radial buckling of inner winding Conductor tilting

Spiralling in the LV winding Collapse of winding end support

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 7

Example: Axial Collapse after Clamping

Failure Introduction to FRA

35-year-old 400/132-kV 240-MVA autotransformer

FRA signatures before and after axial Axial collapse after clamping failure
collapse due to clamping failure

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60
0 0.5 1
Frequency (MHz)

A phase B phase C phase

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Example: Conductor Tilting Introduction to FRA

40-year-old 275/132-kV 240-MVA autotransformer

FRA measurements across the tap winding Conductor tilting (normally conductors
(conductor tilting deformation in phase A) should be completely vertical)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 9

FRA test types defined by CIGRE WG

A2.26 FRA Practices

(a) End-to-end (source on phase terminal) (b) End-to-end (source on neutral terminal)

Vs Vr Vr Vs

(c) End-to-end short-circuit (source on (d) End-to-end short-circuit (source on

phase terminal) neutral terminal)
Vs Vr **

(e) Capacitive inter-winding (f) Inductive inter-winding

Vs Vr Vs Vr

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‘Standard’ method for referencing the test
leads
FRA Practices

• Signal and source measurement cables tapped

together near the top of the bushing.
• Earth lead extension run along the body of the
bushing, down to the flange, to connect the
cables shields to the tank.
• Same principle for the response cable.
Coaxial cable

Earth lead

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 11

Objectives of WG Workshops
FRA Practices

• Characterise the differences in FRA practices

(impulse, sweep frequency, measurement
impedance, test leads, grounding, etc)
• Compare FRA measurement types and
determine the usefulness of each for diagnosing
transformer defects
• Standardise good FRA practices and point out
practical limitations

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 Nuremberg FRA Test Workshop

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 13

Northfleet FRA Test Workshop

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Test setup – Nuremberg Workshop
FRA Practices

Test Sweep or Response Measurement

Test Lead Details
Set-up impulse Impedance
Optical transducer with 10 MΩ
A Sweep 300 mm wide aluminium foils
input impedance
Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest 2 MΩ (input impedance of
B Impulse
25 mm wide braid to tank. instrument)
Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest 50 Ω (input impedance of
C Sweep
wire to tank. instrument)
Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest 50 Ω (input impedance of
D Sweep
wire to tank. instrument)
Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest
E Sweep CT (0.5 V/A)
wire to tank.
For LV: coaxial cables to splitter box,
then 5-m wire to terminals. 50 Ω (input impedance of
F Impulse
For HV: Coaxial cables to terminals + instrument)
shortest wire to tank.
Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest 50 Ω (input impedance of
G Sweep
wire to tank. instrument)
Coaxial and triaxial cables to terminals +
H Impulse 10 Ω shunt
shortest braid to tank.
Coaxial cables to terminals + shortest
I Sweep CT (1 V/A)
wire to tank.

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 15

Comparison of results – Nuremberg

Workshop FRA Practices

20
Effect of
0 test leads
Amplitude (dB)

-20 LVI vs. SFRA

and dynamic range
-40
-60
-80 Almost identical results
from 10 kHz to 500 kHz
-100
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (kHz)
C D E F G H I
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Summary of results – Northfleet
Workshop FRA Practices

Measurements using various cabling practices and one instrument

0 -20
-25
-10
-30

Amplitude (dB)
Amplitude (dB) -20
-35
-30 -40
-45
-40
-50
-50
-55
-60 -60
0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T10 T11 T52 T53 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T10 T11 T52 T53

Measurements using different instruments and a standardised cabling practice

0 -20
-10 -25
-30

Amplitude (dB)
Amplitude (dB)

-20
-35
-30
-40
-40
-45
-50 -50
-60 -55
-70 -60
0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
T15 T32 T16 T33 T34 T35 T36 T38 T37 T15 T32 T16 T33 T34 T35 T36 T38 T37

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 17

Summary of WG Workshops
FRA Practices

• Good cabling practice is necessary to take

advantage of the demonstrated sensitivity of
FRA.
• Measuring system should not impact the
measurement result in the frequency range
covered by the test equipment.
• The value of the measurement impedance can
have a significant impact on the FRA response.
• More research is needed to compare the
sensitivity of each test in detecting various faults.

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Summary of rules to perform a good
FRA measurement FRA Practices

1. Use three shielded high-frequency cables terminated

in their matching characteristic impedance
2. Keep the grounding leads as short as possible
(without coiling the leads) and use flat braid (20 mm
width minimum) instead of wire.
3. Use good connectors for attaching the test leads to
terminals.
4. The test setup should be the same for the reference
and repeated measurements.
5. Disconnect all unused cables from the bushing
terminal.

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FRA Interpretation
FRA Interpretation

Assist FRA users by providing a description of

typical responses and controlling factors,
together with a collection of case examples
which illustrates how various types of winding
movement and other faults can be detected by
FRA.

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Presentation of FRA Responses FRA Interpretation

Amplitude (dB) vs. log frequency Amplitude (dB) vs. linear frequency
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20

Amplitude (dB)
-30
Amplitude (dB)

-30
-40 -40
-50 -50
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
-90 -90
-100 -100
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Frequency (kHz) Frequency (kHz)

Linear amplitude vs. log frequency Linear amplitude vs. linear frequency
1
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
Amplitude

0.6

Amplitude
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Frequency (kHz)
Frequency (kHz)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 21

Expected Resonance Frequency Range FRA Interpretation

Frequency range for natural frequencies of large transformer windings.

Transformer Typical range for natural frequency
component start [kHz] stop [kHz]
(> 100 MVA/limb)
HV disk winding 10 200

LV layer winding 10 1000

Regulating winding 100 1000

Frequency range for natural frequencies of medium transformer windings.

Transformer Typical range for natural frequency
component start [kHz] stop [kHz]
(< 30 MVA/limb)
HV disk winding 10 1000

LV layer winding 50 1500

Regulating winding 100 1500

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 Typical FRA Responses FRA Interpretation

HV winding response of large autotransformers

(6 three-phase-autotransformers, 400/275 kV, delta-connected tertiary winding
Second maximum typical
for autotransformers
Amplitude (dB)

Core
inductive- Capacitive-
response response
-20dB/decade +20dB/decade

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Typical FRA Responses FRA Interpretation

Generator transformer LV winding responses (3 phases of a transformer)

At low frequencies, there is the usual first core-related minimum (with significantly
less attenuation than for HV windings) followed by a maximum at about 8 kHz,
with an intermediate maximum and minimum if the transformer is three-phase
rather than single-phase

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Typical FRA Responses FRA Interpretation

Double-wound transmission transformer LV responses

In the higher frequency range, the typical response is a series of
multiple resonances with a characteristic ‘M’ shape

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Frequency range for interpretation FRA Interpretation

... Uwinding > 100 kV

... Uwinding < 100 kV

100 1k 10 k 100 k 1M 5M
Frequency (Hz)
Check:
Residual flux (LF) Typical interpretation range
Repeatability problem (HF)

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 Interpretation methodology
FRA Interpretation

• Fingerprint measurements on the same unit.

• Measurements on identical (twin) transformers.
• Measurements on separately tested limbs or
phases.

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 27

Evaluation using fingerprint (baseline)

measurement FRA Interpretation

Comparison with fingerprint result, end-to-end test

(shunt reactor, 110 Mvar, 735/kV)
0
-10
-20
-30
Amplitude (dB)

-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)

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Comparison of real twin units FRA Interpretation

Two single-phase autotransformers

370 MVA, HV 700/kV, LV 300/kV
10
0
-10
-20
Amplitude (dB)

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
H1X1 (T2-A) H1X1 (T2-B)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 29

Comparison of sister units FRA Interpretation

Same manufacturer, same specification…but different design

= FRA interpretation not possible
20.0

10.0
|UB(f)/UN(f)| [dB]

0.0

-10.0

-20.0
Tr. 1 Tr. 2 Tr. 3 Tr. 4

-30.0 Tr. 5 Tr. 6 Tr. 7 Tr. 8

Tr. 9 Tr. 10 Tr. 11
-40.0

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Symmetry of transformer windings FRA Interpretation

FRA comparison of 2 separately tested limbs

End-to-end tests on LV windings (GSU, 266 MVA, 420// 21 / 21 kV)
10

0
Amplitude (dB)

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (MHz)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 31

Examples of FRA interpretation FRA Interpretation

Identical single-phase generator transformers

(from a bank of single-phase units)
Amplitude (dB)

Hoop buckling failure of inner

phase B LV winding

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 Examples of FRA interpretation FRA Interpretation

Measurements on the tap windings and HV windings at tap 1

120/26.4 kV, 47 MVA transformer (wye-delta)
0 -20
-5
-10 -30

Amplitude (dB)
Amplitude (dB)

-15 -40
-20
-25 Tap winding -50 HV winding (tap 1)
-30
-35 -60
-40 -70
-45
-50 -80
0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
phase A phase B phase C H1H0 tap 1 H2H0 tap 1 H3H0 tap 1

Localized winding displacement on

the phase A tap winding caused by
a tap changer fault.

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Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

End-to-end and capacitive inter-winding tests

Three-phase 42-MVA transformer, 115/46 kV (delta-wye)

End-to-end tests Capacitive inter-winding tests

Floating shield strips

between HV and LV of
phase B

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Examples of FRA interpretation
FRA Interpretation

FRA responses before and after repair

three-phase transformer rated 250 MVA, 212 kV / 110 kV / 10.5 kV

Shorted core laminations

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 35

Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Effect of the oil on the FRA measurement

HV winding, 400-MVA three-phase autotransformer, 230/120 kV
10
0
-10
Amplitude (dB)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60 Higher permittivity of the oil increases
the capacitance, which in turn reduces
-70 the resonance frequencies
-80
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
without oil with oil
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Examples of FRA interpretation
FRA Interpretation

Effect of shorted turns on phase C tertiary winding

140-MVA autotransformer (220/69 kV with tertiary winding)
0
-10
-20
Amplitude (dB)

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
H1X1 H2X2 H3X3

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 37

Examples of FRA interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Effect of core residual magnetisation

0
-10
-20
Amplitude (dB)

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07
Frequency (Hz)
without residual flux with residual flux

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 Examples of FRA interpretation FRA Interpretation

Effect of a bad connection (higher contact resistance) to the

transformer terminal (response cable)

0.45 200
0.4 150
0.35 100
0.3
Amplitude

Phase (º)
50
0.25
0
0.2
0.15 -50
0.1 -100
0.05 -150
0 -200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Reference Bad response contact (+5 ohms) Reference Bad response contact (+5 ohms)

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 39

Perspectives in FRA Interpretation

FRA Interpretation

Tools:
ƒ Statistical indicators (error functions, correlation
coefficients, etc.) provide an objective method
for measuring the differences between FRA
measurements
ƒ Pole-Zero representation creates a framework
to facilitate assisted interpretation algorithms
Challenges:
ƒ To determine the limits for the indicators
sensitive only to ‘abnormal’ differences
ƒ Future research work required

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 40

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For more information: CIGRE Brochure 342

Mechanical-condition assessment of transformer windings using FRA – Tutorial of Cigre WG A2.26 41

Thanks to CIGRE WG A2.26 members

P. Picher (CA) – Convenor

J. Lapworth (UK) – Leader of Task Force 1
T. Noonan (IR) – Leader of Task Force 2
J. Christian (DE) – Leader of Task Force 3

M. Alpatov (RU), D. Bormann (SE), R. Breytenbach (ZA), P. Dick (CA),

A. Drobyshevski (RU), I. Dumbrava (RO), R. Fisher (CH), H.K.
Hoidalen (NO), P. Jarman (UK), I. Kispal (HU), A. Kraetge (AT), T.
Leibfried (DE), R. Malewski (PL), R. Ocon (MX), E. Perez (SP),
J. Rickmann (US), Y. Shirasaka (JP), S. Tenbohlen (DE), M. Tiberg
(CH), Z. Wang (UK), P. Werelius (SE), R. Zaleski (PL).

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