1268 Research Article

Lukas Hohmann1
Design of a Continuous Tubular Cooling
Ramona Gorny2
Oliver Klaas1 Crystallizer for Process Development
Jonas Ahlert1
on Lab-Scale
Kerstin Wohlgemuth3
Norbert Kockmann1
Continuous manufacturing of fine chemical, life science, and pharmaceutical
1 products is under recent investigation in R&D. As cooling crystallization is an
TU Dortmund University,
important unit operation for purification of products, continuously operated, scal-
Department of Biochemical
and Chemical Engineering,
able devices are required for process development on lab-scale. A tubular crystal-
Laboratory of Equipment lizer was developed, based on the coiled flow inverter design. Experimental char-
Design, Dortmund, Germany. acterization proved a narrow residence time distribution of the liquid phase close
2
to ideal plug flow. Counter-current air cooling allows for adjusting linear and
TU Dortmund University, curved temperature profiles. Unseeded operation with the L-alanine (water)
Department of Biochemical
system demonstrated that nucleation has to be actively controlled to successfully
and Chemical Engineering,
apply intensified continuous cooling crystallization processes.
Laboratory of Solids Process
Engineering, Dortmund,
Keywords: Coiled flow inverter, Continuous cooling crystallization, Product purification,
Germany.
Tubular device
3
TU Dortmund University, Received: January 29, 2016; revised: May 02, 2016; accepted: May 09, 2016
Department of Biochemical
and Chemical Engineering, DOI: 10.1002/ceat.201600072
Laboratory of Plant and
Process Design, Dortmund,
Germany.

1 Introduction ious single and multiphase applications [15]. For downstream

Concepts for continuous production of small lot size products,
e.g., fine chemicals, life science products, and pharmaceuticals,
recently rise interest [1]. While the manufacturing of those
products is conventionally carried out in batch mode, continu-
ous processing offers multiple advantages to improve product
quality [2], cost efficiency [3], safety [4, 5], and to reduce time-
to-market [6]. In renowned research projects with the collabo-
ration of both industry and academia innovative continuous
production concepts have been successfully demonstrated
[7–9]. Nevertheless, product and process development are usu-
ally carried out in batch mode which hinders a later shift to
continuous operation [2]. Thus, well-characterized, scalable,
continuous lab-scale equipment is required to demonstrate and
optimize continuous production concepts early in process
development [2, 10].
For upstream operation, flexible equipment toolboxes and
platform solutions [11, 12] are available for process develop-
ment in laboratory and scale-up to production capacity
[13, 14]. Due to their small dimensions and high specific sur-
face area, microreactors proved superior performance for var-
– agglomeration during batch cooling crystallization [20].
Correspondence: Prof. Norbert Kockmann (norbert.kockmann@bci.
tu-dortmund.de), TU Dortmund University, Department of Biochemi-
cal and Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Equipment Design, Emil-
Figge-Straße 68, 44227 Dortmund, Germany.
operation, less toolbox or platform devices have been reported,
yet. Typically, syntheses of fine chemical, life science, and phar-
maceutical products are carried out in the liquid phase [16].
The products are often characterized by larger molecular
weight, a diversity of functional groups, and increased thermal
sensitivity compared to bulk chemicals [17]. Thus, crystalliza-
tion from solution is an important downstream operation for
purification and product isolation, when, e.g., distillation is not
applicable.
The aim of this work is to design a continuously operated
tubular cooling crystallizer for lab-scale application with a total
throughput of Fm1) ~ 10 g min–1. Hence, continuous crystalliza-
tion processes can be demonstrated in a benchtop-size plant
with a total amount of product solution of a few kilograms.
Furthermore, important characteristics of the crystallizer, such
as residence time distribution (RTD), particle fluidization, and
temperature profile have to be analyzed to use experimental
results from lab-scale for process development and scale-up.
The project focuses on the crystallization of small organic com-
pounds from aqueous solution, in particular amino acids. A
binary mixture of L-alanine and water serves as a test system.
In this case, L-alanine crystallizes exclusively in an orthorhom-
bic morphology [18, 19]. Nevertheless, the system tends to
–
1) List of symbols at the end of the paper.

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 Research Article 1269

2 Design of the Tubular Crystallizer
Chen et al. reviewed the application of continuous crystalliza-
tion in the pharmaceutical industry. They point out the advan-
tages of continuous crystallization compared to batch crystalli-
zation, i.e., smaller equipment size, constant product quality
due to steady-state operation, and increasing yield by applying
recycling strategies [21].
Considering cooling crystallization, heat transfer is more and
more limited by the reduced specific surface area when scaling-
up conventional batch cooling crystallizers [22]. This can limit
the efficiency, when a certain crystallizing system and the
desired product quality would allow for faster cooling. Com-
paring continuous plug-flow (PF) crystallizers to continuous
mixed-suspension mixed-product removal crystallizers, PF
equipment will obtain higher space-time yield and is therefore
extremely promising, if a high supersaturation level is tolerable.
However, temperature control is more difficult in tubular devi-
ces and settling/clogging of particles is an issue [21].
2.1 State of the Art
Various designs of continuous tubular PF equipment are
reported in literature. Design parameters, process conditions,
and investigated test systems are summarized in Tab. 1. Further
details are given in the following section.
A renowned example for PF crystallization is the continuous
oscillatory baffled crystallizer (COBC). In this macro-struc-
tured tubular device, particle fluidization and a narrow RTD
are achieved by a pulsed flow through baffles in the pipe,
whereas the pulsation is achieved by a piston movement
[23–25]. Seeded and unseeded operations [23] of various crys-
tallizing systems were reported. However, seeding enabled a
more robust operation without encrustation of the walls [26].
Ultrasound was successfully applied in a COBC setup to induce
primary nucleation [25]. A flexible adjustment of the axial tem-
perature profiles, e.g., a linear profile, can be achieved by a
sophisticated control system [27] or multiple thermostats, e.g.,
13 heating/cooling thermostats [26]. The COBC technology is
promising for pilot and production scale. However, scale-down
to smaller dimensions for process development has not been
reported, yet. Batch oscillatory baffled crystallizers are used to
decrease material consumption during process development
[23, 25, 26].
Méndez del Rı́o et al. describe a milli-structured tube-in-tube
heat exchanger for cooling crystallization purposes. Rapid
unseeded natural cooling of the binary systems paracetamol
(methanol) and paracetamol (ethanol) were carried out. A clear
solution was gained at the end of the tubular section due to
expansion of the metastable zone width (MSZW). Primary
nucleation was detected in the receiving vessel, leading to sig-
nificantly smaller crystals compared to batch experiments.
Some experimental parameter sets led to a rapid clogging of
the tubes [28].
A continuously operated, seeded crystallizer based on heli-
cally coiled tubes was reported by Eder et al. for the acetylsali-
cylic acid (ethanol) system. Seeding was achieved by injection
of a seed suspension into the main flow from a second storage
vessel. The seed suspension was prepared in a batch process
and the mean particle size was x50,3 ~ 100 mm [29]. Cooling of
the tubular section was realized by one gas-cooled enclosure
box [29] or four cooling thermostats [30]. Unseeded operation
led to blockage of the tube, whereas seeding and sufficiently
high flow velocity led to robust operation up to 15 min [29].
Wong et al. propose a method for continuous seed genera-
tion via continuous contact secondary nucleation. Therefore, a
parent crystal or tablet is fixed on a rotating shaft. Seed crystals

Table 1. Design parameters and test systems of various continuous tubular crystallizers from literature.

Equipment type di [mm] V [mL] Tube material Fm [g min–1] FV [mL min–1] Product (solvent) Ref.

COBC DN25 12000 Glass PVDF – 1000 API (solvent) [23]

COBC DN15 1250 Glass – 100–400 RTD study [24]

COBC DN65 ~ 12 000 Steel FEP – 50 RTD study; a-lactose [25]

monohydrate (water)

COBC DN15 5100 Glass 50 – L-glutamic acid (water) [26]

Tube-in-tube heat 1.6 15.3 PTFE – 10.8–47.2 Paracetamol (methanol), [28]

exchanger (ethanol)

Helically coiled tubes 2.0 47.0 Polysiloxane – 12.4–25.2 Acetyl salicylic acid (eth- [29]
anol)

Tubular growth section 3.2 49.0 Chem-Durance Bio – 11.3–14.2 Paracetamol (water) [31, 32]

Gas-liquid slug flow 2.0 85 Polysiloxane – 15.0 (L) Acetyl salicylic acid (eth- [33]
15.0 (G) anol, air)

Gas-liquid slug flow 3.1 115 Polysiloxane – 7.0–23.5 (L) L-asparagine monohy- [34, 35]
7.0–23.5 (G) drate (water, air)

Liquid-liquid slug flow 1.0 0.1–2.3 PFA – 0.4 (L1) Adipic acid (water, [36]
0.4 (L2) hexane)

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1270 Research Article

are abraded from the parent crystal and become entrained by – the temperature profile needs to be measurable and control-
supersaturated solution. The process was demonstrated for the lable with a reasonable equipment effort, especially in terms
glycine (water) and the paracetamol (water) systems. Seed crys- of thermostats
tals were obtained in the range of x50,0 ~ 4–8 mm for glycine and – the pressure drop needs to be less than 1 bar to enable robust
x50,0 ~ 6–13 mm for paracetamol. Seed crystals of paracetamol operation of peristaltic pumps.
were subsequently grown in a tubular growth section [31, 32]. For lab-scale operation with the test system L-alanine
In order to minimize axial dispersion [33, 34] and to prevent (water), the desired total mass flow rate for the crystallizer was
clogging of tubular devices [34], the application of a gas-liquid set to Fm = 5–10 g min–1 of solution or suspension. The design
slug flow is under investigation for continuous cooling crystal- case was further based on unseeded batch cooling crystalliza-
lization. Jiang et al. reported on a slug-flow device which was tion processes with linear cooling profiles [37, 38]. The corre-
used as a growth section for the L-asparagine monohydrate sponding physical properties and process conditions used for
(water) system. Primary nucleation was induced by rapid cool- the design are given in Tab. 2 and Tab. 3, respectively.
ing of a saturated solution in a tubular heat exchanger or by
mixing of two saturated solutions of different temperatures in Table 2. Physical properties of the aqueous L-alanine solution
various micromixers. Multiple combinations of heating to in the crystallizer.
achieve fines dissolution, natural cooling at room temperature,
and controlled cooling in cooling bathes were investigated in Property Value Ref.
the growth section [34]. –1
Mala [g mol ] 89.09
Another option for inducing nucleation in continuous oper-
–1
ation is the application of ultrasound [33, 35]. Eder et al. fed wala,sat(50 C) [galagsol ] 0.177 [37]
supersaturated solution of acetylsalicylic acid (ethanol) into a wala,sat(25 C) [galagsol ] –1
0.141 [37]
tubular coil and placed it in an ultrasonic bath. The seed crys- –3
tals of x50,3 ~ 20 mm were subsequently grown in gas-liquid rw(25 C) [kg m ] 997.05 [50]
slug flow by means of five thermostatic bathes to construct the rala,S(23 C) [kg m ] –3
1375 [51]
cooling section [33]. Jiang et al. applied an ultrasonic probe –3
rsol(25 C) [kg m ] 1054.43 [52]
which was pressed directly on the process tube, followed by a
tubular gas-liquid slug-flow growth section with natural cool- hw(25 C) [mPa s] 0.890 [50]
ing at room temperature [35]. An example of continuous cool-
hsol(25 C) [mPa s] 1.462 [53]
ing crystallization in small-scale tubular devices, utilizing a liq-
–1 –1
uid-liquid slug flow, was reported by Rossi et al. They cp,w(25 C) [J kg K ] 4182 [50]
employed the adipic acid (water) system with n-hexane as a
second liquid phase, investigating the primary nucleation The fluid properties at the outlet temperature of the crystallizer
mechanism [36]. were estimated from literature data for the inlet mass fraction
of L-alanine. As a worst-case assumption, the heat capacity of
The application of slug flow in continuous cooling crystalli-
pure water at outlet temperature was applied.
zation provides a narrow RTD and can assist particle transport.
Nevertheless, the tube volume has to be significantly increased
Table 3. Desired process conditions for the continuous cooling
to maintain a desired mean residence time as the second phase crystallization of L-alanine from water.
increases the total volumetric flow rate. Scale-up of slug flow is
an issue as known from microreactors [14]. Furthermore, the Fm [g min–1] Tin [C] Tout [C]
generation and splitting of the two fluid phases increases
equipment effort, and the influences of the second fluid phase 5.0 50.0 25.0
on solubility, crystallization kinetics, and product quality have 10.0 50.0 25.0
not been addressed, yet. These aspects need to be investigated
when comparing continuous processes to conventional small-
scale batch processes without another fluid phase. In order to design the tubular crystallizer, an equipment con-
cept is to choose, which fulfills the demands stated above. Var-
ious concepts for continuous seeding and induced primary nu-
2.2 Equipment Design Procedure cleation have been reviewed above, which can be connected to
a tubular device. Thus, the aspect of controlling nucleation can
Concluding the state of the art on continuous tubular cooling be located in a separate device. This work focuses on designing
crystallization, various demands on a tubular cooling crystal- a tubular cooling section for particle growth. Due to the low
lizer for process development on lab-scale can be stated: flow rates being desired for lab-scale application (see Tab. 3)
– a mean residence time of several minutes needs to be ob- and the solution properties (see Tab. 2), a turbulent flow profile
tained is hardly achievable. Klutz et al. recently reviewed tubular
– a narrow RTD close to ideal plug flow is required to enable equipment concepts for application in laminar flow with
batch-to-conti approaches respect to achieving a narrow RTD. Considering a low manu-
– particle fluidization and transport have to be facilitated, facturing effort and a flexible, segmented design, helically
while the application of a second fluid phase is avoided in coiled tubes, especially in the coiled flow inverter (CFI) design,
this project appeared most promising [39].

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 Research Article
Helically coiled tubes can be manufactured by coiling flexible
tubes, e.g., polymeric tubes, on a supporting structure. Due to
the flow on the circular pathway, centrifugal forces act on the
fluid, shifting the maximum flow velocity of the laminar flow
profile to the outer side of the wall. Thereby, Dean vortices are
induced, which can significantly intensify radial mixing [40].
This effect can be further enhanced using the CFI design. By
bending the tubular helix after a certain number of turns with
a 90 angle, Dean vortices have to be reformed and change the
direction [40]. The Reynolds number (Eq. (1)), the Dean num-
ber (Eq. (2)), the modified torsion parameter (Eq. (3)), and fur-
ther design guidelines taking the bend number and the number
of turns per coil into consideration can be applied to achieve a
narrow RTD in laminar flow [39, 41]. Here, di, hsol, dc, and p
denote the inner diameter of the tube, the viscosity of the solu-
tion, the coil diameter, and the coil pitch distance, respectively.
4 Fm
Re ¼
p di hsol
sffiffiffiffiffi
di
Dn ¼ Re
dc
pdc
T* ¼ Re
p
The fluidization of crystals is crucial for suspension crystalli-
zation purposes but the fundamentals of solid-liquid flow in
small-scale tubular devices are still poorly understood. Consid-
ering a crystal suspension with significantly lower crystal sizes
compared to the tube diameter of the crystallizer, various phe-
nomena can lead to settling of particles or scaling of the tube
surface which can further lead to unsteady operation or even
clogging of the device.
Chen et al. recently reviewed scaling mechanisms in micro-
reactors and commercial tubing with respect to precipitation of
by-products during chemical syntheses. Some combinations of
particles and wall materials might be generally unfavorable due
to strong particle-to-surface attraction, i.e., adsorption, adhe-
sion due to surface roughness or heterogeneous nucleation of
crystals on the wall surface. If this is not the case, mechanical
entrapment of particles due to inertial impaction was identified
to be a major reason for scaling. Unsteady changes in the tube
diameter or constrictions are prone to this particle deposition
mechanism [42].
Moreover, settling of particles in the gravitational field is a
well-known phenomenon in macroscale heat exchangers when
being operated at nearly stagnant conditions [43]. A simplified
Stokes flow model was proposed to estimate particle sizes
which are not affected by gravitational settling and remain flu-
idized in a helically coiled tubular device with Dean vortices
flow [44]; see Eq. (4).
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
72 hsol Fm 4 Fm xcut
xcut ¼ with ReP ¼
p ðrS  rsol Þg rsol di2 p hsol di di
Therein, xcut, rS, g, and ReP denote the cut-size diameter, the
density of the particles, the gravitational constant, and the par-
ticle Reynolds number, respectively. The model describes a ver-
Chem. Eng. Technol. 2016, 39, No. 7, 1268–1280 ª 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
1271
tical straight tube which is flown through contrarily to the
direction of the gravitational force by a suspension. This
reflects the upward flow in a tubular helix, whereas the coil is
directed horizontally. Particles being larger than the calculated
cut-size diameter xcut will sediment in the flow, whereas smaller
particles will be entrained. The model takes the tube geometry,
the operating conditions, and physical properties into account.
The gradients of the axial flow velocity in radial direction in
laminar flow are neglected. Furthermore, the model is desig-
nated for spherical particles and particle Reynolds numbers
ReP < 1. The effect of Dean vortices is not incorporated in the
model but there is evidence that Dean vortices can significantly
enhance particle fluidization compared to devices without a
Dean vortices flow [45]. Despite the limitations, the model can
represent a short-cut method to estimate the allowable particle
size of a tubular crystallizer to avoid sedimentation and clog-
ging from a fluid-dynamic perspective.
(1) For dimensioning the tubular cooling crystallizer, the inter-
nal volume and the mean residence time are directly associated
with the desired cooling rate of the crystallization process. If
(2) the temperature profile of a batch cooling crystallization pro-
cess is linear, the cooling rate rb can be defined by Eq. (5),
where T and t denote the temperature and the time, respective-
(3) ly. For a continuous tubular crystallizer with a linear axial tem-
perature profile, the cooling rate rc can be defined analogously
by Eq. (6), where t, u, l, and rsol denote the mean residence
time, the mean flow velocity, the tube length, and the density of
the solution, respectively.
T0  T
rb ¼ (5)
t  t0
Tin  Tout u F 4
rc ¼ ¼ ðTin  Tout Þ ¼ ðTin  Tout Þ m 2 (6)
t l rsol di l p
Heat transfer is often limited in stirred-tank batch crystalli-
zers. Thus, batch cooling rates in the range of rb £ 0.45 K min–1
have been investigated in reference studies for the L-alanine
(water) system [20, 37, 38]. As process intensification and
increased efficiency are main advantages of continuous crystal-
lization processes in tubular devices [21, 22] the desired cooling
rate is set to rc ~ 1.5–3.0 K min–1 for the prototype being intro-
duced in this work. When the dimensions of the tubular crys-
tallizer are once fixed, the cooling rate can be varied by the
mass flow rate Fm (see Eq. (6)), providing that a linear cooling
profile and the desired outlet temperature can be maintained
by adjusting the cooling agent parameters. Thus, the mean resi-
dence time for the prototype is set to t ~ 17.0 min for a mass
flow rate of Fm = 5 g min–1 and t ~ 8.5 min for a mass flow rate
of Fm = 10 g min–1, respectively. This results in an internal vol-
ume of V ~ 81 mL. In order to achieve a lower linear cooling
rate at constant mass flow rate, the mean residence time has to
be increased, e.g., by expanding the tube length at constant
<1
tube diameter by adding helical segments.
(4) Combining these information, a CFI design-space diagram
according to Klutz et al. [39] can be elaborated (see Fig. 1). This
diagram spans an area of feasible designs, i.e., inner tube dia-
meter di and diameter of the supporting structure dct, which
provide sufficiently high Dean numbers, modified torsion
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1272 Research Article

parameters, and a sufficiently low pressure drop on the inner

Figure 1. CFI design space diagram according to [39] for
Fm = 5 g min–1 and Fm = 10 g min–1 and a mean residence time of
t = 17.0 and t = 8.5 min, respectively. The pressure drop in the
CFI is estimated by use of the correlation of Kumar et al. with a
friction factor of fCFI = 64Re–1(1 + 0.0456Dn0.603) [54].
tube side. For realization, standard tube sizes have to be consid-
ered, e.g., for polymeric tube material. The design space dia-
gram is applicable for larger flow rates as well. Therefore, scale-
up to pilot or production scale can be facilitated while flow
characteristics, e.g., RTD, can be maintained [12, 39].
A compact design with nseg = 9 helical tube segments,
nbends = 8 bends with an angle of 90, and a calculated volume
of V ~ 82 mL was developed and constructed. The resulting
design parameters are summarized in Tab. 4. The zick-zack
design [41] was used as illustrated in Fig. 2. For an unrestricted
flow of the cooling agent around the process tube, the support-
ing structure was realized by plates with milled holders for a
reproducible coiling of the process tube. Each plate carries a
complete helix with nturns = 5 turns and forms a repeating ele-
ment or segment. Therefore, the mean residence time of the
crystallizer can be varied at constant flow conditions by adding
or removing segments. The inlet part of the crystallizer was
made from a straight tube of the length of one turn. The transi-
tion part between two helical coils was made from a straight
tube of the length of half a turn. The outlet part of the crystalli-
zer is another straight tube with a length of 250 mm.
The calculated cut size diameter of the L-alanine (water) sys-
tem in the tubular crystallizer ranges from xcut = 229–324 mm

Figure 2. Design details of the tubular cooling crystallizer. (a) Complete setup with nine segments in the zick-zack design [41], straight
tube at the inlet (left upper side), straight tube transition parts, straight tube at the outlet (right lower side). (b) Sketch of a single plate of
the supporting structure with milled holders for the tube. (c) Supporting structure with coiled tube and plug-in connection for baffles in
the bend region. (d) Fixation of thermocouple (Type K) on the outer side of the tube and PE foam insulation covering the thermocouple.

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 Research Article 1273

Table 4. CFI design parameters for the tubular cooling crystalli- tion under the given conditions (see Tab. 3) and at maximum
zer. yield would not exceed some mW and can be neglected.

Parameter Value

di [mm] 4.0 3 Materials and Experimental Methods

do [mm] 6.0
3.1 Materials
p [mm] 8.0
For cooling crystallization experiments, L-alanine ( ‡ 99 %,
dct [mm] 35.0
VWR Chemicals) was used. Deionized water (0.34 MW cm)
dc [mm] 41.0 served as solvent and pressurized air (3 barg) as cooling gas.
Both of them were obtained on-site. Sodium thiosulfate
nturns [–] 5
(Na2S2O3, ‡ 99 %, AppliChem) was used as a tracer substance
nseg [–] 9 for RTD characterization.
nbends [–] 8

l [m] 6.5 3.2 Experimental Setup

The complete experimental setup was placed on a mobile lab

according to Eq. (4) for the mass flow rates ranging from bench (see Fig. 3). A flow diagram is provided in Fig. 4. The
Fm = 5–10 g min–1. tubular crystallizer was made from transparent polyvinyl
The cooling strategy for the tubular cooling crystallizer is chloride (PVC) tubing (Nalgene, food grade, di = 4 mm,
based on the principle of a counter-current heat exchanger do = 6 mm, Thermo Scientific Inc.). The supporting structure
with a gaseous cooling agent. The CFI structure is placed in a was made from PVC and the jacket pipe is made from
jacket tube with Di = 100 mm, Do = 110 mm and l = 0.7 m. The poly(methyl methacrylate) (Mechanical Workshops of the BCI
gas flow is directed along the coils by means of baffles at each Department, TU Dortmund University).
bend. The baffles are removable with a plug-in connection in Four resistance thermometers for gas temperature measure-
order to simplify coiling of the tubes during construction and ment (Pt100, d = 1.0 mm, ± 0.1 K, Rössel Messtechnik GmbH)
reconfiguration of the device (see Fig. 2). Similar heat capacity were placed directly into the gas flow in the bend region and
flows FV r cp are applied both on the product side and the utili- sealed with the jacket pipe. One resistance thermometer was
ty side. Therefore, the cooling agent heats up in a similar range used to measure the temperature of the ambience. Five thermo-
as the product solution/suspension is cooled down, which couples for measuring the solution temperature (Type K,
allows for approximately linear cooling. Due to the coil struc- d = 0.5 mm, ± 0.4 %, OMEGA Engineering GmbH) were fixed
ture of the CFI, the outer volume is
significantly larger than the inter-
nal volume of the tube. Utilizing a
liquid cooling agent, e.g., an aque-
ous solution, would result in a long
start-up procedure for the utility
side when the heat capacity flow is
maintained. Precooled air at atmo-
spheric pressure provides signifi-
cantly lower density and lower heat
capacity compared to a liquid cool-
ing agent. Hence, a higher volumet-
ric flow rate of the gaseous cooling
agent is required to achieve the
desired heat capacity flow, which
drastically decreases the start-up
time of the utility side.
The total heat flux that has to be
removed from the product at
Fm = 10 g min–1 is approximately
Q = 17.4 W (see Tab. 2 and Tab. 3).
The crystallization of L-alanine
from saturated aqueous solution is
slightly exothermal, as the enthalpy
of solution is DhSL = + 0.75 kJ kg–1
[46]. Thus, the heat of crystalliza- Figure 3. Experimental setup on mobile lab bench.

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1274
Figure 4. Flow diagram of experimental setup.
on the outside of the tube and insulated by means of conven-
tional PE polymeric foam (Climapor, s = 13 mm, Saarpor
Klaus Eckhardt GmbH) for tube insulation (see Fig. 2). This
allows for a non-invasive measurement of the solution temper-
ature with an error < 30 % compared to the temperature differ-
ence between solution and surrounding cooling gas. The inlet
temperature of the cooling gas was kept constant by means of a
stainless-steel heat exchanger, equipped with a heating/cooling
thermostat (Ministat 125, Huber GmbH) and feedback control.
Two storage vessels with jacket (V = 1000 mL, glass), equipped
with a magnetic stirrer (MR 3001, Heidolph Instruments GmbH
& Co. KG), and heating thermostat (304 CC, Huber GmbH) were
used to prepare and supply the product solution and solvent. A
low pulsating peristaltic pump (Ismatec REGLO Digital
MS-4/12, 12 rollers, Cole-Parmer GmbH) equipped with
Tygon 3607 tubing (di = 2.06 mm, do = 3.78 mm, Compagnie
de Saint Gobain) served as feed pump. A less pulsating syringe
pump (SyrDos2, HiTec Zang GmbH) was taken for RTD char-
acterization. The mass flow rates of both pumps were measured
gravimetrically (NewClassic MF, ± 1 mg, Mettler-Toledo Int.
Inc.). Therefore, the product solution was captured in a beaker
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Research Article
multiple times along an experiment for
time intervals of 5 min, each. The volumet-
ric flow rate of the cooling gas was con-
trolled manually by means of a rotameter
(102-16-N, FV = 0–10 L min–1, ± 0.1 L min–1,
Aalborg Instruments and Controls, Inc.)
with needle valve (CVTM, Aalborg Instru-
ments and Controls, Inc.).
The tracer concentration in RTD experi-
ments was measured via UV/VIS spectros-
copy (Evolution 201, Thermo Scientific
Inc.) equipped with a flow-through cell
(QS170, V = 12.4 mL, d = 0.2 mm, Hellma
GmbH). For MSZW experiments a batch
vessel with jacket (V = 100 mL, glass), one
of the magnetic stirrer plates, the heating/
cooling thermostat, and one of the resis-
tance thermometer was used. Particles
from continuous experiments were ana-
lyzed in suspension immediately (t < 30 s)
by means of a light microscope (Advance
ICD, Bresser GmbH) equipped with a digi-
tal reflex camera (D7000, Nikon GmbH)
after samples (m ~ 1 g of suspension) were
drawn.
3.3 Residence Time Distribution
The residence time distribution (RTD) of
the tubular crystallizer was characterized
via step response experiments according to
the method described by Kurt et al. [41] at
room temperature. The RTD studies were
carried out in single-phase operation. The
mass fraction of the tracer substance was
wT = 475 ·10–6 gTgsol–1 in aqueous solution.
A wavelength of 219 nm was applied.
The step response F(q) was characterized for both the low
pulsating peristaltic pump at Fm = 3 and 10 g min–1 and the
less pulsating syringe pump at Fm = 1, 3, 5, and 10 g min–1 as a
benchmark. Each experiment was reproduced three times. The
volume V of the tubular crystallizer was determined gravimetri-
cally by means of the peristaltic pump, replacing water (density
rw, see Tab. 2) with air. Therefore, the mean residence time t and
the dimensionless time q can be calculated by Eq. (7) and Eq. (8),
respectively. The dispersion model was fitted to experimental da-
ta [39, 41, 47] in order to determine the Bodenstein number Bo,
which is defined by Eq. (9). Here, Dax denotes the axial disper-
sion coefficient. A Bodenstein number Bo > 100 indicates an
RTD close to ideal plug flow [47].
Vrw
t¼ (7)
Fm
t
q¼ (8)
t
ul
Bo ¼ (9)
Dax
Chem. Eng. Technol. 2016, 39, No. 7, 1268–1280
 Research Article 1275

3.4 Metastable Zone Width
The metastable zone width (MSZW) of the system L-alanine
(water) was characterized in batch experiments for linear cool-
ing rates of rb = 0.5 and 0.9 K min–1, using the polythermal
method [38, 48]. The revolution speed of the magnetic stirrer
was kept constant at n = 660 min–1. The cooling rate was
adjusted using the feedback control mode of the heating/cool-
ing thermostat. Each MSZW measurement was reproduced
three times.
For each experiment, a solution of msol = 48.023 ± 0.003 g was
prepared with a mass fraction of wsat(50.0 C) = 0.177 galagsol–1.
The solution was heated up to 55.0 C and kept at this tempera-
ture for at least 1 h. Thereafter, the linear cooling rate was
initialized. The appearance of the first crystal at the tempera-
ture Tnuc was detected with the naked eye. Thus, the metastable
zone width DTMSZW was calculated by Eq. (10).
DTMSZW ¼ Tnuc  Tsat (10)
3.5 Continuous Cooling Crystallization
Three experiments on continuous cooling crystallization of
L-alanine from water were carried out under different condi-
tions (see Tab. 5). For preparing the crystallization process,
both of the storage vessels were filled with deionized water.
Crystalline L-alanine was added to one of them, thus a mass
fraction of wsat(50.0 C) = 0.177 galagsol–1 was achieved. In total,
a volume of 1 L of aqueous solution was prepared. In the first
experiment, the stirred storage vessels were heated up to
T = 55.0 C by means of the heating thermostat in order to dis-
solve all crystalline matter in the product supply vessel and to
heat up water in the solvent supply vessel for the start-up pro-
cedure. After dissolving the crystals the temperature was main-
tained for at least 1 h. The temperature was then reduced to
T0 = 50.0 C before start-up to ensure operation of the crystalli-
zer in the supersaturated regime. In the latter experiments, the
temperature in the storage vessels was set to T = T0 = 72.0 C
for both dissolution and continuous operation in order to com-
pensate heat losses in the peristaltic pump, valves, and connect-
ing tubes, while shifting the crossing of the solubility line into
the device.
For the start-up of the device, cooling gas was expanded to
atmospheric pressure and room temperature by means of the
needle valve. A constant volumetric flow rate of the cooling gas
was adjusted as it was desired for the experiment. The gas was
cooled afterwards in order to maintain the desired inlet tem-
perature. Preheated water from the second storage vessel was
flushed through the tubular crystallizer at a constant mass flow
rate to elaborate the axial temperature profile. The elaboration
of the solution and the cooling gas temperature profiles were
observed via thermocouples and resistance thermometers,
respectively. When a steady-state temperature profile had been
established, the inlet of the tubular crystallizer (valve V1, see
Fig. 4) was changed to aqueous L-alanine solution, while the
mass flow rate was kept constant. The product solution/sus-
pension was analyzed via light microscopy. ImageJ (National
Institute of Health) was employed for image analysis. For the
shut-down procedure, the flow of the cooling gas was stopped
and water was flushed through the crystallizer at an elevated
flow rate.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Residence Time Distribution
A volume V = 78.7 ± 1.4 mL of the crystallizer was determined
by a gravimetric method. The results of the RTD characteriza-
tion are summarized in Tab. 6. A Bodenstein number Bo > 100
was achieved in all of the experiments in good agreement with
the dispersion model (see Fig. 5). Therefore, an ideal plug flow

Table 5. Experimental conditions for the continuous cooling crystallization experiments.

Exp. Fm [g min–1] T0 [C] t [min] Re [–] Dn [–] T* [–] xcut [mm] FV,G [L min–1]

1 8.80 ± 0.14 50.0 8.93 ± 0.14 31.92 ± 0.51 9.97 ± 0.16 513.9 ± 8.2 304 10.0

2 4.95 ± 0.04 72.0 15.87 ± 0.12 17.95 ± 0.14 5.61 ± 0.04 289.0 ± 2.2 228 3.0

3 2.34 ± 0.01 72.0 33.49 ± 0.11 8.51 ± 0.03 2.66 ± 0.01 137.0 ± 0.5 157 10.0

Table 6. Experimental conditions and results for RTD characterization of the tubular crystallizer.

Pump type Fm [g min–1] t [min] Re [–] Dn [–] T* [–] Bo [–]

Syringe 0.98 ± 0.02 79.75 ± 1.34 5.87 ± 0.10 1.83 ± 0.03 94.5 ± 1.6 170.5 ± 2.3

Syringe 3.01 ± 0.02 26.09 ± 0.17 17.94 ± 0.12 5.60 ± 0.04 288.9 ± 1.9 165.6 ± 2.2

Syringe 4.92 ± 0.03 15.98 ± 0.10 29.30 ± 0.18 9.15 ± 0.06 471.7 ± 2.9 147.5 ± 4.3

Syringe 9.94 ± 0.08 7.91 ± 0.03 55.00 ± 0.45 17.18 ± 0.14 885.6 ± 7.2 113.1 ± 2.6

Peristaltic 3.07 ± 0.04 25.56 ± 0.37 18.31 ± 0.27 5.72 ± 0.08 294.8 ± 4.3 145.0 ± 10.6

Peristaltic 9.76 ± 0.10 8.06 ± 0.09 54.02 ± 0.57 16.87 ± 0.18 869.7 ± 1.2 110.2 ± 2.4

Chem. Eng. Technol. 2016, 39, No. 7, 1268–1280 ª 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.cet-journal.com
1276 Research Article

Figure 5. Results of the RTD characterization experiments. (a) Experimental step response curves for the syringe pump at different Rey-
nolds numbers. (b) Comparison of experimental step response curves with fitted dispersion model for both the syringe pump and the
peristaltic pump at comparable Reynolds numbers.

behavior can be assumed for the tubular crystallizer setup,
which indicates a homogeneous, radial concentration and tem-
perature distribution in the liquid phase.
By increasing the mass flow rate, Reynolds number, Dean
number, and modified torsion parameter, the Bodenstein num-
ber was slightly decreased and the RTD of the liquid phase was
broadened (see Tab. 6). This result can be attributed to higher
axial dispersion due to laminar convection [47]. Comparing
results of both the syringe pump and peristaltic pump
(see Fig. 5), a narrower RTD was reached by the syringe pump.
Even though the pulsation of the peristaltic pump with its
12 rollers was low, it slightly increased axial back-mixing.
For a crystallization application it has to be taken into
account that the RTD of the liquid phase might be affected by
the suspended crystals. Moreover, the RTD of the solid phase
might be broader, when large crystals tend to deposit and move
slower through the tube than smaller crystals and the liquid
phase.
4.2 Metastable Zone Width
The results of the batch investigation indicate an increase of
the MSZW at elevated linear cooling rates (see Tab. 7). Even
though the MSZW increased, the time interval tMSZW–tsat was
decreased due to faster cooling. These trends are in good agree-
ment with measurements of Wohlgemuth at lower linear cool-
ing rate [38]. Higher cooling rates could not be investigated in
batch experiments due to a limited cooling capacity of the uti-
lized heating/cooling thermostat.
4.3 Continuous Cooling Crystallization
The steady-state temperature profiles for all experiments are
given in Fig. 6. An approximately linear axial temperature
profile was reached for the product mass flow rates of the solu-
tion of Fm = 8.80 and 4.95 g min–1. For the lower flow rate of

Table 7. Results of the determination of the metastable zone width (MSZW) of the binary system L-alanine (water) from batch experi-
ments.

rb [K min–1] n [min–1] T0 [C] Tsat [C] DTMSZW [K] tMSZW–tsat [min] Ref.

0.15 200 60 50 6.89 45.9 [38]

0.30 200 60 50 7.70 ± 0.59 25.7 ± 2.0 [38]

0.45 200 60 50 7.86 17.5 [38]

0.50 660 55 50 9.79 ± 0.48 19.6 ± 1.0 This work

0.90 660 55 50 11.36 ± 0.39 12.6 ± 0.4 This work

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 Research Article
Figure 6. Solution (L) and cooling gas (G) temperature profiles
during continuous cooling crystallization experiments; error
bars show uncertainties due to non-invasive temperature mea-
surement on the liquid side. (a) Experiment 1; (b) experiment 2;
(c) experiment 3.
Table 8. Resulting cooling rates in the continuous cooling crystallization experiments.
Exp. Fm [g min–1]
1 8.80 ± 0.14
2 4.95 ± 0.04
3 2.34 ± 0.01
Chem. Eng. Technol. 2016, 39, No. 7, 1268–1280
1277
Fm = 2.34 g min–1 a curved convex temperature profile was
achieved. The resulting linearized cooling rates for continuous
operation are summarized in Tab. 8.
The first experiment was operated for more than 1 h up to
complete consumption of the storage volume. The resulting
product was a homogeneous product solution. No particles
were detected in the outlet via light microscopy. Nucleation
occurred afterwards in the product beaker, where temperature
and residence time were not defined. In the second experiment
the flow rates of both the solution and the cooling gas were
reduced, whereas the solution inlet temperature was increased.
The cooling rate and the outlet temperature were similar to the
first experiment. Again a homogeneous solution was obtained
in the outlet up to complete consumption of the storage vol-
ume after more than 2 h. In both continuous experiments the
outlet temperatures of the tubular crystallizer were lower com-
pared to the cloud point temperatures measured in the batch
experiments, while higher cooling rates rc were applied,
see Tab. 7 and Tab. 8. Thus, the MSZW was further increased
in the continuous experiment.
This result might be attributed to the dependency of the
MSZW on the cooling rate, which was observed in the batch
experiments, see Sect. 4.2. Nevertheless, further parameters can
influence primary nucleation, such as mixing intensity, shear
rate, temperature, and holding time in the undersaturated
regime, concentration of soluble or insoluble impurities, prop-
erties of the wall material [49], and the absence of a gas-liquid
surface in the continuous experiments in contrast to the batch
experiments [38]. This highlights the fact that primary nuclea-
tion processes are difficult to transfer from a stirred batch ves-
sel to continuous PF operation.
In the third experiment, the mass flow rate of the solution
was further reduced to increase the mean residence time. Fur-
thermore, the volumetric flow rate and the inlet temperature of
the cooling gas were adjusted in order to minimize the outlet
temperature of the solution. Approximately two mean resi-
dence times after start-up, small crystals with a narrow size dis-
tribution were obtained in the product stream (see Fig. 7).
Subsequently, agglomerates were observed in the product sus-
pension. As the cut size diameter was estimated xcut = 157 mm
for this experiment (see Tab. 5), large agglomerates could no
longer be fluidized at the low flow velocity and sedimented in
the tube. This led to clogging of the tube 2 h after switching
from water to L-alanine solution.
These results indicate that varying the mean residence time
by changing the mass flow rate of the solution to shift the cloud
point into the tubular section is limited, as important perfor-
mance indicators, e.g., particle transport, are directly depend-
ing on the mass flow rate, as well.
u [m min–1] rax [K m–1] rc [K min–1] FV,G [L min–1]
0.664 ± 0.011 2.12 1.409 ± 0.022 10.0
0.373 ± 0.003 4.05 1.673 ± 0.013 3.0
0.177 ± 0.001 5.87 1.039 ± 0.003 10.0
ª 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.cet-journal.com
1278 Research Article

degree of freedom for choosing operating condi-

tions, compared to conventional batch setups.
Future work focuses on continuous seed genera-
tion in a device separated from the tubular growth
section and on determining the operating range of
the continuously operated tubular crystallizer
according to particle fluidization and clogging. Fur-
thermore, the heat transfer characteristics of the
device will be investigated by means of a simulation
study basing on experimental data.

Figure 7. Particle characteristics in the product crystal suspension of experi-
ment 3. (a) Light microscopy image of product crystals 1 h after switching the
feed from water to aqueous L-alanine solution. (b) Corresponding particle size
distribution to (a). (c) Light microscopy image of product crystals 2 h after
switching the feed from water to aqueous L-alanine solution.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Andreas Grun-
wald for manufacturing the tubular crystallizer.
Carsten Schrömges and Martin Matuschek are
acknowledged for their technical and experimental
support. The German Federal Ministry of Eco-
nomic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) is acknowledged
for financial support of the research leading to this
work as part of the ENPRO initiative, project num-
ber: 03ET1254D.
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

5 Conclusions Symbols used

A versatile milli-structured tubular device for developing con- Bo [–] Bodenstein number
tinuous cooling crystallization processes on lab-scale was cp [J kg–1K–1] specific heat capacity
designed, constructed, and characterized. The design was d [m] process tube diameter
based on bended helically coiled tubes, following the design dc [m] coil diameter
concept of a coiled flow inverter (CFI). Due to established dct [m] diameter of a supporting structure
design guidelines for CFI devices, a scale-up from lab to pilot D [m] jacket tube diameter
or production scale can be facilitated while important flow Dax [m2s–1] axial dispersion coefficient
characteristics, e.g., a narrow RTD, can be maintained. The Dn [–] Dean number
CFI tubular crystallizer provides a narrow RTD close to ideal fCFI [–] tube-side friction factor of CFI
plug flow. Linear axial cooling profiles can be obtained in Fm [kg s–1] mass flow rate
steady-state operation by means of counter-current cooling FV [m3s–1] volumetric flow rate
with a gaseous cooling agent. The cooling gas is supplied by F(q) [–] step response
means of a single heating/cooling thermostat with feedback g [m s–2] gravitational constant
control. Therefore, the equipment effort is comparable to DhSL [kJ kg–1] enthalpy of solution
typical batch setups on lab-scale. l [m] tube length
Cooling crystallization experiments with the system L-ala- m [kg] mass
nine (water) were carried out both in batch and in continuous M [kg mol–1] molar mass
mode at elevated linear cooling rates. While the metastable n [s–1] revolution speed
zone width (MSZW) was characterized in the batch mode, no nbends [–] number of 90 bends in a CFI
primary nucleation was detected within the continuous crystal- nseg [–] number of helical segments in a CFI
lizer. The system was driven into primary nucleation at con- nturns [–] number for turns per helical coil
stant tube volume by reducing the feed flow rate and thus p [m] coil pitch distance
increasing the mean residence time. Unstable operation was Dp [bar] tube side pressure drop
achieved, which led to formation of agglomerates and subse- r [K s–1] process cooling rate
quently to clogging of the device. This underlines that impor- rax [K m–1] axial cooling rate
tant operation characteristics of the continuously operated Re [–] Reynolds number
tubular crystallizer, such as mean residence time, RTD, and ReP [–] particle Reynolds number
particle fluidization are directly depending on the mean flow t [s] time
rate of the product solution/suspension, resulting in a reduced T [C] temperature

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 Research Article 1279

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