IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO.
1, JANUARY 2004
Vibro-Acoustic Techniques to Diagnose
Power Transformers
Cipriano Bartoletti, Maurizio Desiderio, Danilo Di Carlo, Giuseppe Fazio, Francesco Muzi, Member, IEEE,
Giancarlo Sacerdoti, and Fabio Salvatori
Abstract—This paper deals with new procedures based on
vibro-acoustic techniques to diagnose power medium-voltage/low-
voltage (MV/LV) transformers. The normal operating machines
can be monitored and checked from a remote, dedicated diagnostic
center where information is received directly from the field. The
diagnostic method adopted and the experimental test results are
reported. Tests have been performed either in the laboratory or
directly in the field on transformers in normal operating con-
ditions. The laboratory tests related the transformer vibrations
to internal anomalies. The suggested monitoring and diagnostic
system allows one to usefully schedule preventative maintenance,
reduce costs, and improve the quality of power distribution.
Index Terms—Acoustic recognition techniques, power distribu-
tion systems, power transformer diagnostic.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE large number of transformers (some thousand)
installed in a complex power distribution system increas-
ingly requires accurate diagnostics, which can be conveniently
performed in a monitoring center where the information on
the actual state of the machines is received, processed, and
interpreted. The proposed diagnostic method is based on
vibro-acoustic procedures derived from speech-recognition
techniques [1], [2], [5], [6]. The acoustic vibrations of a trans-
former can be generated by the following main phenomena [3],
[4]:
• coil vibrations depending on the current amplitude and
winding clamping compression;
• core vibration depending on magnetostriction, the
Barkhausen effect, and loosening of core clamping;
• partial discharges either in insulating bushings or winding
insulation;
• movements of micro-metal chips;
Manuscript received December 6, 2002. This work was supported by ACEA
SpA, the Rome Water and Electric Utility, that also supplied the transformers to
be tested and other important resources during the experimental tests performed.
C. Bartoletti and G. Sacerdoti are with the Electrical Engineering Department,
University of Rome “La Sapienza,” Rome 00184, Italy (e-mail: sacer@elet-
trica.ing.uniroma1.it).
F. Salvatori is with ABBOTT-Italia, Campoverde 04010 (Latina), Italy
(e-mail: fabio.salvatori@abbott.com).
M. Desiderio is with the ACEA SpA, Rome Water and Electric Utility, Rome
00154, Italy (e-mail: m.desiderio@aceaspa.it).
D. Di Carlo and G. Fazio are with the Electronic Engineering Depart-
ment, University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome 00133, Italy (e-mail:
fazio@ing.uniroma2.it).
F. Muzi is with the Electrical Engineering Department, University of
L’Aquila, L’Aquila 67100, Italy (e-mail: muzi@ing.univaq.it).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2003.820177
0885-8977/04$20.00 © 2004 IEEE
221
• effects due to magnetic shunts and related fasteners lo-
cated in the stray magnetic flux.
The acoustic emission depends on the machine anomalies and
age. For this reason, the acquired vibrations must be identified
and related to the state change of the monitored transformer by
means of comparisons either with a similar new transformer or
the averaged values of a set of transformers of similar type and
age.
The change is linked either to the amplitude of one or more
harmonics, or to the generation of new harmonics.
II. PROCESSING AND RECOGNITION METHOD
The proposed recognition acoustic method is based on the
following four operations: acquisition, segmentation, parame-
terization, and recognition. The signal segmentation consists of
dividing the acquired data into substrings identified by means
of indexes defining location and number of the acquisition. The
subsequent parameterization enables one to identify and esti-
mate the significant parameters.
Signal processing is performed by means of specific soft-
ware implemented in a LabView environment. The implemented
STUD program is able to analyze signals that are coming si-
multaneously from different channels. First, preprocessing op-
erations, such as software filtering, rectification, etc., are per-
formed. Afterwards, the signal is processed by means of the fol-
lowing procedures:
• fast Fourier transform (FFT) and discrete Fourier trans-
form (DFT) [usually, the DFT is preferred since the
number of samples often does not match the power of two
and computation time is not so important];
• cross correlation;
• maximum and minimum evaluation.
In addition, other operations can be performed on the stored
vectors such as: extraction of defined vector components (e.g.,
the amplitudes of specific harmonics after the DFT), averages,
ratios between two components, etc. The obtained significant
data can be stored in text format, spreadsheet, binary (16 or 32
b) and in real form (single or double precision). On request, the
program can automatically process a large number of signals to
extract a desired quantity of interest (for instance the amplitude
of the 100-Hz harmonic of each signal). Other useful utilities of
the program are:
• signal decimation (i.e., reduction in the number of samples
to decrease the necessary computer capabilities);
• the transformation of signals into “wave” format to make
the signals audible by an operator; if the frequencies
222
are out of the audible range, the program operates a
frequency shift bringing the signal frequencies within the
20–20 000-Hz audible range.
III. DETECTING SYSTEM
In regards to acoustic vibrations, medium-voltage/low-
voltage (MV/LV) transformers are less well known than large
HV transformers. For this reason, the PC-based measurement
apparatus developed is very versatile and adjustable in the
setting of the signal acquisition features.
A. Sensors
In a transformer, the frequency band of acoustic emissions is
very large; nevertheless, the acquired experience demonstrated
that a reduced frequency range is sufficient to perform a good
diagnostic. The frequencies of the chosen sensors were in the
50-Hz—100-kHz range. To detect high frequencies, acoustic
probes (PAC model R6I—frequency band 20–100 kHz) were
used while for low frequency, two kinds of sensors were
adopted: the piezoelectric audio pick-up (Shadow SH-2001)
and the accelerometer (Endevco 751–10). The R6I probe
is based on piezoelectric resonance obtaining a very high
sensibility, of course to the detriment of the uniformity of the
frequency response. The preamplifier is characterized by a low
impedance to allow also for long connecting cables.
The frequency response of the vibrating accelerometer En-
devco 751–10 is within the 1–15 000-Hz range. In this case, the
output voltage is a linear function of acceleration. The frequency
response corresponds to a low-pass filter.
The pick-up SH-2001 is a commercial transducer able to
detect signals up to 15 kHz. Electromagnetic noise coupled
with circuitry may cause disturbances since the transducer
output is not preamplified. The transducer is recommended
for permanent installations. With reference to low frequencies
5 kHz , the pick-up SH-2001 response is much better than
the accelerometer response.
B. Conditioning and Acquisition Card
The signals coming from R6I and SH-2001 sensors are am-
plified up to 40 dB with the aim to produce a signal compatible
with the acquisition card . The amplifier is completed by
an anti-aliasing low-pass filter. To guarantee the simultaneous
acquisition of at least three channels with band higher than 100
kHz, the PCI-DAS4020/12 acquisition card was adopted. Its
main characteristics are the following:
• resolution 12 b;
• simultaneous sampling on one, two, or four channels;
• maximum sampling frequency 20 MHz;
• input ranges and ;
• analog and digital trigger;
• adjustable input impedance (50 or 1.5 M );
• autocalibrating;
• Fifo of 32 kwords;
• PCI interface.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004
Fig. 1. Sensors positioning (white arrows) on the transformer under
investigation during a laboratory test.
C. Trigger
The acoustic-source identification is simplified by a phase
comparison between the transformer supply voltage and signals
coming from different channels. For this reason, a reference
trigger circuit is necessary since the acquisition card requires
a signal commutation in the 0–5-V range with a slope of at
least 1 V s. In a medium-voltage/low-voltage (MV/LV)
transforming station, the single-phase voltage is acquired in
the LV side by means of a measuring transformer having the
ratio 230/22 V. With reference to laboratory tests, the acquired
voltage signal depends on the kind of test performed: an open
circuit test, load test, or a short-circuit test.
IV. LABORATORY AND FIELD EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
For the typical frequencies of the phenomena under study, the
sampling frequency of 500 ksamples/s was used in the measure-
ments. Due to the signal periodicity, the acquisition is limited to
time intervals of 100 ms (i.e., ten periods of the 100-Hz funda-
mental frequency).
With the aim to have a classification of the acoustic frequen-
cies, open circuit and short circuit tests were performed in the
laboratory. In each of these two kinds of test, only one subset of
the sources is activated. If the transformer supplies a load, the
emitted vibrations are a combination of those emitted during
the open circuit test and those caused by the load current. The
tests performed in the laboratory involved both new and used
transformers. Fig. 1 shows the detecting system used, requiring
three sensors placed on the transformer tank in correspondence
of each leg.
Transformers tested in the field were usually supplying
a small load (less than 25%); in which case, the generated
emissions are similar to those of an unloaded transformer.
A. Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests were performed to characterize signals by
means of time domain recordings and frequency domain rep-
resentations obtained after filtering and signal processing. All
BARTOLETTI et al.: VIBRO-ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES TO DIAGNOSE POWER TRANSFORMERS 223

Fig. 2. Open circuit laboratory tests; lf = low frequency, hf = high frequency; (set a, a ; set b, b ; set c, c = new; used; anomalous transformer).
tests were performed using a supply voltage with a frequency In the plots, is a relative quantity that indicates the signal am-
of 50 Hz. plitude level; the measurement scale is conveniently established
Figs. 2 and 3 show a number of typical recorded acoustic sig- by the operator optimizing the detecting system gain (note that
nals respectively concerning open circuit and short circuit tests. the proposed diagnostic method does not require absolute values
224 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004

Fig. 3. Short circuit laboratory tests (a full-load current in both the primary and secondary circuits); lf , hf , (a, a ), (b, b ) (c, c ), as per Fig. 2.

since it operates on signal shape and on comparisons between
comparable processed signals).
1) New Transformers: For low frequencies (up to 15 kHz)
and short circuit conditions, the signal shape is sinusoidal at a
frequency of 100 Hz [Fig. 3(a)]. The 100-Hz periodicity is jus-
tified because in short circuit conditions, the main phenomena
depend on the current that is responsible for important coil vi-
brations; as a matter of fact, electrodynamic forces depend on
the square of the current. During the open circuit test, the main
phenomenon responsible of acoustic emissions was the magne-
tostriction producing core plate vibrations. Also in this case, the
signal periodicity corresponded to 100 Hz but complex interfer-
BARTOLETTI et al.: VIBRO-ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES TO DIAGNOSE POWER TRANSFORMERS
Fig. 4. DFT of signals concerning used transformers (the meaning of E is similar to " in Figs. 2 and 3).
Fig. 5. Anomalous transformers; (a) comparison between the DFT results of the noise, open circuit signal, and short circuit signal; (b) fitting of a recorded
high-frequency signal.
ence phenomena between different phases appeared. Since mag-
netostriction is a nonlinear phenomenon, the signal is much dif-
ferent from a pure sinusoid. For high frequency (20–100 kHz),
the signal is only just higher than the noise in both open circuit
and short circuit tests [Figs. 2(a), (b) and 3(a)].
2) Used Transformers: For low frequencies, old trans-
formers show an increase of the harmonics with frequencies
multiple of the fundamental. An example of this is shown
in Fig. 4(a). This phenomenon, which can be assumed to
define machine aging, is more evident when the transformer is
unloaded, as shown in Fig. 4(b). On the basis of this criterion,
the machine aging level can be evaluated also in the field when
the transformer supplies a small load.
3) Anomalous Transformers: Anomalous transformers are
machines that have defects such as loose winding, excessive
core vibrations, partial discharges, etc. At the moment, the de-
fect kind is only approximately identified.
225
For high frequencies, an increase in the ratio signal/noise is
usually observed. This is more evident during the short circuit
test whereas it is only perceptible during the open circuit test,
as shown in Fig. 5(a).
To perform a correct diagnostic, a very interesting aspect to
be considered is the presence of a 100- (200- or 300-) Hz mod-
ulation obtained by the high-frequency signal fitting. The signal
amplitude envelope is clearly shown in Fig. 5(b).
Since the same characteristic appears also during the open
circuit test, the incorrectly working transformer can be detected
also when the machine supplies a small load.
B. Field Tests
Despite the different operating conditions, the considerations
developed for the laboratory tests can be usefully extended to the
behavior of transformers that are working directly in the field.
Comparisons between field and laboratory tests demonstrated
226
Fig. 6. Example of THD values evaluated for different machines.
that transformers in the field supplying a small load give results
similar to those of a transformer during laboratory open circuit
tests.
For old transformers, it is rare to obtain signals of a shape
as simple as in a new machine. As a matter of fact, in old trans-
formers, an increase in the amplitude of high frequencies can be
noted, probably due to the presence of partial discharges and/or
a generalized increase of the transformer vibrations as a con-
sequence of mechanical weakness increasing. In this case, with
the aim to evaluate the transformer aging, it is possible to make
considerations similar to those in laboratory open circuit tests.
Experimental tests demonstrated that different phenomena
cause different emissions, which, in turn, can be associated to
different defects. Sources associated with one winding only
are characterized by remarkable modulation at rated frequency,
while sources associated with all three phases have a third
harmonic modulation.
V. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER STATES
The identification of significant parameters is of paramount
importance to classify the different states of a transformer. The
laboratory tests performed were very useful to define reference
models based on significant parameters to be used when com-
paring processed signals acquired from a transformer in service.
The different, preliminarily classified situations were named
Classes. At the moment, three belonging classes are defined
(two for normal conditions and one for anomalous conditions):
• CLASS 1—new transformer (normal condition);
• CLASS 2—used transformer (normal condition);
• CLASS 3—used, potentially defective transformer
(anomalous condition).
On the basis of the experience from performed analyses, a
transformer’s class was defined by four parameters that must
be evaluated for each leg of the transformer. In this case,
the total parameters were 12 and they were named , sults from some transformers are reported. Fig. 7 clearly shows a
, , , , , , , higher value in the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004
, , , and . The meanings
of the symbols are defined in the following.
VI. LOW-FREQUENCY PARAMETERS
A very significant parameter is the weighted total harmonic
distortion as defined by the following formula:
(1)
In this relation , is the harmonic amplitude and
the weights , . The THD values
supply useful information on the signal distortion, that, in turn,
is linked to the transformer’s aging. The three parameters are re-
spectively named , , and (where lf
means low frequency, and the numbers 1, 2, 3 refer to the trans-
former legs). Fig. 6 shows an example of values
evaluated for different machines (A, B, C, E, G, N, S, T, Y, Z
refer to different transformer trademarks). High THD values for
“old” transformers can be observed, as confirmed by the year of
production in the axis.
A. High-Frequency Parameters
Typical high-frequency acoustic emissions are mainly due to
the Barkhausen effect and partial discharges in insulation. These
signals are usually acquired using sensors for ultrasounds.
1) Parameter: The sum of the first four harmonics of
the spectrum obtained from the envelope of the high-frequency
signal, supplies useful information on anomalies concerning
high-frequency sources.
With reference to the three legs of the transformer, three sums
were computed and named , , and (where hf
stands for high frequency), respectively. The main anomalies,
which are of two kinds (related to one phase and all three phases,
respectively), are shown in Fig. 7 where the experimental re-
parameters on anomalous transformers.
BARTOLETTI et al.: VIBRO-ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES TO DIAGNOSE POWER TRANSFORMERS 227

Fig. 7. Comparison of A parameters concerning anomalous and nonanomalous transformers.

Fig. 8. Data processing and recognition system.

2) Parameter: This parameter concerns to the total
harmonic distortion computed with reference to the envelope of
the high-frequency signals coming from each leg of the trans-
former.
They are named , , , and give
important information on defects linked to high-frequency
sources.
3) Parameter: Also this parameter refers to the en-
velope of the high-frequency signals. It concerns the ratio be-
tween the amplitudes of the 50- and 100-Hz components and
gives additional information on the anomalies caused by high-
frequency sources.
As a matter of fact, wherever these anomalies are present,
this ratio is very high. The same ratios were evaluated for each
leg of the transformer and were named , , and
, respectively.
VII. REMOTE MONITORING AND AUTOMATIC DIAGNOSTIC
Once both the significant parameters and models defining the
relevant conditions of the transformer state (pattern-samples)
are defined, any automatic recognition processes require the im-
plementation of a specific “vocabulary.”
The whole diagnostic process is shown in Fig. 8 and can be
explained as follows.
• The vibro-acoustic signals are acquired by the acquisition
system (observer).
228
• From the acquired signals, the significant and synthetic pa-
rameters are subsequently extracted by means of the pro-
cedure named “features extractor.”
• By means of a consultation of the predefined vocabulary,
the analysis process establishes the statistical “closeness”
of the case examined to a reference model in the vocabu-
lary and subsequently identifies the belonging class of the
transformer under checking.
The design of a remote monitoring and diagnostic center for
transformers requires the knowledge of the following informa-
tion [7]:
• daily transportation capacity of each connecting channel;
• number of installed transformers on the transforming sta-
tion;
• number of the MV/LV transforming stations.
The acquired signals can be previously stored in local de-
vices placed inside the transforming station. The signals to be
stored are usually detected by six sensors placed on the trans-
former tank and come from 3–6 channels (three connecting the
transformer legs, and eventually three connecting the HV insu-
lating bushings). Sensor placement requires great attention since
a transformer is a complicated mechanical assembly varying
significantly from manufacturer to manufacturer and from one
design to another. Vibration spectra and especially signal mag-
nitude depend on sensor location.
The recordings can be performed two to three times a day
when the load current is less than 1/10 (unload condition) or
greater than 1/2 (load condition) of the rated current. The record-
ings concerning 100-kHz frequencies and 100–120 ms of acqui-
sition time require 100 000 samplings with a 10-b dynamic and
delayed transmission. This protocol can be managed by any kind
of data transmission system.
VIII. CONCLUSION
The acoustic sources of a transformer vary, but only a few of
them are significant enough to characterize the machine defects.
In laboratory tests, some supply configurations activate only a
subset of sources facilitating their identification. Laboratory and
field tests were useful to describe typical vibro-acoustic signals
on new, used, and defective transformers. In this preliminary
experimental study, it was possible to classify transformers into
three reference classes: new, used, and anomalous transformers.
Processing techniques were identified to recognize the trans-
former state and, therefore, isolate the various “anomalous”
cases. The process requires a comparison between the esti-
mated significant parameters of the examined transformer and
pattern-samples summarized in a predefined “vocabulary.” The
research study showed the opportunity to perform the diagnosis
in a remote monitoring center where all of the transformers
belonging to a distribution system are contemporarily checked
through daily tests (e.g., twice a day when the transformer is
unloaded and at least at 50% of the rated load). The acquired
and processed information allowed to establish the actual
state and residual life expectation of each transformer. This
information can be usefully applied to make the best decision
in the management of the transformer population.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are especially grateful to Dr. M. Cortesi, ACEA
SpA director, for his useful advice and constant encouragement.
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[4] J. S. Mitchell, An Introduction to Machinery Analysis and Moni-
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[5] A. J. Viterbi, Principles of Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Communi-
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[6] M. Alder. An Introduction to Pattern Recognition: Statistical, Neural net
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Available: http//ciips.ee.uwa.edu.au
[7] F. Muzi and F. Panone, “Optimal arrangement of spread automated
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Cipriano Bartoletti was born in Rome, Italy.
In 1966, he joined Olivetti SpA (Research & Development Department),
where he designed digital circuitry for desk-computers and the characterization
of DTL logic family to be introduced in Olivetti’s computer manufacturing.
He also worked in designing new instrumentation, sensors, and measurement
systems. Many publications were produced from this kind of work.
Maurizio Desiderio was born in Rome, Italy. He received the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from the University of Rome “La Sapienza,” Rome, Italy,
in 1992.
Currently, he is with ACEA SpA, Rome Water and Electric Utility, Rome,
Italy, where he deals with the maintenance and management of the local distri-
bution network. He also worked in the electronics and electromechanical indus-
tries (Italtel and OTIS companies).
Danilo Di Carlo was born in Rome, Italy, in 1973. He received the Ph.D. degree
in electronic engineering from the University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome,
Italy, in 2001 with a thesis on vibro-acoustic monitoring of power transformers.
Currently, he is working on automatic measuring machines in a production
industry. He also has worked in vibro-acoustic monitoring applied to trains and
railways.
Giuseppe Fazio was born in Naples, Italy, in 1951. He received the Ph.D. degree
in electronic engineering from the University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome,
Italy, in 1979.
Currently, he is a Professor of electrical measurements at the “Tor Vergata”
University. He was also a Researcher at the Electronic Department of the Uni-
versity of Rome “La Sapienza.” His main research interests include micropro-
cessor applications, signal acquisition and processing, remote control systems,
and acoustic control techniques. He has also a number of patents in these fields.
BARTOLETTI et al.: VIBRO-ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES TO DIAGNOSE POWER TRANSFORMERS 229

Francesco Muzi (M’90) was born in L’Aquila, Italy. He received the Ph.D. de-
gree in electrical engineering (hons.) from the University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila,
Italy, in 1981.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor of electrical distribution systems in
the Electrical Engineering Department at the University of L’Aquila. In 1984,
he was appointed Researcher in power systems in the same university. His main
research interests include power systems analysis, power systems reliability,
electromagnetic analysis using the finite element method, and power quality
in distribution systems.
Fabio Salvatori was born in Rome, Italy. He received the Ph.D. degree in elec-
trical engineering from the University of Rome “La Sapienza,” Rome, Italy, in
2001.
Currently, he is with ABBOTT, Campoverde, Italy, where he works on the
maintenance and management of the gas turbine generating plant and the fac-
tory’s electrical system. He was with the Department of Electrical Engineering
of Rome “La Sapienza” and with the Department of Electronic Engineering of
Rome “Tor Vergata” University in the field of acoustic control techniques.

Giancarlo Sacerdoti was born in Bologna, Italy. He received the Ph.D. degree
in engineering from the University of Bologna, Italy, in 1952.
Currently, he is a Full Professor of electrical measurements at “La Sapienza”
University, Rome, Italy. He contributed to the development of Nb3Al supercon-
ductor cables from 1970 to 1975, electric energy meters based on oversampling
technique as sigma-delta modulator in 1966, electric-charged particle lenses for
particle beam transport channel from 1960 to 1970, and techniques to charac-
terize nonhomogeneous dielectrics for MV-cable diagnostics in 1999.