Scalar and vector quantities

Scalar quantities
A physical quantity is something that can be measured. Scalar quantities only have
a magnitude or size.

Examples of scalar quantities

Some examples of scalar quantities include:

temperature � eg 10 degrees Celsius (�C)

mass � eg 5 kilograms (kg)
energy � eg 2,000 joules (J)
distance � eg 19 metres (m)
speed � eg 8 metres per second (m/s)
density � eg 1,500 kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)

Vector quantities
Vector quantities have both magnitude and an associated direction. This makes them
different from scalar quantities, which just have magnitude.

Examples of vector quantities

Some examples of vector quantities include:

force � eg 20 newtons (N) to the left

weight � eg 600 newtons (N) downwards
displacement � eg 50 kilometres (km) east
velocity � eg 11 metres per second (m/s) upwards
acceleration � eg 9.8 metres per second squared (m/s2) downwards
momentum � eg 250 kilogram metres per second (kg m/s) south west
The direction of a vector can be given in a written description, or drawn as an
arrow. The length of an arrow represents the magnitude of the quantity. If one
arrow is twice as long as another, it represents a force which has twice the
magnitude.

The diagrams show three examples of vectors, drawn to different scales.

Three different arrows pointing in different directions, the first to the left 20
N, another to the right labelled 50 km and the third pointing downwards, labelled
9.8 m/s2.

Motion in a straight line

Distance is how far an object moves. It does not include an associated direction,
so distance is a scalar quantity.

Speed is the rate of change of distance � it is the distance travelled per unit of
time. Like distance, speed also does not have an associated direction, so it is a
scalar quantity.

Typical speeds
When people walk, run, or travel in a car their speed will change. They may speed
up, slow down or pause for traffic.

Some typical values for speed in metres per second (m/s) include:

Method of travel Typical speed (m/s)

Walking 1.5
Running 3
Cycling 6
Car 13 - 30
Train 50
Aeroplane 250
It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of the wind and
the speed of sound also vary. A typical value for the speed of sound in air is
about 330 m/s. A light breeze moves at perhaps 3 m/s, but a gale would be more than
20 m/s.

Calculations involving space, distance and time

The speed of an object can be calculated using the equation:

(average) \ speed = \frac{distance \ travelled}{time \ taken}

v = \frac{x}{t}

The distance travelled by an object moving at constant speed can be calculated

using the equation:

distance travelled = average speed � time taken

x = v \ t

This is when:

distance travelled (x) is measured in metres (m)

speed (v) is measured in metres per second (m/s)
time taken (t) is measured in seconds (s)
Example
A car travels 500 m in 50 s, then 1,500 m in 75 s. Calculate its average speed for
the whole journey.

First calculate total distance travelled (x):

500 + 1,500 = 2,000 m

Then calculate total time taken (t):

50 + 75 = 125 s

Then find (v):

v = \frac{x}{t}

v = 2000 � 125

v = 16 m/s

Measuring speeds in the lab

To calculate the speed of an object two measurements are needed:

how far it travels

the time it takes to move that distance
These measurements can be made using different types of equipment:

Equipment Distance measurement Time measurement

Ruler and stopwatch Ruler measures distance travelled Stopwatch measures time
taken
Light gates Size of object, measured with a ruler Light gate connects to a
timer, which gives the reading
Video analysis Distance moved from frame to frame observed on a ruler in the
pictures The time between frames is known
Distance-time graphs
For a moving object, the distance travelled can be represented by a distance-time
graph.

A horizontal line on a distance-time graph shows that the object is stationary (not
moving), while a sloping line on a distance-time graph shows that the object is
moving.

The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a distance-time

graph.

The greater the gradient (and the steeper the line) the faster the object is
moving.

Example
Calculate the speed of the object represented by the green line in the graph, from
0 to 4 s.

change in distance = (8 � 0) = 8 m

change in time = (4 � 0) = 4 s

speed = \frac{distance}{time}

speed = 8 \div 4

speed = 2 \ m/s

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is the amount that velocity
changes per unit time.

If an object accelerates from an initial velocity (u) up to a final velocity (v)

then the average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation:

acceleration = \frac{change \ in \ velocity}{time \ taken}

? = \frac{v - u}{t}

This is when:

acceleration (?) is measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)

change in velocity (v - u) is measured in metres per second (m/s)
time taken (t) is measured in seconds (s)
If an object is slowing down, it is decelerating (and its acceleration has a
negative value).

Example
A car takes 8.0 s to accelerate from rest to 28 m/s. Calculate the average
acceleration of the car.

final velocity, v = 28 m/s

initial velocity, u = 0 m/s (because it was at rest � not moving)

change in velocity, v - u = (28 - 0) = 28 m/s

 ? = \frac{v - u}{t}

? = 28 \div 8

? = 3.5 \ m/s^{2}

Question
A car takes 25 s to accelerate from 20 m/s to 30 m/s. Calculate the acceleration of
the car.

Reveal answer
Typical accelerations
When people run, fall, cycle or travel in a car or a plane their speed will change.
They may speed up, acceleration, or slow down, deceleration.

Some typical values for acceleration in metres per second (m/s2) include:

Method of travel Typical acceleration (m/s�)

Running 2
Family car 1-7
Motorbike 1-10
Rollercoaster 30 - 60
Formula One car 49
The acceleration in freefall due to the Earth's gravity is 10 m/s2.

g = 10 m/s2

Velocity-time graphs
Determining acceleration
For a moving object, the velocity can be represented by a velocity-time graph.

A horizontal line on a velocity-time graph, shows that the object is at constant

velocity, but a sloping line on a velocity-time graph, shows that the object is
accelerating.

The gradient of the line is equal to the acceleration of the object.

A velocity/time graph. Graph with four distinct sections. All lines are straight.
The table shows what each section of the red line on the graph represents:

Section of graph Gradient Velocity Acceleration

A positive increasing positive
B zero constant zero
C negative decreasing negative
D (v = 0) zero stationary (at rest) zero

Question
Y axis: velocity in m/s. X axis: time in s. Red line, object moves at constant
acceleration. Green line object moves at constant acceleration, levels at constant
velocity, then constant deceleration.
Calculate the acceleration of the object shown by the red line on the graph above.

Reveal answer
Calculating the distance travelled
The distance travelled by an object can be calculated from the area under a
velocity-time graph.
The area under the graph can be calculated by:
using geometry (if the lines are straight)
counting the squares beneath the line (particularly if the lines are curved).
Example
Calculate the total distance travelled by the object - its motion is represented by
the velocity-time graph below.

The y axis shows velocity in metres per second and the x axis time in seconds. The
object increases its velocity from 0 metres per second to 8 metres per second in 4
seconds.
Here, the distance travelled can be found by calculating the total area of the
shaded sections below the line.

1. Find the area of the triangle:

� � base � height

� � 4 � 8 = 16 m2

2. Find the area of the rectangle:

(10 � 4) � 8 = 48 m2

3. Add the areas together to find the total displacement:

(16 + 48) = 64 m

Velocity, acceleration and distance

This equation applies to objects in uniform acceleration:

(final velocity)2 � (initial velocity)2 = 2 � acceleration � distance

\ v^{2} \ � \ u^{2} = 2?x \

This is when:

final velocity (v) is measured in metres per second (m/s)

initial velocity (u) is measured in metres per second (m/s)
acceleration (?) is measured in metres per second squared (m/s�)
displacement (x) is measured in metres (m)
Calculating final velocity
The equation above can be used to calculate the final velocity of an object if its
initial velocity, acceleration and displacement are known. To do this, rearrange
the equation to find v:

\ v^{2} \ � \ u^{2} = 2 ? x \

v = \sqrt{ u^{2} +{2? x} }

Example
A biscuit is dropped 300 m, from rest, from the Eiffel tower. Calculate its final
velocity. (Acceleration due to gravity = 10 m/s2.)

\ v^{2} \ � \ u^{2} = 2 ? x \

v = \sqrt{ u^{2} +{2? x} }

 v = \sqrt{ {0}^{2} + {2} \times {10} \times 300 }

v = \sqrt{6,000}

v = {77.5} \ m/s

Calculating acceleration
The equation can also be used to calculate the acceleration of an object if its
initial and final velocities, and the displacement are known. To do this, rearrange
the equation to find ?:

\ v^{2} \ � \ u^{2} = 2 ? x \

? = \frac{v^{2} \ � \ u^{2}} {2x}

Example
A train accelerates uniformly from rest to 24 m/s on a straight part of the track.
It travels 1.44 km. Calculate its acceleration.

1. First convert km to m:

1.44 km = 1.44 � 1,000 = 1,440 m

2.Then use the values in the equation:

\ v^{2} \ � \ u^{2} = 2 ? x

? = \frac{v^{2} \ � \ u^{2}} {2x}

? = \frac{24^{2} \ � \ 0^{2}} {2 \times 1,440}

? = 576 � 2,880

? = 0.2 \ m/s^{2}

Calculating other quantities

The equation can also be rearranged to find initial velocity (u) and displacement
(x):

u = \sqrt{ v^{2} - {2? x} }

Orbits and speed - Higher

When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, its direction constantly
changes. A change in direction causes a change in velocity. This is because
velocity is a vector quantity � it has an associated direction as well as a
magnitude. A change in velocity results in acceleration, so an object moving in a
circle is accelerating even though its speed may be constant.

A circle of dotted lines orbiting a point counterclockwise. This shows the velocity
and effects of centripetal force.
An object will only accelerate if a resultant force acts on it. For an object
moving in a circle, this resultant force is the centripetal force that acts towards
the middle of the circle.

Example
The moon orbits the Earth and shows the force of gravity on the moon, the direction
the moon would travel without Earth's gravity, and the moon's actual orbit.
Gravitational attraction provides the centripetal force needed to keep a planet in
orbit around the Sun, and a satellite in orbit around a planet. For example,
gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon keeps the Moon in orbit
around the Earth. An object moving in a circular orbit at a constant speed has a
changing velocity. This is because velocity is a vector quantity that depends on
speed and direction. The object in orbit is accelerating, even though its speed
remains constant, because its velocity is changing.

x = \frac{v^{2} \ � \ u^{2}} {2?}

Newton's first law

According to Newton's first law of motion, an object remains in the same state of
motion unless a resultant force acts on it. If the resultant force on an object is
zero, this means:

a stationary object stays stationary

a moving object continues to move at the same velocity (at the same speed and in
the same direction)
Examples of objects with uniform motion
Newton's first law can be used to explain the movement of objects travelling with
uniform motion (constant velocity). For example, when a car travels at a constant
velocity, the driving force from the engine is balanced by the resistive forces
such as air resistance and frictional forces in the car's moving parts. The
resultant force on the car is zero.

Other examples include:

a runner at their top speed experiences the same air resistance as their thrust
an object falling at terminal velocity experiences the same air resistance as its
weight

The image shows a box with two arrows of equal size and length extending out from
each side.
If the forces acting on an object are balanced, the resultant force is zero
Examples of objects with non-uniform motion
Newton's first law can also be used to explain the movement of objects travelling
with non-uniform motion. This includes situations when the speed changes, the
direction changes, or both change. For example, when a car accelerates, the driving
force from the engine is greater than the resistive forces. The resultant force is
not zero.

Other examples include:

at the start of their run, a runner experiences less air resistance than their
thrust, so they accelerate
an object that begins to fall experiences less air resistance than its weight, so
it accelerates

The image shows a box with two arrows extending, one from each side. The left arrow
is much shorter than the right arrow, representing the unbalanced forces acting on
the object.
If the forces acting on an object are not balanced, the resultant force is not zero
Forces on a submarine
Water resistance pulls the submarine back, the engine force pushes the submarine
forward, the weight pulls the submarine down, and the buoyancy force pulls the
submarine up.
The submarine above has both vertical forces and horizontal forces acting on it.
The horizontal forces will not affect its vertical movement and the vertical forces
will not affect its horizontal movement.

The horizontal forces are equal in size and opposite in direction. They are
balanced, so the horizontal resultant force is zero. This means that there is no
horizontal acceleration. The vertical forces are equal in size and opposite in
direction. They are balanced, so the vertical resultant force is also zero. This
means that there is no resultant vertical acceleration.

The submarine will continue with the same motion, either remaining stationary or
moving at a constant speed. If the submarine is moving, it is impossible to tell
which direction it is moving from the forces alone, only that it will continue in
the same direction at the same speed.

Newton's second law

Force, mass and acceleration
Newton's second law of motion can be described by this equation:

resultant force = mass � acceleration

F = m \ a

This is when:

force (F) is measured in newtons (N)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
acceleration (?) is measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)
The equation shows that the acceleration of an object is:

proportional to the resultant force on the object

inversely proportional to the mass of the object
In other words, the acceleration of an object increases if the resultant force on
it increases, and decreases if the mass of the object increases.

Inertial mass - Higher

The ratio of force over acceleration is called inertial mass. Inertial mass is a
measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object.

Example
Calculate the force needed to accelerate a 22 kg cheetah at 15 m/s2.

F = m \ a

F = 22 \times 15

F = 330 \ N

Question
Calculate the force needed to accelerate a 15 kg gazelle at 10 m/s2.

Reveal answer
Estimations
It is important to be able to estimate speeds, accelerations and forces involved in
road vehicles. The symbol ~ is used to indicate that a value or answer is an
approximate one. The table gives some examples.
Vehicle Maximum legal speed on a single carriageway in m/s Mass in kg
Acceleration in m/s
family car ~27 ~1,600 ~3
lorry ~22 ~36,000 ~0.4
Example
Estimate the force needed to accelerate a family car to its top speed on a single
carriageway.

Using values of ~1,600 kg and ~3 m/s2, and F = m a:

1,600 � 3 = ~4,800 N

Newton's third law

According to Newton's third law of motion, whenever two objects interact, they
exert equal and opposite forces on each other.

This is often worded as 'every action has an equal and opposite reaction'. However,
it is important to remember that the two forces:

act on two different objects

are of the same type (eg both contact forces)
Examples of force pairs
Newton's third law can be applied to examples of equilibrium situations.

A cat sits on the ground

There are contact gravitational forces between Earth and the cat:

the cat pulls the Earth up

the Earth pulls the cat down
These forces are equal in size and opposite in direction.

Pushing a pram
There are contact forces between the person and the pram:

the person pushes the pram forwards

the pram pushes the person backwards
These forces are equal in size and opposite in direction.

Car tyre on a road

There are contact forces between the tyre and the road:

the tyre pushes the road backwards

the road pushes the tyre forwards
These forces are equal in size and opposite in direction.

A satellite in Earth orbit

There are non-contact gravitational forces between Earth and the satellite:

the Earth pulls the satellite

the satellite pulls Earth
These forces are equal in size and opposite in direction.

The Earth and a satellite point to each other in space with arrows of equal size.

Explaining Newton's third law

Weight, mass and gravitational field strength
The weight of an object may be thought of as acting at a single point called its
centre of mass. Depending on the object's shape, its centre of mass can be inside
or outside it.

The weight of an object and its mass are directly proportional. For a given
gravitational field strength, the greater the mass of the object - the greater its
weight is.

Weight can be calculated using the equation:

weight = mass � gravitational field strength

W = m \ g

This is when:

weight (W) is measured in newtons (N)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
gravitational field strength (g) is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
Example
An apple has a mass of 100 g. Calculate its weight on Earth (g = 10 N/kg).

100 g = 100 � 1000 = 0.1 kg

W = m \ g

W = 0.1 \ kg \times 10 \ N/kg

W = 1.0 \ N

Question
Calculate the weight of a 30 kg dog (g = 10 N/kg).

Reveal answer
Measuring weight
To make a measurement of weight, we have to measure the force pulling the object
towards the centre of the Earth. We do this by balancing it with a known force. If
the object is stationary, Newton's third law then tells us that the known force is
the same as the weight.

A spring balance scale has a pile of marbles on its scale, which weigh it down.
This shows the force from the spring and the marble's weight.
A spring balance will stretch until the force from the spring is enough to balance
the weight of the object, and the distance the spring in it has stretched indicates
the force it is exerting to hold up the object.
Momentum
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. Momentum is also a vector quantity �
this means it has both a magnitude and an associated direction.

For example, an elephant has no momentum when it is standing still. When it begins
to walk, it will have momentum in the same direction as it is travelling. The
faster the elephant walks, the larger its momentum will be.

Calculating Momentum
Momentum can be calculated using the equation:

momentum = mass � velocity

p = m \ v
This is when:

momentum (p) is measured in kilograms per second (kg m/s)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
velocity (v) is measured in metres per second (m/s)
Example
A lorry has a mass of 7,500 kg. It travels south at a speed of 25 m/s. Calculate
the momentum of the lorry.

p = m \ v

p = 7,500 � 25

p = 187,500~kg~m/s (south)

Question
An ice skater has a mass of 60 kg and travels at a speed of 15 m/s. Calculate the
momentum of the skater.

Conservation of momentum
In a closed system:

total momentum before an event = total momentum after the event

A 'closed system' is something that is not affected by external forces. This is

called the principle of conservation of momentum. Momentum is conserved in
collisions and explosions.

Conservation of momentum explains why a gun or cannon recoils backwards when it is

fired. When a cannon is fired, the cannon ball gains forward momentum and the
cannon gains backward momentum. Before the cannon is fired (the 'event'), the total
momentum is zero. This is because neither object is moving. The total momentum of
the cannon and the cannon ball after being fired is also zero, with the cannon and
cannon ball moving in opposite directions.

Calculations involving collisions

Collisions are often investigated using small trolleys. The diagrams show an
example.

There are two trolleys, red and blue, The blue trolley is heading towards the
stationary red one. There is an arrow above the trolley to indicate motion and
direction.
Two trolleys have collided and are shown as being together. Combined weights of the
trolleys are shown.
Before collision

After collision

You can use the principle of conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of
the combined trolleys after the collision.

Example calculation
Calculate the velocity of the trolleys after the collision in the example above.

First calculate the momentum of both trolleys before the collision:

2 kg trolley = 2 � 3 = 6 kg m/s
8 kg trolley = 8 � 0 = 0 kg m/s

Total momentum before collision = 6 + 0 = 6 kg m/s

Total momentum (p) after collision = 6 kg m/s (because momentum is conserved)

Mass (m) after collision = 10 kg

Next, rearrange p = m v to find v:

v = \frac{p}{m}

v = 6 \div 10

v = 0.6 \ m/s

Note that the 2 kg trolley is travelling to the right before the collision. As its
velocity and the calculated velocity after the collision are both positive values,
the combined trolleys must also be moving to the right after the collision.

Calculations involving explosions

The principle of conservation of momentum can be used to calculate the velocity of
objects after an explosion.

Example calculation
A cannon ball of mass 4.0 kg is fired from a stationary 96 kg cannon at 120 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of the cannon immediately after firing.

Total momentum of cannon and cannon ball before = 0 kg m/s (because neither object
is moving)

Total momentum of cannon and cannon ball after collision = 0 kg m/s (because
momentum is conserved)

Momentum of cannon ball after firing = 4.0 � 120 = 480 kg m/s

Momentum of cannon after firing = -480 kg m/s (because it recoils in the opposite
direction)

Rearrange p = m v to find v:

v = \frac{p}{m}

v = 480 \div 96

v = -5.0 \ m/s

Note that the forward velocity of the cannon ball was given a positive value. The
negative value for the cannon's velocity shows that it moved in the opposite
direction.

Momentum is a vector quantity, so it is important to consider both magnitude and

direction. For example, if travelling east is given a positive value, travelling
west is given a negative value.

Conservation of momentum
In a closed system:

total momentum before an event = total momentum after the event

A 'closed system' is something that is not affected by external forces. This is
called the principle of conservation of momentum. Momentum is conserved in
collisions and explosions.

Conservation of momentum explains why a gun or cannon recoils backwards when it is

fired. When a cannon is fired, the cannon ball gains forward momentum and the
cannon gains backward momentum. Before the cannon is fired (the 'event'), the total
momentum is zero. This is because neither object is moving. The total momentum of
the cannon and the cannon ball after being fired is also zero, with the cannon and
cannon ball moving in opposite directions.

Calculations involving collisions

Collisions are often investigated using small trolleys. The diagrams show an
example.

There are two trolleys, red and blue, The blue trolley is heading towards the
stationary red one. There is an arrow above the trolley to indicate motion and
direction.

Two trolleys have collided and are shown as being together. Combined weights of the
trolleys are shown.
Before collision

After collision

You can use the principle of conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of
the combined trolleys after the collision.

Example calculation
Calculate the velocity of the trolleys after the collision in the example above.

First calculate the momentum of both trolleys before the collision:

2 kg trolley = 2 � 3 = 6 kg m/s

8 kg trolley = 8 � 0 = 0 kg m/s

Total momentum before collision = 6 + 0 = 6 kg m/s

Total momentum (p) after collision = 6 kg m/s (because momentum is conserved)

Mass (m) after collision = 10 kg

Next, rearrange p = m v to find v:

v = \frac{p}{m}

v = 6 \div 10

v = 0.6 \ m/s

Note that the 2 kg trolley is travelling to the right before the collision. As its
velocity and the calculated velocity after the collision are both positive values,
the combined trolleys must also be moving to the right after the collision.
Calculations involving explosions
The principle of conservation of momentum can be used to calculate the velocity of
objects after an explosion.

Example calculation
A cannon ball of mass 4.0 kg is fired from a stationary 96 kg cannon at 120 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of the cannon immediately after firing.

Total momentum of cannon and cannon ball before = 0 kg m/s (because neither object
is moving)

Total momentum of cannon and cannon ball after collision = 0 kg m/s (because
momentum is conserved)

Momentum of cannon ball after firing = 4.0 � 120 = 480 kg m/s

Momentum of cannon after firing = -480 kg m/s (because it recoils in the opposite
direction)

Rearrange p = m v to find v:

v = \frac{p}{m}

v = 480 \div 96

v = -5.0 \ m/s

Note that the forward velocity of the cannon ball was given a positive value. The
negative value for the cannon's velocity shows that it moved in the opposite
direction.

Momentum is a vector quantity, so it is important to consider both magnitude and

direction. For example, if travelling east is given a positive value, travelling
west is given a negative value.

Force and momentum

When a resultant force acts on an object that is moving, or able to move, there is
a change in momentum.

Calculating the rate of change of momentum

You can combine two equations to show how to calculate the force involved when a
change in momentum happens:

force = mass � acceleration

acceleration = \frac{change \ in \ velocity}{time \ taken}

? = \frac {v-u}{t}

Acceleration (?) appears in both equations, giving:

force = mass � \frac{change \ in \ velocity}{time \ taken} = \frac {change \ in \

momentum}{time \ taken}

F = \frac {mv-mu}{t}

This is when:

force (F) is measured in newtons (N)

change in momentum (mv - mu) is measured in kilogram metres per second (kg m/s)
time taken (t) is measured in seconds (s)
The equation shows that the force involved is equal to the rate of change of
momentum.

Example calculation
F = \frac {mv-mu}{t}

v - u = 30 - 0 = 30~m/s

F = \frac {1,500 \times 30}{20}

F = 2,250 \ N

Newton's third law in collisions

When objects collide, they will exert equal and opposite forces on each other all
the time they are in contact. This means that the objects will each have the same
size force acting for the same amount of time.

F = \frac {mv-mu}{t}

so

Ft = mv \ - \ mu

The change in momentum is given by the force multiplied by the time it acts for. So
in a collision the two objects each gain the same momentum but in opposite
directions. These extra bits of momentum add nothing to the whole system. Momentum
is a vector and they are in opposite directions so add up to zero.

Car safety features

During a collision there is a change in momentum. The force of the collision is
equal to the rate of change of momentum. Car safety features such as seatbelts,
airbags and crumple zones all work to change the shape of the car, which increases
the time taken for the collision. Crumple zones refer to the areas of a car that
are designed to deform or crumple on impact. These different safety features
decrease the rate of change of momentum, which decreases the force of the collision
on any people within the car.

Side view of a crashed car, showing the crumple zones and activated airbags.

There are eight main stores of energy:

magnetic
internal (thermal)
chemical
kinetic
electrostatic
elastic potential
gravitational potential
nuclear
Examples of energy stores
Energy store Description Examples
Magnetic The energy stored when repelling poles have been pushed closer together
or when attracting poles have been pulled further apart. Fridge magnets,
compasses, maglev trains which use magnetic levitation.
Internal (thermal) The total kinetic and potential energy of the particles in
an object, in most cases this is the vibrations � also known as the kinetic energy
� of particles. In hotter objects, the particles have more internal energy and
vibrate faster. Human bodies, hot coffees, stoves or hobs. Ice particles vibrate
slower, but still have energy.
Chemical The energy stored in chemical bonds, such as those between molecules.
Foods, muscles, electrical cells.
Kinetic The energy of a moving object. Runners, buses, comets.
Electrostatic The energy stored when repelling charges have been moved closer
together or when attracting charges have been pulled further apart.
Thunderclouds, Van De Graaff generators.
Elastic potential The energy stored when an object is stretched or squashed. Drawn
catapults, compressed springs, inflated balloons.
Gravitational potential The energy of an object at height. Aeroplanes, kites, mugs
on a table.
Nuclear The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. Uranium nuclear power,
nuclear reactors.

Energy transfers
Pathways for transferring energy
Energy can be transferred from one store into another - as one store empties,
another store fills. The process by which this happens is called the pathway. There
are four main pathways:

mechanical work - a force moving an object through a distance

electrical work - charges moving due to a potential difference
heating - due to temperature difference caused electrically or by chemical reaction
radiation - energy transferred as a wave, eg light and infrared - the Sun emits
light radiation and infrared radiation
Systems and stores
Energy can remain in the same store for millions of years or sometimes just for a
fraction of a second. There are energy transfers going on all the time - whenever a
system changes there is a change in the way some or all of the energy is stored.

A swinging pirate ship ride at a theme park

Kinetic energy is transferred into gravitational potential energy

A car driver braking in an emergency - kinetic energy is transferred into thermal

energy of the surroundings by the work done by the force of friction on the brakes.

A snowball hitting a wall - kinetic energy is transferred into thermal energy of

the surroundings by the work done by the force from the wall.

Energy flow diagrams

Diagrams can be used to show how energy is transferred from one store to another.
Two examples are the transfer diagram and the Sankey diagram.

Transfer diagrams
In transfer diagrams the boxes show the energy stores and the arrows show the
energy transfers.

For example, a transfer diagram for a child at the top of a slide may be:

Energy transfer diagram of a child on a slide

Gravitational energy stored in the child at the top of the slide is transferred as
mechanical work done to speed up and to do work against friction. The result of
this is a shift of energy from the gravitational potential energy store to the
kinetic energy store and the internal energy store (raising the temperature of the
child and the slide).

Sankey diagrams
Sankey diagrams start off as one arrow that splits into two or more points. This
shows how all the energy in a system is transferred into different stores.

Sankey diagram of a child on a slide

Sankey diagrams are really useful when the amount of energy in each of the energy
sources is known. The width of the arrow is drawn to scale to show the amount of
energy.

The conservation of energy

Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but it cannot be created
or destroyed.

In all cases, energy comes from one store and is transferred to another store. This
means that all the energy in the universe was present at the Big Bang and will
still be around at the very end of time.

Examples of conservation of energy

The skydiver
When a skydiver jumps out of a plane, he begins to lose energy from the
gravitational potential energy store as his height decreases, and his kinetic
energy store increases as his speed increases.

Energy transfer diagram, gravitional potential to kinetic and internal energy

However, not all of the energy lost from the gravitational potential energy store
is transferred into the kinetic energy store. As some work is done pushing against
the air particles, some of the gravitational potential energy is transferred to the
air particles and is stored as internal energy.

Smartphones
All smartphones contain a battery that stores chemical energy. When a smartphone is
in use, the battery's chemical energy store decreases. The energy is transferred
via the electrical work pathway to light the screen and produce sound.

The light that comes from a smartphone is emitted via the light radiation pathway,
and the sound waves are produced by a speaker that vibrates back and forth and are
emitted via the sound radiation pathway. Eventually both the light and the sound
pathways lead to (very small) increases in the internal energy store (temperature)
of the surroundings.

In addition to this, many smartphones also heat up when used, so energy from the
chemical store is also transferred to the internal energy store. This causes an
increase in the temperature of the phone and causes it to emit more energy via the
infrared radiation pathway.
The conservation of energy
Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but it cannot be created
or destroyed.

In all cases, energy comes from one store and is transferred to another store. This
means that all the energy in the universe was present at the Big Bang and will
still be around at the very end of time.

Examples of conservation of energy

The skydiver
When a skydiver jumps out of a plane, he begins to lose energy from the
gravitational potential energy store as his height decreases, and his kinetic
energy store increases as his speed increases.

Energy transfer diagram, gravitional potential to kinetic and internal energy

However, not all of the energy lost from the gravitational potential energy store
is transferred into the kinetic energy store. As some work is done pushing against
the air particles, some of the gravitational potential energy is transferred to the
air particles and is stored as internal energy.

Smartphones
All smartphones contain a battery that stores chemical energy. When a smartphone is
in use, the battery's chemical energy store decreases. The energy is transferred
via the electrical work pathway to light the screen and produce sound.

The light that comes from a smartphone is emitted via the light radiation pathway,
and the sound waves are produced by a speaker that vibrates back and forth and are
emitted via the sound radiation pathway. Eventually both the light and the sound
pathways lead to (very small) increases in the internal energy store (temperature)
of the surroundings.

In addition to this, many smartphones also heat up when used, so energy from the
chemical store is also transferred to the internal energy store. This causes an
increase in the temperature of the phone and causes it to emit more energy via the
infrared radiation pathway.

Energy transfer diagram of a smartphone

Calculating energy changes

The amount of gravitational potential energy stored by an object at height can be
calculated using the equation:

change in gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational field strength x

change in vertical height

\Delta GPE = m \times g \times \Delta h

This is when:

change in gravitational potential energy (?GPE) is measured in joules (J)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
gravitational field strength (g) is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
change in vertical height (?h) is measured in metres (m)
Example
A 3.5 kg cat climbs a tree. The tree is 5.6 m high. How much gravitational
potential energy has the cat gained? (g = 10 N/kg)

\Delta GPE = m \times g \times \Delta h

E^{p} = m \times g \times h

\Delta GPE = 3.5 \times 10 \times 5.6

\Delta GPE = 196 \ J

Question
How much gravitational potential energy does a 500 g bag of flour gain when it is
lifted up 1.5 m onto a shelf?

Reveal answer
Calculating kinetic energy
The amount of kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the
equation:

kinetic \ energy = \frac{1}{2} \times mass \times velocity^{2}

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times m \times v^{2}

This is when:

kinetic energy (KE) is measured in joules (J)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
speed (v) is measured in metres per second (m/s)
Example
A dancer with a mass of 90 kg moves at a speed of 6 m/s across the stage. What is
his kinetic energy?

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times m \times v^{2}

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 90 \times 6^{2}

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 90 \times 36

KE = 1,620 \ J

Question
How much kinetic energy does a 300 g kitten have when it runs at 4 m/s to chase a
butterfly?

Reveal answer
For any of these equations you may need to change the subject of the formula.
Calculating energy changes
Calculating kinetic energy
The amount of kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the
equation:

Kinetic \ energy = \frac{1}{2} \times mass \times velocity^{2}

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times m \times v^{2}

This is when:

kinetic energy (KE) is measured in joules (J)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
speed (v) is measured in metres per second (m/s)
Example
KE = \frac{1}{2} \times m \times v^{2}

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 0.1 \times 6^{2}

KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 0.1 \times 36

KE = 1.8 \ J

Question
How much kinetic energy does a 30 kg dog have when it runs at 4 m/s?
Reveal answer
Calculating gravitational potential energy
The amount of gravitational potential energy stored by an object at height can be
calculated using the equation:

change in gravitational potential energy = mass � graviational field strength �

change in vertical height

?GPE = m \times g \times ?h

This is when:

change in gravitational potential energy (?GPE) is measured in joules (J)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
gravitational field strength (m) is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
change in vertical height (??) is measured in metres (m)
Example
Galileo takes a 5 kg cannonball to the top of the Tower of Pisa for one of his
experiments. The tower is 56 m high. How much gravitational potential energy has
the cannonball gained? (g = 10 N/kg)

?GPE = m \times g \times ?h

?GPE = 5 \times 10 \times 56

?GPE = 2,800 \ J

Question
How much gravitational potential energy does a 500 g book gain when it is lifted up
1.5 m onto a shelf?

Reveal answer
For any of these equations you may need to change the subject of the formula.
Efficiency
Devices are designed to waste as little energy as possible. This means that as much
of the input energy as possible should be transferred into useful energy stores.

A very efficient device will waste very little of its input energy.

A very inefficient device will waste most of its input energy.

Calculating efficiency
How good a device is at transferring energy input to useful energy output is called
efficiency.

The efficiency of a device is the proportion of the energy supplied that is

transferred in useful ways. The efficiency can be calculated as a decimal or a
percentage.
efficiency= \frac{useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \ energy \ supplied}

percentage \ of \ efficiency = efficiency \times 100

(percentage \ of \ efficiency = \frac{useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \

energy \ supplied} \times 100)

Both useful energy transferred and total energy supplied are measured in joules
(J).
Example
The energy supplied to a LED bulb is 140 J. Out of this total energy supplied, 108
J is usefully transferred. How efficient is the light bulb?

efficiency= \frac{useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \ energy \ supplied}

efficiency= \frac{108}{140}

efficiency= 0.77

percentage\ efficiency= efficiency \times 100

percentage\ efficiency= 0.77 \times 100

percentage\ efficiency= 77 \ %

The LED bulb is quite efficient since most of the energy supplied is transferred
usefully. Most of the energy dissipated goes to raising the temperature of the
surroundings.

Increasing efficiency - Higher

It is not possible to have an efficiency of greater than 1 or an efficiency
percentage greater than 100%. This would mean that more energy is being transferred
than is being supplied, which would mean that energy is being created. This would
break the law of conservation of energy.

Devices waste energy for various reasons, including friction between their moving
parts, electrical resistance, and unwanted sound energy. In general, it is useful
to increase the efficiency of any process or device. This can be achieved by
reducing wasted energy transfers so more of the input energy is usefully
transferred.

Mechanical devices can be made more efficient through lubrication to reduce the
friction between moving parts of a machine and increase the amount of useful energy
transferred.

For systems that are designed to transfer thermal energy, the efficiency can be
improved by reducing the wasteful dissipation of thermal energy to the
surroundings, for example by using insulation.

Energy resources
There are different energy resources in the world and the amount of energy stored
by them varies greatly. For example, the amount of nuclear energy stored within 1
kg of uranium is enormous, but the gravitational potential energy stored by many
thousands of tonnes of water held back by a dam is less.

Renewable or non-renewable
A renewable energy resource is one that is being (or can be) replenished as fast
(or faster) than it is used.
Renewable resources are replenished either by:

human action - eg trees cut down for biofuel are replaced by planting new trees
natural processes - eg water let through a dam for hydroelectricity is replaced
through the water cycle
A non-renewable energy resource is one that is not being replenished as it is being
used. It will eventually run out when all reserves have been used up.

Different energy sources

The table below shows the main features of the most common energy resources used
today.

Nine different energy resources, fossil fuels, nuclear, bio, wind, hydroelectric,
geothermal, tides, sun, water waves; illustrated around a main label.
Energy Energy store Renewable or non-renewable Uses Power output
Impact on environment
Fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gases) Chemical Non-renewable
Transport, heating, electricity generation High Releases CO2 (causes
global warming)
Nuclear fuels Nuclear Non-renewable Electricity generation Very high
Radioactive waste (needs to be disposed of safely)
Biofuel Chemical Renewable Transport, heating, electricity generation
Medium Carbon-neutral so low impact
Wind Kinetic Renewable Electricity generation Very low Take up large
areas that could be used for farming, people say windmills spoil their view
Hydroelectricity Gravitational potential Renewable Electricity generation Medium
Local habitats are affected by the large areas that need to be flooded to
build dams
Geothermal Internal Renewable Electricity generation, heating Medium
Very low
Tides Kinetic Renewable Electricity generation Potentially very high but
hard to harness Tidal barrages can block sewage which needs to go out to sea
Sun Nuclear Renewable Electricity generation Potentially very high, but
hard to harness Very little
Water waves Kinetic Renewable Electricity generation Low Very low
Comparing resources
Power stations that use fossil fuels or nuclear fuel are very reliable sources of
energy. These two types of stations provide much of the UK�s electricity. They
operate almost continuously. When additional power is needed, gas power stations
are usually used because they will come on very quickly and start generating
electricity almost immediately.

The fuel for nuclear power stations is relatively cheap, but the power stations
themselves are expensive to build. It is also very expensive to dismantle, or
decommission, old nuclear power stations at the end of their useful life. The
highly radioactive waste needs to be stored for millions of years before the
natural activity will reduce to a safe level.

Water power eg tidal and hydroelectricity are reliable and predictable because of
the Moon causing the tides and rainfall filling reservoirs. These two types can
also be used to supply additional demand. But many of the renewable sources are
unreliable, including wind and solar energy, and cannot respond to increased demand
- sunny and windy weather cannot be guaranteed.

Renewable resources have no fuel costs, but the equipment used is expensive to
build.

Energy and work

When a force causes a body to move, work is being done on the object by the force.
Work is the measure of energy transfer when a force �F� moves an object through a
distance �d�. So when work is done, energy has been transferred from one energy
store to another, and so:

energy transferred = work done

Energy transferred and work done are both measured in joules (J).

Calculating work done

The amount of work done when a force acts on a body depends on two things:

the size of the force acting on the object

the distance through which the force causes the body to move in the direction of
the force
The equation used to calculate the work done is:

work done = force � distance

E = F \times d

This is when:

work done (E) is measured in joules (J)

force (F) is measured in newtons (N)
distance (d) is in the same direction as the force and is measured in metres (m)
Example
A man pushes a box with a force of 10 newtons to move it a distance of 2 metres
In this example, a force of 10 N causes the box to move a horizontal distance of 2
m, so:

E = F \times d

E = 10 \times 2

E = 20 \ J

One joule of work is done (or one joule of energy is transferred) when a force of
one newton causes a body to move through a distance of one metre in the direction
of the force.
Question
A horizontal force of 50 N causes a trolley to move a horizontal distance of 30 m.
How much work is done on the trolley by the force?

Reveal answer
Question
12,000 J of energy is supplied to move a small truck a distance of 80 m. What is
the size of the force applied?

Reveal answer

Power
When work is done on an object, energy is transferred. The rate at which this
energy is transferred is called power. So the more powerful a device is, the more
energy it will transfer each second.

Calculating power
The equation used to calculate the power is:

power = \frac {work \ done}{time \ taken}

P = \frac {E}{t}

This is when:

power (P) is measured in watts (W)

work done (E) is measured in joules (J)
time (t) is measured in seconds (s)
One watt is equal to one joule per second (J/s). This means that for every extra
joule that is transferred per second, the power increases by one watt.

Example
Two electric motors are used to lift a 2 N weight through a vertical height of 10
m.

Motor one does this in 5 seconds.

Motor two does this in 10 seconds.

An electric motor rests on a table lifting a weight. The motor is connected to a

Joulemeter which in turn is connected to a low voltage supply.
For both motors, the energy transferred - the work done - is 20 J.

E = F \times d = 2 \times 10 = 20 \ J

For motor one:

P = \frac {E}{t} = \frac {20}{5} = 4 \ W

For motor two:

P = \frac {E}{t} = \frac {20}{10} = 2 \ W

Since twice as much energy is transferred by motor one each second, it is possible
to say that motor one is twice as powerful as motor two.

Question
A hairdryer transfers 48,000 J of energy in one minute. What is the power rating of
the hairdryer?

Reveal answer
Power is the amount of energy that is transferred per second.

Efficiency
Devices are designed to waste as little energy as possible. This means that as much
of the input energy as possible should be transferred into useful energy stores.

How good a device is at transferring energy input to useful energy output is called
efficiency.

A very efficient device will waste very little of its input energy.

A very inefficient device will waste most of its input energy.

The efficiency of a device is the proportion of the energy supplied that is

transferred in useful ways. The efficiency can be calculated as a decimal or a
percentage, using the equations:

efficiency = \frac {useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \ energy \ supplied}

percentage \ of \ efficiency = efficiency \times 100

(efficiency = \frac {useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \ energy \ supplied}

\times 100)

This is when both useful energy transferred and total energy supplied are measured
in joules (J).
Example
The energy supplied to a light bulb is 200 J. A total of 28 J of this is usefully
transferred. How efficient is the light bulb?

efficiency = \frac {useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \ energy \ supplied}

efficiency = \frac {28}{200}

efficiency = 0.14

percentage \ of \ efficiency = efficiency \times 100

percentage \ of \ efficiency = 0.14 \times 100

percentage \ of \ efficiency = 14 %

The light bulb is not very efficient since most of the energy supplied is not
transferred usefully. Most of the energy is dissipated as infrared radiation and
only 14% is transferred usefully as light radiation.

It is not possible to have an efficiency of greater than 1 or greater than

efficiency percentage of 100%. This would mean that more energy is being
transferred than is being supplied, which would mean that energy is being created.
This would break the law of conservation of energy.

Example
A crane is designed to lift an object up. The energy transfer equation for lifting
a piece of metal is given below. Calculate the efficiency of the crane.

efficiency = \frac {useful \ energy \ transferred}{total \ energy \ supplied}

efficiency = \frac {180,000}{200,000}

efficiency = 0.9

Contact forces
Contact forces are forces that act between two objects that are physically touching
each other. Examples of contact forces include:

Normal contact force

An object at rest on a surface experiences a reaction force perpendicular (normal)
to the surface. For example, a box on a table.

A box rests on a table. There are two arrows, equal in size but going in opposite
directions, up and down, from the point where the box meets the table.
Tension
An object that is being stretched experiences a tension force. For example, a cable
holding a ceiling lamp.

A box hangs from a rope. Two arrows which are equal in size act upwards and dowards
from the top and bottom of the rope.
Friction
Two objects sliding past each other experience friction forces. For example, a box
sliding down a slope.
A box rests on an incline. There are three arrows; one acting vertically downwards
from the centre of the box�s base. One arrow acts perpendicular to the incline. One
arrow acts up the incline.
Air resistance
An object moving through the air experiences air resistance. For example, a
skydiver falling through the air.

A box falls from the sky. Two arrows, equal in size and opposite in direction act
upwards from the box and downwards from the box
When a contact force acts between two objects, both objects experience the same
size force, but in opposite directions. This is Newton's Third Law of Motion.

Non-contact forces
Non-contact forces are forces that act between two objects that are not physically
touching each other. Examples of non-contact forces include:

Magnetic force
A magnetic force is experienced by any magnetic material in a magnetic field.

Opposite magnetic poles (N�S or S�N) attract each other. Like magnetic poles (N�N
or S�S) repel each other:

Two magnets are next to each other with North and South poles facing one another.
Two equal arrows between the poles of the magnets point inwards towards each other.
Two magnets are side by side with North poles facing each other. Two arrows between
the poles of the magnets point outwards away from each other.
Electrostatic force
An electrostatic force is experienced by any charged particle in an electric field.

Opposite charges (+ and �) attract:

Large red circle contains �+� symbol and smaller blue circle contains �-� symbol.
Two arrows between the particles, point inwards towards each other.
Like charges (� and �, or + and +) repel:

Two blue circles contain �-� symbol. Two arrows between the particles point
outwards away from each other.
Gravitational force
A gravitational force is experienced by any mass in a gravitational field.

Masses are attracted towards each other by gravitational force:

The Earth and a satellite point to each other in space with arrows of equal size.

esultant forces - Higher

When two or more forces act on an object, the resultant force can be found by
adding up the individual forces.

A box on a table

A box rests on a table. Two arrows pointing in opposite directions act upwards and
downwards from the point at which they meet on the table.
If the weight of the box (acting downwards) is 50 N and the normal reaction force
(acting upwards) is 50 N, the forces are balanced. The resultant force is zero.

An object falling through the air

A box falls from the sky. Two arrows, equal in size and opposite in direction act
upwards from the box and downwards from the box
If the weight of the box (acting downwards) is 50 N and the air resistance (acting
upwards) is 20 N, the forces are unbalanced. The resultant force is 30 N downwards.
Hooke's law
Extension and compression
Extension happens when an object increases in length and compression happens when
it decreases in length. The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is
described by Hooke's law:

force = spring constant � extension

F = k \: x

This is when:

force (F) is measured in newtons (N)

spring constant (k) is measured in newtons per metre (N/m)
extension, or increase in length (x), is measured in metres (m)
Example
A force of 3 N is applied to a spring. The spring stretches reversibly by 0.15 m -
the fact that the string stretches reversibly means that it will go back to its
normal shape after the force has been removed. Calculate the spring constant.

First rearrange F = k \: x to find k:

k = \frac{F}{x}

Then calculate using the values in the question:

k = 3 � 0.15

k = 20 N/m

Limit of proportionality
Spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of a spring up to its limit of
proportionality or elastic limit. The limit of proportionality refers to the point
beyond which Hooke's law is no longer true when stretching a material. The elastic
limit of a material is the furthest amount it can be stretched or distorted without
being able to return to its previous shape. Once a material has gone past its
elastic limit, its distortion is said to be inelastic.

The higher the spring constant, the stiffer the spring. The spring constant is
different for different elastic objects. For a given spring and other elastic
objects, the extension is directly proportional to the force applied. For example,
if the force is doubled, the extension doubles. This works until the limit of
proportionality is exceeded.

When an elastic object is stretched beyond its limit of proportionality, the object
does not return to its original length when the force is removed. In this instance,
the relationship between force and extension changes from being linear, or directly
proportional, to being non-linear.
Non-linear extension occurs more in some materials than others. Materials like clay
or putty usually show non-linear extension.

Force-extension graphs

A force extension graph. Linear section drawn from origin to occupy half of graph
area. Non linear section has decreasing gradient. Change from linear to non-linear
is marked and labelled.
Linear extension and elastic distortion can be seen below the limit of
proportionality.

Non-linear extension and inelastic distortion can be seen above the limit of
proportionality. The limit of proportionality is also described as the elastic
limit. The gradient of a force-extension graph before the limit of proportionality
is equal to the spring constant.

Energy stored in a spring

Work is done when a spring is extended or compressed. Elastic potential energy is
stored in the spring. Provided inelastic distortion has not happened, the work done
is equal to the elastic potential energy stored.

The elastic potential energy stored can be calculated using the equation:

elastic potential energy = 0.5 � spring constant � (extension)2

E_e = \frac{1}{2} \: k \: x^{2}

This is when:

elastic potential energy (Ee) is measured in joules (J)

spring constant (k) is measured in newtons per metre (N/m)
extension, referring to the increase in length, (x) is measured in metres (m)
This equation also works for the reduction in length when a spring is compressed.
Example
A spring has a spring constant, k, of 3 N/m. It is stretched until it is extended
by 50 cm. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored by the spring, assuming it
is not stretched beyond the limit of proportionality.

First convert centimetres to metres:

50 cm = 50 � 100 = 0.5 m

Then calculate using the values in the question:

E_e = \frac{1}{2} \: k \: x^{2}

E_e = \frac{1}{2} \: \times 3 \times 0.5^{2}

E_e = 1.5 \times 0.25

E_e = 0.75 \: J

Question
A spring is compressed by 0.15 m. It has a spring constant of 80 N/m. Calculate the
elastic potential energy stored by the spring.

Required practical
Investigate the relationship between force, extension and work done extending a
spring
There are different ways to investigate the relationship between force and
extension for a spring. In this required practical activity, it is important to:

make and record length accurately

measure and observe the effect of force on the extension of springs
collect the data required to plot a force-extension graph
Aim of the experiment

A clamp stand holds both a spring and a ruler. The spring has a weight hooked onto
the bottom. The clamp is attached to a bench.
To investigate the relationships between force and extension for a spring, and the
work done in extending the spring.

Method
Secure a clamp stand to the bench using a G-clamp or a large mass on the base.
Use bosses to attach two clamps to the clamp stand.
Attach the spring to the top clamp and a ruler to the bottom clamp.
Adjust the ruler so that it is vertical and with its zero level with the top of the
spring.
Measure and record the unloaded length of the spring.
Hang a 100 g slotted mass carrier - weight 0.98 newtons (N) - from the spring.
Measure and record the new length of the spring.
Add a 100 g slotted mass to the carrier. Measure and record the new length of the
spring.
Repeat step 7 until you have added a total of 1,000 g.
Results
Record your results in a suitable table.

Force (N) Length (mm) Extension (mm)

0 (unloaded) 22 0
0.98 52 30
1.96 83 61
...
Analysis

Force extension graph. Linear section drawn from origin to occupy two-thirds of
graph area. Non linear section has an increasing gradient.
For each result, calculate the extension:
extension = length - unloaded length
Plot a line graph with extension on the vertical axis, and force on the horizontal
axis. Draw a suitable line or curve of best fit.
Identify the range of force over which the extension of the spring is directly
proportional to the weight hanging from it.
For the region where extension is proportional to force, find the gradient of the
line. The spring constant, k, is the reciprocal of this gradient.
Work done = force � distance moved. Here, the work done in extending the spring is
given by the area under the line on the graph.
The energy transferred to a spring's elastic store is given by the equation: Ee
= \frac{1}{2} \: k \: x^{2} Compare the area under the line, from the origin up to
a point, with the calculation of the energy stored in the spring for that
extension.
Evaluation
It is important to keep the ruler vertical. Suggest another way to improve the
accuracy of the length measurements.
Hazards and control measures
Hazard Consequence Control measures
Equipment falling off table Heavy objects falling on feet - bruise/fracture Use a
G-clamp to secure the stand
Sharp end of spring recoiling if the spring breaks Damage to eyes and cuts to
skin Wear eye protection and support and gently lower masses whilst loading the
spring
Masses falling to floor if the spring fails Heavy objects falling on feet -
bruise/fracture Gently lower load onto spring and step back

Specific heat capacity

If 1,000 J of heat is absorbed by a one kilogram block of lead, the particles gain
energy and the temperature of the block rises. If a one kilogram block of lead
absorbs 2,000 J of energy then the temperature rise will be larger.

If 1,000 J of heat is absorbed by a 2 kg block of lead then the temperature of the

block doesn�t rise as much since the energy is shared between more particles. If
1,000 J of energy is absorbed by a one kilogram block of copper instead of lead
then the temperature of the block doesn�t rise as much.

From this it can be seen that a change in the temperature of a system depends on:

the mass of the material

the substance of the material - its specific heat capacity
the amount of energy put into the system
The specific heat capacity of a material is the energy required to raise one
kilogram (kg) of the material by one degree Celsius (�C).

The specific heat capacity of water is 4,200 joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/kg�C). This means that it takes 4,200 J to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water by 1�C.

Some other examples of specific heat capacities are:

Material Specific heat capacity (J/kg�C)

Brick 840
Copper 385
Lead 129
Because it has a low specific heat capacity, lead will warm up and cool down faster
because it doesn�t take much energy to change its temperature.

Brick will take much longer to heat up and cool down. Its specific heat capacity is
higher than that of lead so more energy is needed for the same mass to change the
same temperature. This is why bricks are sometimes used in storage heaters, as they
store a large amount of energy and emit it over a long period of time. Most heaters
are filled with oil (1,800 J/kg�C) and where there is central heating, radiators
use water (4,200 J/kg�C).

Calculating thermal energy changes

The amount of thermal energy stored or released as the temperature of a system
changes can be calculated using the equation:

change in thermal energy = mass � specific heat capacity � temperature change

\Delta E_tQ = m \times c \times \Delta \theta

This is when:

change in thermal energy ( \Delta E_t Q ) is measured in joules (J)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
specific heat capacity (c) is measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/kg�C)
temperature change ( \Delta \theta ) is measured in degrees Celsius (�C)
Example
How much energy is needed to raise the temperature of 3 kg of copper by 10�C?

The specific heat capacity for copper is 385 J/kg�C

\Delta E_t Q = m c\Delta \theta

\Delta E_t Q = 3 \times 385 \times 10

\Delta E_t Q = 11,500 \: J

Question
How much energy is lost when 2 kg of water cools from 100�C to 25�C?

Specific latent heat

Changing the internal energy of a material will cause it to change temperature or

change state:

the energy required for a particular change in temperature is given by the specific
heat capacity
the energy required for a particular change in state is given by the specific
latent heat
Specific latent heat is the amount of energy required to change the state of 1
kilogram (kg) of a material without changing its temperature.
As there are two boundaries, solid/liquid and liquid/gas, each material has two
specific latent heats:

latent heat of fusion ? the amount of energy needed to freeze or melt the material
at its melting point
latent heat of vaporisation ? the amount of energy needed to evaporate or condense
the material at its boiling point
Some typical values for specific latent heat include:

Substance Specific latent heat of fusion (kJ/kg) Specific latent heat of

vaporisation (kJ/kg)
Water 334 2,260
Lead 22.4 855
Oxygen 13.9 213
An input of 334,000 joules (J) of energy is needed to change 1 kg of ice into 1 kg
of water. The same amount of energy needs to be taken out of the liquid to freeze
it.

Calculating thermal energy changes

The amount of thermal energy stored or released as the temperature of a system
changes can be calculated using the equation:

change in thermal energy = mass � specific latent heat

\Delta E_{t}Q = m \times l

This is when:

change in thermal energy ( \Delta E_{t}Q) is measured in joules (J)

mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
specific latent heat ( l) is measured in joules per kilogram (J/kg)
Question
How much energy is needed to freeze 500 grams (g) of water at 0�C?

Reveal answer
Measuring latent heat
Latent heat can be measured from a heating or cooling curve line graph. If a heater
of known power is used, such as a 60 W immersion heater that provides 60 J/s, the
temperature of a known mass of ice can be monitored each second. This will generate
a graph that looks like this:

Graph measuring time against temperature, looking at the temperature changes

between solid, liquid and gas for ice, water and steam.
The graph is horizontal at two places. These are the places where the energy is not
being used to increase the speed of the particles, increasing temperature, but is
being used to break the bonds between the particles to change the state.

The longer the horizontal line, the more energy has been used to cause the change
of state. The amount of energy represented by these horizontal lines is equal to
the latent heat.

Example
If a horizontal line that shows boiling on a heating curve is 1 hour 3 minutes
long, how much energy has a 60 watts (W) heater provided to the water?

63 minutes = 3,780 s

60 W means 60 J of energy is supplied every second

energy = power � time

energy = 60 � 3,780

energy = 226,800 J

Example 2
If this energy had been applied to 100 g of water, what is the latent heat of
vaporisation of water?

226,800 J for 100 g is equivalent to 2,268,000 J for 1 kg. The latent heat of
vaporisation of water is 2,268,000 J/kg.