A Main Project Report On

RAW MATERIAL INTO FINISHED GOODS

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CMR College of Engineering &Technology

Submitted by
D.KARNA

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

THE SINGARENI COLLIERIES COMPANY LIMITED
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is the deep sense of gratitude that we acknowledge this golden Opportunity given to us by GM
(HRD) Mr. S.V.S.S. Ramalingeswarudu of SCCL.

We express our deep sense of gratitude and thanks to our engineer Mr. P. RAVI KUMAR,
Addl. G.M(E&M) for their valuable guidance in carrying out the project and our sincere thanks
to Fitzgerald, (DY G.M) and Y.SUBHAKAR RAO,SE(E&M) for spending their valuable time
and guiding us in the preparation of project report.

We express our Gratitude to Dr. RAVI KUMAR HOD for his wholehearted support.

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Narayana, PRINCIPAL, CMR College of Engineering
and Technology. For their encouragement and allowing us the permission for doing Main Project
in SCCL.
 ABSTRACT
Since the beginning of civilization man has been continuously engaged in converting the natural
resources into finished products. Of all the sub disciplines of engineering, manufacturing is
perhaps most important. It involves the conversion of raw material into a finished product. The
required rate of growth in manufacturing cannot be achieved through trial and error and a
scientific approach is necessary.

The real shaping starts from the stage of a material are available in raw form. Changing a
raw material into a final product generally involves various processes.

The Three engineering activities that require an understanding of the manufacturing

process are Designing, Production and Development of new techniques. For various Products
such as plant machinery required for Chemical, Civil, Electrical, Electronics, Textile etc. The
manufacturing process forms a vital ingredient.

The Objective of the Project Work is to study the manufacturing process of TUB
WHEELS. On the basis of production, dealing with various components (such as Mild steel) by
undergoing various machining process.
S.NO CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT

2. COMPANY PROFILE

3. INTRODUCTION

4. PROCESS FLOW CHART

5. PATTERN

6. MOULDING

7. MOULDING SANDS

8. SHELL MOULDING

9. COMPOSITION OF TUB WHEELS

10. HEAT TREATMENT – ANNEALING

11. IRON – CARBON DIAGRAM

12. MACHINING

13. CONCLUSION
 COMPANY PROFILE
INTRODUCTION OF COAL MINING IN INDIA:
Man is blessed with abundance of natural resources, including mineral wealth that play vital role
in the development of a country and promote the economic growth when explored and made best
use of them.
Coal, which is one of the important minerals, is known to man since ages and this natural wealth
has put to diverse use in the modern world. Coal regarded as the fuel for growth, the coal is an
important input for power generation and many other industries like iron and steel, railway,
shipping and construction industries etc, a vital infrastructure for economic development.
Despite the development of alternative fuel sources like electricity, petrol and solar energy, coal
continues to be major fuel material in many industries. Thus coal industry plays an important
role in the industrial development of any country, like India.
The world coal consumption is projected to go up from 4.7 billion tones in 1999 to 6.4 billion
tones by 2020, primarily in China and India, which are expected to account for 75% of the
increased consumption.
In India, Coal Mining was started in 1774 and is still significantly under the Government
Control and ownership with Coal India Limited (CIL), along with its following subsidiaries are
become number one coal producer in India.

1. Eastern Coal Fields India Limited (ECIL) -Sanctoria, West Bengal.

2. Bharat Cooking Coal Limited (BCCL) - Dhanbad, Bihar.

3. Central Coal Fields Limited (CCL) - Ranchi, Bihar.

4. Northern Coal Fields Limited (NCL) - Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh.

5. Western Coal Fields Limited (WCL) - Nagpur Maharashtra.

6. Mahanadi Coal Fields Limited (MCL) - Sambalpur, Orissa.

7. Central Mining Planning & Design Institute Limited (CMPDIL) - Ranchi, Bihar.

8. North Eastern Coal Fields Limited (NECL) - Margertta, Assam.

9. South Eastern Coal Fields Limited (SECL) - Bilaspur, M P.

 HISTORY OF SINGARENI COLLIERIES COMPANY LIMITED ORIGIN:
A remarkable little adventure gave birth to this giant corporate entity those us today the Singareni
Collieries Company Limited, Way back on a dark night in 1870, a group of pilgrims who on their
way to have a Darshan of Lord Rama at Bhadrachalam Temple (near Singareni Village) has lit a
fire to prepare their meal. One of the supporting stones on their makeshift stove caught fire. The
incident was immediately reported to the local Government.
This led to an extensive, survey by Dr. William King, an eminent Geologist, which confirmed the
revolutionary discovery of mammoth deposits of in the Godavari Valley.
The rest, as they say, is History:

The year 1886 witnessed the formation of the Hyderabad Deccan Company Private Limited and it
acquires the mining rights for exploiting the coal reserves. The first commercial operation
commenced at Yellandu (Khammam District) in Andhra Pradesh in 1889. In the company was re-
christened the “Singareni Collieries Company Limited” and its scrip listed on the London Stock
Exchange.

The mining rights for exploiting the coal reserves were acquired by the Hyderabad Deccan
Company, which was incorporated at London Stock Exchange. Hence the first extracting of coal
was started at Yellandu in 1886 by Hyderabad Deccan Company.

The company became Government Company after Nizam purchased its shares from London Stock
Exchange in 1945. With this, SCCL became the first-ever Government managed Coal Company in
India. Later in the year 1949, SCCL came under the control of Governments of India and Andhra
Pradesh as a joint venture with equity ratio of 49% and 51% respectively.

The SCCL is engaged in coal mining in four districts of Andhra Pradesh namely Khammam,
Karimnagar, Adilabad, Warangal. In overall India it spreads to 6% geographical area producing
10% of total coal.

SCCL – MISSION:
To retain strategic role of a premier coal producing company in this country and excel in a
competitive business environments.

To strive for self -reliance by optimum utilization of existing resources and almost safety by
adopting suitable technologies and practices and constantly upgrading them against international
bench marks.To supply reliable and qualitative coal in adequate quantities and strive to satisfy
customers needs by constantly sharing their experience and customizing our product.
To emerge as a model employer and maintain harmonious industries relations with the legal and
social frame work of the state
To emerge as a responsible company through good corporate Governance, by laying emphasis on
protection of environment & ecology and with due regard for corporate social obligations.

THE OPERATION AREAS OF SCCL ARE AS FOLLOWS:

KHAMMAM DIST - Kothagudem, Yellandu and Manuguru
ADILABAD DIST - Bellampalli, Mandamarri and srirampur
KARIMNAGAR DIST - Ramagundam - 1, 2, & 3
WARANGAL DIST - Bhoopally.

TECHNOLOGIES IN UNDERGROUND MINES:

Conventional Mining
Side Discharge Loader (SDL)
Loader Haul Dumper (LHD)
Road Header
Long wall
Blasting Gallery
Continuous Miner

TECNOLOGIES IN OPENCAST:
Surface Miner
Dragline
Shovel & Dumper
Input Crusher-Conveyer-Spreader
High wall
MAN POWER OF SCCL:
SL NO CATEGORY MOR ON 31-03-
2012
1 Top Executives 06
2 Executives 2,467
3 Supervisor staff 2,537
4 Secretarial staff 2,035
5 Technical staff 9,047
6 Skilled (Daily rated) 17,987
7 Semiskilled (Daily rated) 5,318
8 Unskilled (Daily rated) 20,040
9 Unskilled (Piece rated) 6,060
10 Apprentices 25
Total 66,522
SINGARENI- NEW BUSINESS:
Power Generation: 20MW Captive Power Plant & 500MW Merchant Power Plant.
Explosives: Manufacturing of site Mixed Slurry (SMS) Explosives.
Mining of Iron ore and other minerals.
Development of SEZ.

BUSINESS PARTNERS OF SINGARENI:

Andhra Pradesh gas Power Corporation Ltd: to co-operate and promote one or more Joint
Venture Companies with the aim of jointly undertaking Coal Mining, Mining Beneficiation,
processing, operation & maintenance in India.

Carbon Energy Pty. Ltd (CEPL), Australia: for investigation of the potential for underground
coal Gasification in SCCL command areas.

National Thermal Power Corporation: for co-operation and promotion for joint Venture
companies for jointly undertaking various activities related to coal mining, integrated coal based
power projects and related consultancies, in India and abroad.

Oil and Natural Gas Commission: to cooperate in the service, operation, process Development
and Research related to Underground Coal Gasification (UGC), Surface Coal Gasification (SCG)
and Coal Bed Methane (CBM).

Common Wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia: To

facilitate R&D projects in Strata Mechanics, ventilation and other related subjects with specific
reference to Long wall Mining.
MINING SUCCESS & HONORS:
SCCL’s multi faceted achievements are land marks that stand testimony to its efficacy. The
company has deservedly won many awards-prominent among them are.

2001-2002:
Best Management Award in the state
National Safety Award
Best payroll savings award in the state.

2004-2005:
Best Workers’ Welfare Activity Award from FAPCCI.

2005-2006:
Golden Peacock Environment Management Award from World Environment management
Foundation.

Coal India Award for Fly Ash Utilization from Ministry of Environment & Forests, Power,
Science &Technology .Golden Peacock Innovation Management foundation.

2006-2007:
“Green Tech Environment Excellence Award-2006” from Green Tech Foundation.
2nd prize in First Aid &overall 5th position in the international Rescue Competitions.

2007-2008:
“Black Diamond Award -2007” for Corporate Excellence in Coal Sector from Infraline Energy.
Indira Gandhi Vriksha Mitra Award -2004 from Government of India on 5th june 2007 at New
Delhi.

2008-2009:
The SCCL has received APPCB award for Excellence in Bio-Medical Waste Management for
the year 2007-08 for Main Hospital at Kothagudem, Infratech, 2006 award for Best Productivity
in Underground Mines.

2010 -2011:
SCCL has received SAP-ACE Award 2010 for Best ERP implementation.
 INTRODUCTION
Definition & Meaning
A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them
in to a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the
metal has solidified as it cools.

The most common metals processed are aluminum and cast iron. However, other metals, such as
bronze, steel, magnesium, copper, tin and zinc, are also used to produce castings in the foundries.
In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the report is to study the different stages of manufacturing process in
foundry from raw materials to finished goods.To get brief understanding on various
manufacturing processes.

The applications where foundry is preferred as a manufacturing process over other

manufacturing processes.

Advantages of foundry over other production processes.

To study the various techniques employed in Singareni central workshop in producing a wide
range of machine parts to its quality standards.

SCOPE
Foundry is often called as “SHE-FOUNDRY”. As the process of delivery in a pregnant is dealt
with a lot of care and constant supervision similarly the foundry process should also be carried
out very carefully. Every step in the process is important and addition of every material,
temperature also has a specific importance. The scope of the project is to get a detailed
understanding on the foundry processes and various techniques employed in getting quality
products.

NEED
The Indian foundry industry has, not only survived the recent downturn but also as any as basic
industry geared up to face the challenges of the post-recession period. In fact, the industry serves
as a model for other durable goods manufacturers. In a new economic environment, this
traditional industry has restricted itself to maintain profitability and growth.

In the near future there will be ample scope for the Indian foundry industry to forge strategic
alliances with their counter parts in developed countries which are on the average of closure
primarily due to three reasons: waste disposal and highly stringent pollution control regulations,
high manpower costs, and acute storage of trained personnel to work in foundries.

Therefore, the growth of foundry industry is very important for inclusive and overall economic
growth. According to Goldman Sachs, in 2059, India is expected to be the third largest economy
(by GDP) in the world, along with China (No.1) and US (No.2).

TOP TEN CASTING PRODUCERS

Country Output (million tones)
China 33.5

USA 10.8

Russia 7.8

India 7

Germany 5.8

Japan 5.7

Brazil 3.4

Italy 2.6

France 2.4

Korea 2.1

In this study an effort has been made to understand the different production process and various
techniques employed in Singareni Central Workshop, which supplies a variety of machine parts
viz.,

1. TUB WHEEL for coal tubs for transporting coal and other required materials from
underground mines to surface areas.
2. Adapter teeth for 10 cubic meter rope shovel.
3. Tooth point for 10 cubic meter rope shovel.
4. Lock pin for 10 cubic meter rope shovel.
5. PC 450 Tooth point for 3 cubic meter hydraulic shovel.
6. Tooth point for PC 2000 12 cubic meter hydraulic shovel.
 7. Tooth point for PC 1250 5 cubic meter hydraulic shovel.
8. Flight bar for coal crushing feeder breakers.
9. Coal pulvariser tooth hammers for thermal power plants.
10. 155 End Bit cutting edges and end bits for thermal power plants.
11. 355 End Bit hubs for conveyor drums for coal transporting.

To all the other area workshops, open casts and mines all over TELANGANA.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDY:
This section provides a brief description of a variety of different production processes, used to
make metal products, of which casting by the foundry industry is only one branch, as described
below.

Name/synonyms Description

Bulk ferrous metal production The production of bulk molten metal from raw ores and metal
“Iron& steel making” , “ scrap. The molten metal can be used for:
integrated steel works”  Continuous casting ,
 Production of billet ,plate ,sheet,
 Production of pig iron,
 Supply to a foundry process
Bulk non ferrous metal The production of non-ferrous metals from raw ores and metal
production refiners/smelters scrap, with refining and purification by chemical, thermal,
electrolytic and other methods.
Products consists of extruded bar, rod, wire, slab, billet, ingots.
Ferro-alloy and ingot production Production of certified grades of metal alloys and metal
additions (in the form of nuggets granules, etc) for use by
foundries as raw materials.
Foundry casting Production of “near-net shape” products by pouring molten
metal into moulds. The molten metal is produced from scrap, pig
iron , ingots and alloys. Associated process includes mould /
core preparation finishing of cast components.
Forging Production of dense metal products from ingots or bar stock
using heat and pressure.

Wrought iron working Commercially pure iron (>99%) worked by hammering

squeezing, rolling or by hand to make high quality or intricate
products. Mainly a historical production technique limited to
specialty items today.
Fabrication Assembly of metal sheet, plate, etc. to make a finished product.
May involve cutting, grinding, welding, shaping, etc.

Machining Removal of unwanted metal by drilling, turning, etc. to produce

the required shape to the required dimensional tolerance.

METHODOLOGY
Foundry casting are required for a wide range of uses and range in size from components
weighing a few grams to castings produced for ships and off-shore oil rings, which can weigh up
to 300 tones.
 ABOUT THE TOPICS IN SCCL:
FOUNDRY
PATTERN SHOP

A Pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications.
The main modifications are:

(a) The addition of pattern allowances

(b) The provision of core prints, and

(c) Elimination of fine details which cannot be obtained by casting and hence are
obtained by further processing.

PATTERN MATERIALS:

The usual pattern materials are wood and plastics. The most commonly used pattern
materials are wood, the main reason being the easy availability and the low weight. Also, it can
be easily shaped and it relatively cheap. But the main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of
moisture as a result of which distortion and dimensional changes occur. The usual varieties of
wood commonly used for making patterns are pine, mahogany, teak, walnut and deodar.

Choice of the pattern material depends essentially on the size of the casting, the number of
castings to be made from the pattern and the dimensional accuracy required. For very large
castings wood may be the only practical pattern material. Molding sand being highly abrasive for
large scale production, wood may not be suitable as a pattern material and one may have to opt
for any metal patterns.

Because of their durability and smooth surface finish metal patterns are extensively used for
large scale casting production and for closer dimensional tolerances. Though many materials
such as cast iron, brass, etc, can be used as pattern materials, alluminium and white metal are
most commonly used. These are light, can be easily worked, and are corrosion resistant. Since
white metal has very small shrinkage, the white metal pattern can be made use of for making
additional patterns without worrying about the double shrinkage allowances. Most metal patterns
are cast in sand moulds from a master wood pattern provided with double shrinkage allowance.

Comparative advantages and disadvantages of various pattern materials are shown in the
following table.
 COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF METALLIC PATTERN
MATERIALS

Pattern metal Advantages Disadvantages

Aluminum alloy Good machinability Low strength
High corrosion resistance High cost
Low density
Good surface finish

Grey cast iron Good machinability High density

High strength Corrosion prone
Low cost
Steel Good surface finish Corrosion prone
High strength High density
High cost
Brass and bronze Good surface finish High density
High strength High cost
Lead alloys Good machinability High cost

PATTERN MATERIALS BASED ON EXPECTED LIFE

Type of casting Number of casting produced Pattern material

before pattern equipment repair
Pattern Core
Small castings 2,000 2,000 Hard wood
(under 600mm) 6,000 6,000 Aluminum,
100,00 100,00 Cast iron
Medium castings 1,000 750 Hard wood
(600-1800mm) 3,000 3,000 Aluminum,
Plastics
Large castings 200 150 Soft wood
(above 1800mm) 500 500 Hard wood
Metal reinforced
TYPES OF PATTERNS
There are various types of pattern depending upon the complexity of the job, the number of
castings required and the molding procedure adopted.

The most common types of pattern are listed and described below:
(a) Solid or Single Piece Pattern
(b) Split Pattern
(c) Gated Pattern
(d) Loose Piece Pattern
(e) Sweep Pattern
(f) Match Plate Pattern
(g) Multi piece Pattern

a)Solid or Single Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is the simplest of all the patterns. It is made without joints, partings or loose
pieces. For moulding with two patterns, one or two moulding boxes may be used. Moulding
operation with this pattern takes more times as the moulder has to cut his own runners, risers and
feeding gates. These types of patterns are usually used for simple and large sizes of casting.

b)Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern

Whenever the design of casting offers difficulty in making of mould and withdrawal of pattern
with a single piece pattern, split or two-piece pattern is most suitable. This type of pattern
eliminates this difficulty and can be used to form the mould of intricate design or unusual shape
of casting. Split patterns are made in two parts so that one is placed in cope and other in drag
with the dowel pins holding the two together. The surface formed at the line of separation of the
two parts, usually at the centre line of the pattern, is called parting line.

c)Gated Pattern
In mass production, a number of castings are prepared in a single multicavity mould by joining a
group of patterns. In such type of multicavity mould, gates or runners for the molten metal are
formed by connecting parts between the individual patterns as shown in Figure. These are made
of wood or metal and specially used for mass productions of small castings.

d)Loose Piece Pattern

As per requirement, some solid or single piece type of patterns is made as assemblies of loose
component pieces. Loose pieces are arranged in such a way that it can be removed from the
mould easily as shown in Figure.
Usually, these types of pattern requires much maintenance and are slower to mould.

e)Sweep Pattern
Large sizes of symmetrical moulds are generally prepared by means of sweep patterns. It
consists of a base, a wooden sweep board and a vertical spindle. The outer end of sweep board
carries a shape corresponding to the shape of desired casting. Usually, sweep patterns are
employed for moulding part carrying circular sections. The sweep board is attached with the
vertical spindle. After holding the spindle in vertical position, the moulding sand is rammed in
place. As the sweep board is rotated about the spindle it will form a desired cavity in the
moulding sand as depicted in Figure.

f)Match Plate Pattern

Such types of patterns are widely used for producing small sizes of castings in mass scale and are
made of metal. Match plate patterns are made in two pieces like split patterns. It consists of a
wooden or metallic plate, called match plate. Both the parts of split pattern are mounted on both
sides of this match plate. Groups of patterns on both sides of match plates are used to prepare the
moulds at a time separately, i.e. for group of patterns on one side is prepared in drag while the
other side group of patterns in cope .

g)Multi piece Pattern

Sometimes, it is necessary to prepare a pattern in more than two parts in order to facilitate an
easy moulding and withdrawal of pattern. This type of pattern is known as multi piece pattern.
This type of pattern is used for casting having a more complicated design. For the preparation of
mould this type of pattern requires generally three moulding boxes.

Colour Coding for Patterns

Representation of different types of surfaces by means of different colours is known as colour
coding. By accepted colour code on pattern, we can judge the casting surfaces either to be
machined or not. Parts of pattern as a core print or seat for loose piece are also justified by it. A
widely accepted colour code for common practice is given below:
Black colour Surfaces to be left unmachined
Red colour Surfaces to be machined
Yellow colour Core prints

Red strips on Yellow base Seats for loose pieces

Black strips on Yellow base Stop offs
No colour or Clear Parting surface
 MOULDING
Molding or moulding is the process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a
rigid frame or model called a pattern.

A mold or mould is a hollowed- out block that is filled with a liquid like plastic, glass, metal, or
ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is
the counter part to a cast.

A large variety of moulding materials are used in foundry for manufacturing moulds and cores.
They are

 Moulding Sand

 Backing Sand

 Rebounded Sand

 Facing Sand

 Parting Sand and

 Core Sand

SAND MIX PREPARATION

a) FACING SAND:

1. Load the required High Silica Sand into the bin and unload into the Muller through skip hoist
bucket.

2. Mull it for 2 minutes and required quantity of Bentonite, Dextrin and water shall be added as
specified below.

a) Silica Sand : 100Kgs

b) Bentonite : 6-8% by weight of Sand

c) Dextrin : 1.2% by weight of Sand

d) Water : 3-3.5% by weight of Sand

3. Mull it for 3-4minutes add sufficient amount of water

4. Mull it for 3minutes and discharge the sand into the bins

5. Sand samples are sent to the lab for testing permeability, parameters are given below.

a) Permeability : 150 units

b) Grain Compression Strength (GCS) : 550 Grams /sq.cm

c) Mould hardness : 75 units

b) BACKING SAND:

1. Load the required returned Sand into the bin and unload into the Muller through sieve shaker
and skip hoist bucket.

2. Mull it for 2 minutes and required quantity of Bentonite and water shall be added as specified
below.

a) Return Sand : 100Kgs

b) Bentonite : 2-3% by weight of Sand

c) Water : 3-3.5% by weight of Sand

3. Mull it for 3-4minutes by adding sufficient amount of water

4. Mull it for2- 3minutes and discharge the sand into the bins

5. Sand samples are sent to the lab for testing permeability, CGS and Mould Hardness. The
ranges of these parameters are given below.

a) Permeability : 150 units

b) GCS : 550 Grams /sq.cm

c) Mould hardness : 75 units

Moulding
The moulding area consists of three loops one for core making and a large and small loop for
mould. We use the Novaset sand binder system and all moulding is boxed for improved quality.
The recent addition of a core blower has also improved the quality and speed of our core making.

TYPES OF MOULDING:
SHELL MOULDING:

A) Shell molding, also known as shell-mold casting, is an expendable mold casting process
that uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this
process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor
requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision. Shell mold
casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured
into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell
created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in
the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern
allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex
geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-
resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

B) Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly
using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper
alloys. Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear
housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.

C) The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:

Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically
from iron or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume
production or graphite for casting reactive materials.

Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370°C (350-700°F) and coated with a
lubricant to facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains
a mixture of sand and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture
to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a shell
around the pattern. Each pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and
then the shell is ejected from the pattern.

Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the
complete shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The
shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.

Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a ladle
into the gating system and fills the mold cavity.

Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the
shape of the final casting.

Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting
removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal from the
feed system and any sand from the mold.

Examples of shell molded items include gear housings, cylinder heads and connecting rods. It is
also used to make high-precision molding cores.

PROCESS:

The process of creating a shell mold consists of six steps:

1. Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3–6%) thermosetting phenolic resin and liquid
catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The pattern is usually made from
cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 °C (450 to 600 °F). The sand is allowed to sit on the
pattern for a few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.
2. The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the pattern,
leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the pattern the
thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8 in).
3. The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand. The shell
now has tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to 3.1 MPa).
 4. The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.
5. Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a thermoset
adhesive, to form a mold. This finished mold can then be used immediately or stored
almost indefinitely.
6. For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded with shot, sand, or
gravel to reinforce the shell.

The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding machine. It heats the pattern,
applies the sand mixture, and bakes the shell.
Advantages:
 Good casting detail and dimensional accuracy are possible.
 Moulds are lightweight and may be stored for extended periods of time.
 Gives superior surface finish and higher dimensional accuracy, and incurs lower fettling
costs than conventional sand castings.
 Has better flexibility in design than die-casting.
 Is less expensive than investment casting.
 Capital plant costs are lower than for mechanised green sand moulding.
 Metal yields are relatively high.
 Sand : metal ratios are relatively low (Luther (1999) and Clegg (1991)).

Limitations:
· The weight of castings is limited to 100 kg.
· Because the process requires heat to cure the mould, pattern costs and
pattern wear can be higher than for conventional sand moulding.
· Energy costs also tend to be higher.
· Sand inputs need to be of higher quality than traditional sand casting.
· Emissions from the process are noxious, so effective extraction systems are
required.
· Material costs tend to be higher than those for conventional sand moulding
(Luther (1999) and Clegg (1991)).

HAND MOULDING:

Hand moulding is very flexible and most suitable for low volume production and one-offs. The
sand is mixed with organic binder and manually rammed in the mould box and chemically cured
to strength. The cores are placed in the mould and the two halves are assembled before poring.
Hand moulding is more labour-intensive than shell and machine moulding. This is where the
skill and experience of our staff come into its own. Hand moulding is a good complement to the
other methods.

CORE :

A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal cavities and
reentrant angles. The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the
piece. They are most commonly used in sand casting, but are also used in injection molding.
An intriguing example of the use of cores is in the casting of engine blocks. For example, one of
the GM V-8 engines requires 5 dry-sand cores for every casting.

Advantages and disadvantages:

Cores are useful for features that cannot tolerate draft or to provide detail that cannot otherwise
be integrated into a core-less casting or mold.

The main disadvantage is the additional cost to incorporate cores.

Requirements:

There are seven requirements for core:

1. In the green condition there must be adequate strength for handling.

2. In the hardened state it must be strong enough to handle the forces of casting; therefore
the compression strength should be 100 to 300 psi (0.69 to 2.1 MPa).
3. Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases.
4. As the casting or molding cools the core must be weak enough to break down as the
material shrinks. Moreover, they must be easy to remove during shakeout.
5. Good refractoriness is required as the core is usually surrounded by hot metal during
casting or molding.
6. A smooth surface finish.
7. A minimum generation of gases during metal pouring.

Types:

There are many types of cores available. The selection of the correct type of core depends on
production quantity, production rate, required precision, required surface finish, and the type of
metal being used. For example, certain metals are sensitive to gases that are given off by certain
types of core sands; other metals have too low of a melting point to properly break down the
binder for removal during the shakeout.

GREEN-SAND CORE:

Green-sand cores are not a typical type of core in that it is part of the cope and drag, but still
form an internal feature. Their major disadvantage is their lack of strength, which makes casting
long narrow features difficult or impossible. Even for long features that can be cast it still leave
much material to be machined. A typical application is a through hole in a casting
DRY SAND CORES:

Dry-sand cores overcome some of the disadvantages of the green-sand cores. They are formed
independently of the mold and then inserted into the core prints in the mold, which hold the core
in position. They are made by mixing sand with a binder in a wooden or metal core box, which
contains a cavity in the shape of the desired core.

The most simple way to make dry-sand cores is in a dump core box, in which sand is packed into
the box and scraped level with the top. A wood or metal plate is then placed over the box, and
then the two are flipped over and the core segment falls out of the core box. The core segment is
then baked or hardened. Multiple core segments are then hot glued together or attached by some
other means. Any rough spots are filed or sanded down. Finally, the core is lightly coated with
graphite, silica, or mica to give a smoother surface finish and greater resistance to heat.

Single-piece cores do not need to be assembled because they are made in a split core box. A split
core box, like it sounds, is made of two halves and has at least one hole for sand to be
introduced. For simple cores that have constant cross-sections they can be created on special
core-producing extruders. The extrusions are then just cut to the proper length and hardened.
More complex single-piece cores can be made in a manner similar to injection moldings and die
castings

Types of core boxes

 half core box

 dump core box
 split core box
 left and right core box
 gang core box
 strickle core box
 loose piece core box
 Ghayoor
Lost cores:

Core are used for complex injection moldings in the fusible core injection molding process. First,
a core is made from a fusible alloy or low melting temperature polymer. It is then placed inside
the injection mold's dies and the plastic is shot into the mold. The molding is then removed from
the mold with the core still in it. Finally, the core is melted or washed out of the molding in a hot
bath.

Binders:

Special binders are introduced into core sands to add strength. The oldest binder was vegetable
oil, however now synthetic oil is used, in conjunction with cereal or clay. The core is then baked
in a convection oven between 200 and 250 °C (392 and 482 °F). The heat causes the binder to
cross-link or polymerize. While this process is simple, the dimensional accuracy is low.

Another type of binder process is called the hot-box process, which uses a thermoset and catalyst
for a binder. The sand with the binder is packed into a core box that is heated to approximately
230 °C (446 °F) (which is where the name originated from). The binder that touches the hot
surface of the core box begins to cure within 10 to 30 seconds. Depending on the type of binder
it may require further baking to fully cure.

In a similar vein, the cold-box process uses a binder that is hardened through the use of special
gases. The binder coated sand is packed into a core box and then sealed so that a curing gas can
be introduced. These gases are often toxic (i.e. amine gas) or odorous (i.e. SO2), so special
handling systems must be used. However, because high temperatures are not required the core
box can be made from metal, wood, or plastic. An added benefit is that hollow core can be
formed if the gas is introduced via holes in the core surface which cause only the surface of the
core to harden; the remaining sand is then just dumped out to be used again. For example, a cold-
box sand casting core binder is sodium silicate which hardens on exposure to carbon dioxide.

Special binders are used in air-set sands to produce core at room temperature. These sands do not
require a gas catalyst because organic binders and a curing catalyst are mixed together in the
sand which initiates the curing process. The only disadvantage with this is that after the catalyst
is mixed in there is a short time to use the sand. A third way to produce room temperature cores
is by shell molding.

The term no-bake sands can refer to either the cold-box process or air-set process.
Other considerations:

To increase the strength of cores internal wires and rods can be added. To enhance collapsibility
straw can be added to the middle of the core or a hollow core can be used. This attribute is
especially important for steel casting because a large amount of shrinkage is present

Except for very small cores, all cores require vent holes to release gases. These are usually
formed by using small wires to create holes from the surface of the mold to the core. When this
is not feasible cinder and coke can be added to the core to increase permeability.

PREPARATION OF ZIRCON BASED MOULD PAINT:

 The zircon based mould paint is used for painting the sand moulds in steel foundry.

 The zircon based mould paint shall be prepared in the paint mixer.

 It should be mixed in the following proportion:

a) Zircon flour : 96.5%

b) Bentonite : 3.0%

c) Dextrine : 0.5%

SCRAP PREPARATION:

 The scrap used shall contain 60% of M.S scrap and 40% of foundry returns and
rejects in general.

 Welders shall cut the M.S. scrap received from areas into pieces of required sizes
using oxygen-acetelyene gas cutting.

 The scrap collecting mazadoors collect the cut sizes of M.S. scrap into bins.

 The foundry returns and rejects are loaded into bins in fettling sections regularly
in separate bins using different bins for returns of different compositions.

 The scrap and returns in bins shall be weighed and kept ready charging into the
furnace.

 A bin of bearings/turning shall be kept aside for use in first charge.

 TYPES OF FURNACES:
 Electric-Arc Furnace

 Induction Furnace

 Cupola Furnace

CUPOLA FURNACE:
Cupola is used for melting and refining of pig iron along with scrap. It is basically a hollow
vertical shell or cylinder made of mild steel and linked with fire bricks. The cylinder or shell is
mounted either on steel column or on a brick work foundation. The bottom of the shell is
provided with drop bottom door. When the cupola is in operation, the bottom door is supported
by a prop. At the end of operation, the charge feeding is stopped, air supply cut off and the prop
removed. As soon as the prop is removed, the bottom door drops down providing a passage for
the residue of molten metal with slag to fall down. The amount of air required is forced into the
wind belt by blower which enters the furnace, through tuyeres. Charging door is provided above
the charging platform. Through charging door, the charge is fed into the furnace. The shell is
continued above the charging door to form a chimney. At the top of furnace a conical
construction called the spark arrester is attached to prevent the spark from emerging to the
outside as shown in Figure.

Zones in a Cupola
A number of combustion reactions take place in the cupola. Therefore, the entire shell of cupola
may be divided in zones which are as under :
Well Zone
The metal after melting is collected here and then tapped out. Well zone is the space between top
of sand bed and the bottom of tuyeres.
Combustion Zone
It is located about 15 cms to 30 cms above the top of tuyeres and also may be called as oxidizing
zone. As the actual combustion takes place in this zone, a lot of heat is produced which is
o o
supplied from here to other zones. A temperature of about 1550 C to 1850 C is produced in this
zone.
Reducing Zone
Reducing zone is located from the top of combustion zone to the top of the coke bed. In this
o
zone, the temperature falls to about 1200 C at the coke bed on account of reducing atmospheres.
This zone protects the charge against oxidation.
Melting Zone
st
The 1 layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extend upto a height of about 90 cm.
o
Being temperature around 1600 C, the complete combustion of coke and iron takes place in this
zone.
Preheating Zone
It extends from above the melting zone to the bottom of charging door and contains the cupola
charge (alternate layers of coke, flux and metal). In this zone, the charge is preheated at a
o
temperature of about 1100 C before coming to the melting zone.
Stack Zone
It is the empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone to the top of the cupola which carries
the gases generated within the furnace to the atmosphere.
Preparation and Charging of Cupola
First of all the waste material and slag etc. are removed from the cupola which are dumped under
the furnace after the previous melting. The bottom door is brought and secured in position by
means of prop, and then a sand bed is laid at the bottom. The surface of the sand bed is sloped
towards the tapping hole so that the molten metal may be drained from the cupola at any time As
a bed charge, soft and dry wood is placed over the sand bed followed by a bed of coke. The
wood is ignited through the tap hole. As soon as the coke bed is built up to the correct height and
ignited uniformly throughout, an alternate layers of pig iron, coke and limestone are charged
from the charging door until the cupola is full to the charging door. Usually, in practice, the
charge ratio between metal and coke is kept 8 : 1 to 10 : 1. Amount of limestone in charge
depends upon the amount of metal which is about 40 to 50 kg per metric ton of metal charge.
INDUCTION FURNACE:
Induction furnaces have become the most widely used furnaces for melting iron and,
increasingly, for non-ferrous alloys. These furnaces have excellent metallurgical control and are
relatively pollution free (in comparison to cupola furnaces) (Environment Canada, 1997).

The two most common induction furnaces are the coreless furnace and the channel furnace. The
basic principle of induction furnaces is that a high voltage in the primary coil induces a low-
voltage, high current across the metal charge which acts as a secondary coil. Because of
electrical resistance in the metal this electrical energy is converted into heat which melts the
charge (Metal Asia, 1999c). Once the metal is in its molten state the magnetic field produces a
stirring motion. The power and frequency applied determine the stirring rate. This is controlled
to ensure complete melting of the charge and adequate mixing of alloy and fluxing materials, and
to minimize temperature gradients in the charge. Excessive stirring, on the other hand, can
increase lining damage, increase oxidation of the alloys, generate excess slag and increase
inclusions and gas pick-up (Metal Asia, 1998a). In a coreless furnace (see Figure 5), the
refractory-lined crucible is completely surrounded by a water-cooled copper coil. This prevents
the primary coil from overheating. In channel furnaces, the coil surrounds an inductor. Induction
furnaces are available in capacities from a few kilograms to 75 tonnes. Coreless induction
furnaces are more typically in the range of 5 tonnes to 10 tonnes. Some large channel units have
a capacity of over 200 tonnes. Channel induction furnaces are also commonly used as holding
furnaces (Environment Canada, 1997).

Induction furnaces are very efficient and are made in many sizes. They are
able to melt a wide range of metals but little refining of the metal is possible.
Induction furnaces require much cleaner scrap than cupola furnaces and
somewhat cleaner scrap than electric arc furnaces (USEPA, 1998). The capital
costs are higher than those of electric arc furnaces but the operating costs are
lower due to reduced refractory wear (Jain, 1986). Other advantages of
induction furnaces are that they are relatively simple, very small quantities of
any metal composition can be melted and the melting time is relatively short —
around 1 hour — allowing metal to be delivered at small, regular intervals (Jain,
1986).
Approximately 60% of the energy supplied to the furnace is transferred to the
charge. Around 30% of the energy is lost to the cooling water, an additional 7%
lost from radiation and convection losses, and the remainder is lost in the
furnace’s electrical system (UNEP, 1997). Energy consumption can be as low as 550 kW.h/tonne
but these figures are achieved only with high utilization factors and for higher-frequency
furnaces (Taft, 1995). Figures of around 650–750 kW.h/tonne are more typical (Jain, 1986). In
comparing the overall efficiency of these systems with that of fuel based furnaces, it should be
remembered that the electricity has to be generated and even modern power stations do not reach
a 40% efficiency, which means the overall fuel consumption is well over 2000 who/ tone
(Powell, 1992).
Electric Arc Furnaces:

Electric arc furnaces are used for melting high-melting-point alloys such as
steels. The furnace consists of a saucer-shaped hearth of refractory material
for collecting the molten metal, with refractory material lining the sides and top
of the furnace. The roof can normally swing away to facilitate charging of the
furnace. Two or three carbon electrodes penetrate the furnace from the roof or
the sides. Doors in the side of the furnace allow removal of alloys, removal of
slag and oxygen lancing.

The scrap metal charge is placed on the hearth and melted by the heat from an electric arc
formed between the electrodes. In a direct-arc furnace, the electric arc comes into contact with
the metal; in an indirect-arc furnace the electric arc does not actually touch the metal. Molten
metal is typically drawn off through a spout by tipping the furnace.

As the refractoriness deteriorate, slag is generated. Fluxes such as calcium

fluoride may be added to make the slag more fluid and easier to remove from
the melt. Refractory life can also be extended by forming protective slag layers
in the furnace, by intentional addition of silica and lime. The slag protects the
molten metal from the air and extracts certain impurities (Environment Canada,
1997).

Electric arc furnaces are more tolerant of dirty scrap that induction furnaces
and can be used to refine metals, allowing steel to be refined from an iron charge (USEPA,
1998). Direct arc furnaces have a very high thermal efficiency
— around 70% — and can function at as little as 450–550 kW.h/tonne of metal
melted. Indirect electric arc furnaces typically achieve closer to 700–1000
kW.h/tonne of steel (Jain, 1986).
Advantages of electric arc furnace for steelmaking

The use of Ears allows steel to be made from a 100% scrap metal feedstock. This greatly reduces
the energy required to make steel when compared with primary steelmaking from ores. Another
benefit is flexibility: while blast furnaces cannot vary their production by much and are never
stopped for years at a time, Ears can be rapidly started and stopped, allowing the steel mill to
vary production according to demand. During the peak of global financial meltdown in 2009, an
estimated quantity of only 1 million tone was produced in USA employing EAF technique.
Although steelmaking arc furnaces generally use scrap steel as their primary feedstock, if hot
metal from a blast furnace or direct-reduced iron is available economically, these can also be
used as furnace feed.

A typical steelmaking arc furnace is the source of steel for a mini-mill, which may make bars or
strip product. Mini-mills can be sited relatively near to the markets for steel products, and the
transport requirements are less than for an integrated mill, which would commonly be sited near
a harbor for access to shipping.
PREPARING THE FURNACE LINING:

 The hearth blanks of the furnace shall be checked by the Meter before fettling the furnace
 The fettling shall be done using magnetite fettling Mass mixed with sodium silicate and
water as required.
 Fettling of furnace blanks is done under the supervision of the meter.
 Adjusting of Graphite electrode shall be done before charging, if required.
 The tap hole is closed temporarily using sand mix.

Melting
Many foundries, particularly ferrous foundries, use a high proportion of scrap
metal to make up a charge. As such, foundries play an important role in the
metal recycling industry. Internally generated scrap from runners and risers, as
well as reject product, is also recycled. The charge is weighed and introduced
to the furnace. Alloys and other materials are added to the charge to produce
the desired melt. In some operations the charge may be preheated, often using
waste heat. The furnaces commonly used in the industry are described below.

MELTING THE SCRAP AND PREPARATION OF METAL:

1. Opening the roof of the furnace.

2. Feeding first charge of scrap into the furnace by putting it neatly by crane manually.

3. After furnace shell is full, bring the roof back to the position.

4. Adjust the graphite electrodes

5. Arcing of charge

6. Another charge of scrap/foundry returns is done, if the total charge is not completed in the
same manner.

7. Melting the scrap completely that is melt down of scrap

8. Oxidizing the metal for purification and to bring carbon to required level for suitable alloy
additions. Material used in the process are iron ore and limestone

9. Removal of slag totally from molten metal

 10. Now de-oxidizing the metal is done by reducing slag of high passivity. This slag is prepared
by addition of limestone, fluorspar, carbon pellets and Ferro silicon. Under the heat of the
arc, slag will be prepared and will be reducing in nature. The metal is ready for any alloy
any addition.

11. All the Ferro alloy additions are done only after calculation is based on the melt analysis
report from laboratory. Through mixing of metals done after alloy additions. A second
sample of metal may be taken till requires composition is arrived at.

12. The quantities of scrap, foundry returns other raw materials like limestone, iron ore,
fluorspar added during the course of metal process recorded.

13. Further heating of the molten metal is done to attain suitable pouring temperature. The
temperature measured and recorded in molten metal temperature record

The ranges of pouring temperature for different compositions of metal are

GRADE POURING TEMPERATURE

a) Cwsp-1 1530-1580
b) Cwsp-2,3,5 1440-1480
c) Cwsp-4&6 1540-1600

14. The pouring temperature is measured using calibrated immersion pyrometer. In case the
pyrometer is under breakdown the molten temperature is measured by the time taken to
form a layer on the molten metal in a sampling spoon. The solidification time and time and
the corresponding ranges of temperature are give below.

GRADE TIME POURING

TEMPERATURE
Cwsp-1 35-40 sec 1530-1580
Cwsp-2,3,5 25-35 sec 1440-1480
Cwsp-4&6 35-45 sec 1540-1600
OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS OF SPECTROMETER:

Definition: operating instructions of spectrometer to determine the chemical composition of

iron, aluminum and copper base alloys. The base metal should be minimum 50%.

Equipment: Spectrometer, argon gas

Method:

 Switch on the power to activate the spectrometer system

 Put on the vacuum pump switch
 Open the valve of spectrometer chamber to keep the chamber under vacuum
 Open the argon gas valve, maintain the gas flow at 25 meters per minute
 Prepare the sample by grinding/polishing
 The sample should be of minimum size of 20mm dial or width and 1mm thickness
 Keep the sample on spark stand of spectrometer
 Keep the clamp on the sample
 Check for blue strip on the screen to indicate that the system is ready for operation
 Select start option on the screen by which the spectrometer starts working

 A spark bluish in color hits the finished surface of the sample

 A small portion of the sample is vaporized and converted into different
wavelengths based on the various elements of the metal
 The spectrometer measures the intensity of the wavelength and expresses the
composition of the metal in percentage of each element on the computer screen
 Thus observe the sequence of operations as:

 Argon gas flush

 Pre-burn
 Spark
 Measurement and displacement of the composition of the computer
screen

 Take two or three burns burns by slightly shifting the position of the sample
 Take out the print of the average valve of the above two or three test wheels
 Calculate the spectrometer with a standard sample after 500 burns
PRECAUTIONS:

 Vacuum pump is to be started prior to putting on the spectrometer

 Argon gas pressure is to be maintained
 Electrode should be cleaned after each burn
 Sample stand to b cleaned after100 burns

TAPING THE MOLTEN METAL INTO LADDLE:

 The pre-heated laddle is assembled with its stopper` rod.

 Checking the stopper rod operation for any leaks.
 Bringing the laddle near the tapping pit using the overhead crane.
 Tapping the metal into the ladle by opening the tap hole and by tilting operation of the
furnace.
 Aluminium additions are made in the ladle while tapping the metal.
 Once the ladle is full, the furnace is brought to the normal position and the ladle is lifted
up.

TEEMING THE MOLTEN METAL INTO MOULDS:

 All the moulds are arranged with their pouring basins in a straight line in the teeming
area.
 The ladle with molten metal is taken to the first mould
 Adjusting the opening of the ladle with the pouring basin
 The lock of stopper rod is released and stopper rod is fitted up to allow the molten metal
teemed into the pouring basin.
 Closing and opening of the nozzle is done two or three times initially for a perfect closing
of the nozzle.
 Teeming of all the moulds is done till the metal is exhausted.
 The slag remaining in the bottom of the ladle is poured into the slag pot by tilting the
ladle.
REQUIRED COMPOSITIONS FOR TUB WHEELS:

 Carbon 0.30%
 Silicon 0.225%
 Manganese 0.75%
 Sulphur 0.055%
 Phosphorous 0.055%

COMPOSITION OF MILD STEEL

• Carbon 0.25% to 0.35

• Silicon 0.3% to 0.6%
• Manganese 0.8(maximum)
• Phosphorous 0.05%
• Sulphur 0.05%

Mild steel is used for Tub wheel, conveyor drums spares, coupling blanks and
pulleys etc.

COMPOSITION OF EN-24 STEEL MATERIAL

• Carbon 0.25% to 0.35

• Silicon 0.32% to 0.6%
• Manganese 1.22% to 1.8%
• Phosphorous 0.05% (maximum)
• Sulphur 0.05%(maximum)
• Chromium 0.4% to 0.6%
• Ni-Mo 0.25%

EN-24 tapping temperature is 1600c

EN-24 is used to made adopters, integral adopters, pick holders, etc.

COMPOSITION OF HIGH MANGANESE STEEL

• Carbon 1% to 1.2%
• Silicon 0.72% to 1%
 • Manganese 10% to 14%
• Phosphorous 0.05%(maximum)
• Sulphur 0.05%(maximum)

High Manganese steel is used to make all types of tooth points for shovels, cutting edges and end
bits of dozers.
BOTTOM POURING LADLE

This is used for pouring the molten metal into the mould 3 ton bottom pouring ladle complete
with totally enclosed greased type.
 Pre-heated ladle is assembled with its stopper rod.
 Checking the stopper rod operation for any leaks.
 Bringing the ladle near the tapping pit using the overhead crane.
 Tapping the metal into the ladle by opening the tap hole and by tilting operation of the
furnace.
 Aluminium additions are made in the ladle while tapping metal.
 Once the ladle is full, the furnace is brought to the normal postion and ladle is lifted up.
HEAT TREATMENT
Heating and cooling operations applied to metals is called treatment.
It may be also defined as heating and cooling operations applied to metals and alloys in solid
state. So as to obtain designed properties.
Heat Treatment may be under taking for the following purposes:
 Improvement in Ductility
 Relieving internal stresses
 Refinement in grain size
 Increasing Hardness or Tensile Strength.
There are 4 types of processes in Heat Treatment.
1. Annealing
2. Full Annealing
3. Normalizing
4. Hardening
In Central Workshop we are using Full Annealing process.
FULL ANNEALING:-

It consists of heating steel to austenitic region followed by slow cooling .Steel is heated to above
30 to 50c.The upper critical temperature for hypereutectoid steels. It is heated above the lower
critical temperature .This temperature for predetermined time following by cooling at a very
slow rate such as cooling in the furnace itself or I container made of heat insulating material.
This Full Annealing process is not employed for hypereutectoid steel.
 Ferrite + Cementite -Pearlite
250 K.W. ANNEALING PROCESS

Process of 250 K.W. Furnace-Annealing

Specifications: -
 Temperature-860c(constant)
 Capacity- Depends upon the weight of casting.
 For TUB WHEEL -330

 Soaking hours -Depends upon the thickness of the casting.

o 1Inch -1 Hour
 For adapters- 8 Hours to 10 Hours
 Graph: - It shows Temperature and Time.
 While it came to certain temperature it reached the graph moves Horizontally.
 Materials: - EN-24, MS-Steel will be Annealing in chamber with the help of Tally.
 Cooling-8hours
 The total operation requires 24 hours.

140K.W. AUSTANIZATION FURNACE

Process of 140K.W. Furnace -Austanization

Specifications: -
 Temperature -1060c
 Capacity -It depends upon weight of casting
For TUB WHEELS-120
 Soaking Hours -It depends upon the thickness of the Castings.
 Cooling -Water Cooling
 Material -Manganese Steel

Bricks are used for developing the heat and to protect the chamber.
In Annealing process, the cooling requires more time. It will be processed in the chamber. But in
the Austanization the coolant is water, for that it takes less time.
  Casting are achieved after molding process will produce high wear and tear, internal
stresses will be high, leading to cracking.
 As to overcome the drawback of castings after molding, the annealing process is carried
out din 250KW furnace.
Here by the desired properties of tub wheels are obtained.
 Tub wheels are achieved by shell molding process.
 Generally Tub wheels are used to shift the coal from one place to another place.
 These are main parts of the wagons.
 Tub wheels are made up of MILD STEEL.
 Tub wheels obtained after molding will posses high wear and tear, internal stresses will
be high, leading to cracking.
 In order to obtain the desirable properties, annealing process (Heat treatment) is
employed.
 “A combination of heating and cooling operations timed and applied to a metal or alloy
in solid state in a way that will produce desired properties.”
 Heat treatment involves transformation or decomposition of austenite and products
obtained will determine the physical and mechanical properties.
Heat treatment of steels involves, heating the material to a temperature to form austenite.
 IRON-CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

REASONS FOR HEAT TREATMENT:

 To produce required combination of microstructure and mechanical properties to fulfill

its purpose.
  Increases the corrosion and wear resistance, improves machinability, surface conditions
and mechanical properties by refining grain size, for relieving the internal stresses and
softening the material.

ADVANTAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT:

Steel castings are heat treated for the following advantages:
1. To soften
2. To harden and toughen
3. To improve ductility
4. To diffuse carbon and other alloying elements
5. To improve machinability
6. To increase resistance to wear
7. To stress-relieve the castings

ANNEALING PROCESS
 Annealing operation consists in heating the castings above stress relieving temperature
within a determined critical range (about 920c for a low carbon steel casting), keeping the
casting at the temperature for a scheduled period of time(about 1 Hour per 25mm
thickness), shutting off the power (in furnace) and thus allowing the casting to cool
slowly with the furnace.

ADVANTAGES OF ANNEALING:
Annealing does
 Softening for machinability
 Stress relief
 Grain refinement
 Redistribution of dispersed phases, e.g., by solution and recrystallization (Reheating and
furnace cooling)
 In broader sense annealing implies homogenization, solution treatment, malleablizing,
etc.,

TYPES OF HEAT FURNACES:

 250KW Annealing furnace
 140KW Austanization furnace
 35KW Annealing furnace
 45KW Oil Quenching furnace
For Heat treatment of Tub wheels, 250KW furnace is used
250KW ANNEALING FURNACE
Specifications: -
 Temperature-860c(constant)
 Capacity-It depends upon the weight of castings.
For Tub Wheels-330
 Soaking hours-Depends upon the thickness of castings.
1 Inch-1 Hour
 For Tub wheels-6 to 8 hours
 Graph-It shows Temperature and Time
While it came to certain temperature, it reached the graph moves vertically.
 Materials-EN-24, MS-Steel will be Annealing in chamber with the help of
Tally.
 Cooling-8 hours
 The total operation requires 24 hours.

APPLICATIONS OF 250KW FURNACE

 Annealing of jobs like Tub wheels, Coupling, Shovel Adopters, various conveyor flights,
pick holders etc.
 There is no heat lose.
 Failure rate is low and maintain cost is also low.
 Full automatic temperature and movement control.
 The quality is reliable and service life is long.
 MACHINING
INTRODUCTION:
Conventional machining is a form of subtractive manufacturing, in which a collection of
material-working processes utilizing power-driven machine tools, such as saws, lathes, milling
machines and drill presses are used with a sharp cutting tool to physically remove material to
achieve a desired geometry. Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products. A
room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Much of modern
day machining is carried out by Computer Numerical Control(CNC).Computers are used to
control the movement and operation of mills, lathes and variety of other cutting machines.

The precise meaning of them “Machining” has evolved over the past two centuries as
technology has advanced. During the Machine Age, it referred to the “traditional” machining

Processes, such as turning boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planning,
reaming and tapping or grinding. The term “Machining” without qualification usually implies
conventional machining and the removal of material.
TYPES OF MACHINING PROCESSES

1) Lathe machine

2) Drilling machine

3) Boring

4) Shaft Preparation

LATHE MACHINE:

A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the work piece on its axis to perform various operations
such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are
applied to the work piece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.

Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, Thermal spraying/ parts
reclamation, and glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design
being the potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to
produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. Ornamental lathes
can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The material can be held in place
by either one or two centers, at least one of which can be moved horizontally to accommodate
varying material lengths. Other work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis
of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs.

DRILLING MACHINE:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-section
in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed
against the work piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per
minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work piece, cutting off chips from what will
become the hole being drilled.

Exceptionally, specially-shaped bits can cut holes of non-circular cross-section; a square cross-
section is possible.

Surface finish in drilling may range from 32 to 500 microinches. Finish cuts will generate
surfaces near 32 microinches, and roughing will be near 500 microinches.

Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life, increase speeds and feeds,
increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting chips. Application of these fluids is usually done
by flooding the work piece or by applying a spray mist.

BORING:

In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast), by means
of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), for example as in boring
a gun barrel or an engine cylinder. Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole,
and can be used to cut a tapered hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal-diameter counterpart to
turning, which cuts external diameters.

There are various types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on both ends (which only
works if the existing hole is a through hole), or it may be supported at one end (which works for
both through holes and blind holes). Line boring (line boring, line-boring) implies the former.
Back boring (back boring, back-boring) is the process of reaching through an existing hole and
then boring on the "back" side of the work piece (relative to the machine headstock).

Because of the limitations on tooling design imposed by the fact that the work piece mostly
surrounds the tool, boring is inherently somewhat more challenging than turning, in terms of
decreased tool holding rigidity, increased clearance angle requirements (limiting the amount of
support that can be given to the cutting edge), and difficulty of inspection of the resulting surface
(size, form, surface roughness). These are the reasons why boring is viewed as an area of
machining practice in its own right, separate from turning, with its own tips, tricks, challenges,
and body of expertise, despite the fact that they are in some ways identical.

Boring and turning have abrasive counterparts in internal and external cylindrical grinding. Each
process is chosen based on the requirements and parameter values of a particular application

The Boring Size of the Tub Wheel is 45mm.

SHAFT PREPARATION:

The Shaft is made up of EN19 material, it is machined with lathe and the turning operation. The
metal is removed required size of shaft. The shaft length is 740mm and diameter is 50mm. After
machining end of shaft in both sides diameter is 45mm.

PRESSING WITH HYDRAULIC MACHINE (Tub wheels with shaft)

A Hydraulic Press is a machine (see machine press) using a hydraulic cylinder to generate a
compressive force. It is use the hydraulic equivalent of a mechanical lever.

Finishing
Finishing processes includes Cutting and Grinding, Shot blasting, Grit blasting, Pickling, Plating,
Proof and Finished Machining. Welding is carried out by
ASME IX qualified welders.

Safety Measurements / Precautions:

Creating safe working environments:
 Providing guards (covers) to all equipment having exposed rotary or reciprocating parts.
 Proper and adequate earth of electrical equipment like motors etc.
 Protecting electrical switchboards starts from atmospheric moisture and rain.
 Properly designing routs for transferring molten metal to pour casting.
 Adequate passages for the movement of casting and mould boxes etc.
 Providing helmets, gaggles, gloves and PPE(Personnel Protection Equipment) for people
involved in preparing carrying and transferring molten metal.
CONCLUSION:
 The required products are obtained by undergoing the various processes pattern
making, moulding, melting, knock out, fettling, heat treatment.
 The TUB WHEELS obtained by this process are better.
 High accuracy than other process such as hand moulding process.
 Here by the desired properties of tub wheels are obtained.
 These properties are checked by Inspection and Testing.
REFERENCE:

1. Production Technology by P.N.RAO

2. Principle of metal casting by RICHARD W.HEINE
3. Metallurgy and Material Science by PAKIRAPPA
4. Workshop Technology by S.K.HAJRA CHOUDHURY