OBJECTI

VES:

Cr
it
ical
Poi
nts(
Nonl
i
nearFunct
ions)

 Fi
ndt
hecr
it
ical
poi
ntsofnonl
i
nearf
unct
ions

 Appl
yder
ivat
ivesi
nlocat
ingcr
it
ical
val
ue,maxi
mum andmi
nimum poi
nt

DI
SCUSSI
ONS:

Cri
ti
calpoint
 i
sawi determ usedi
nalotofbranchesof
 mat
hemat
ics,buti
sal
ways
connectedtothe 
derivat
iveofafunct
ionormapping.

Whendeal i
ngwi t
h f
unctionsofar eal
variable,a cri
ti
calpoint i
sapoi nti
nthedomai noft
he
funct
ionwher et
hefunctioni seit
hernot dif
ferenti
able ortheder ivati
veisequalto
zero.
 Whendeal i
ngwi t
h compl exvari
ables ,a cr
iti
calpoint 
is,si
mi lar
ly,apointi
nthe
funct
ion'
sdomai nwherei tiseit
hernot holomor phic 
ortheder ivativeisequalto
zero.
 Li
kewise,f
ora functionofseveral r
eal vari
ables,a cri
ti
cal point 
isavalueini
tsdomain
wherethe gradi
ent 
isundef i
nedori sequal tozero.

Theval
ueoft
hef
unct
ionatacr
it
ical
poi
nti
sa 
cri
ti
cal
val
ue.

Thissortofdefini
ti
onext endsto 
dif
fer
enti
ablemaps between  Rm 
and  Rn,a 
cri
ti
cal
point 
being,inthi
scase,apoi ntwherethe r
ank 
ofthe Jacobianmat ri
x i
snotmaximal.I
t
extendsfurthertodif
ferenti
abl
emapsbet ween di
ff
erentiabl
emani folds,asthepoi
ntswher
e
therankoft heJacobianmat ri
xdecreases.I
nthi
scase,cr i
ti
calpointsarealso
call
ed bif
urcati
onpoints.

I
nparti
cular,i
fC 
  isa planecurve,def i
nedbyan  i
mpl icitequati f
on (x,
y)=0,thecrit
ical
poi
ntsofthepr ojecti
onont othe x-axis,parallelt
ot he  y-axi
sarethepoint
swher ethe
∂y
t
angentto C arepar allelt
othe y-axis,thatist hepoi ntswher e  (x,y)=0.I
not herwords,
∂x
t
hecrit
icalpoi
nt saret hosewher ethe  i
mplicitfunctiont heorem doesnotapply.

Thenot ionofa  cri

ti
calpoi
nt 
all
owsthemat hemat i
caldescripti
onof
an astronomi cal
 phenomenont hatwasunexplai nedbef orethet i
meof  
Coper
nicus.
A stati
onarypoi nt 
intheor
bitofaplaneti
sapoi ntofthet r
ajectoryofthepl
aneton
the cel
est i
alsphere,wherethemot i
onofthepl anetseemst ost opbeforer
est
arti
nginthe
otherdi r
ecti
on.Thi soccur
sbecauseofacr it
ical pointoftheproj ect
ionoft
heorbiti
nto
t
he 
ecl
i
pti
cci
rcl
e.

Cr
it
ical
poi
ntofasi
ngl
evar
iabl
efunct
ion

A crit
ical
poi
nt 
ofafuncti
onofasingle r
ealvariabl
e, f
(x),i
saval x0 
ue  i
n
the domain 
off
  
whereiti
snot di
ff
erenti
able orit
s deri
vati
ve 
is0(f 
′
(x0)=0)
. 
A cr
it
ical
value ist
hei
mageunder f
  ofacr
it
icalpoint
.

Theseconceptsmaybevisual
i
zedthr
oughthe gr
aph 
off
 :atacr
it
ical
poi
nt,t
hegr
aphhasa
hori
zont
al 
tangent
 i
fyoucanassi
gnoneatall
.

Not
icehow,f
ora 
dif
fer
ent
iabl
efunct
ion,
 cr
it
ical
poi
nt 
ist
hesameas 
stat
ionar
ypoi
nt.

Althoughi tiseasi lyvi suali

zedont hegr aph( whi chi sacur ve),thenotionofcr iti
cal poi
ntofa
funct ionmustnotbeconf usedwi t
ht henot i
onofcr i
ticalpoint,insomedi rect i
on,ofa  curve.
I
f g( x,y)isadi fferent iable 
funct i
on oftwovar i
abl es,t hen g(x,y)=0i sthe implicitequati
on of
acur ve.A  crit
ical poi nt
 ofsuchacur ve,forthepr ojectionpar all
eltothe y-axis(t hemap
∂y
(x,y)→ x)
  ,isapoi ntoft hecur vewher e  ( x,y)=0.Thi smeanst hatthet angentoft he
∂x
cur vei spar all
el tot he y-axis,andt hat,atthispoi nt, g doesnotdef i
neani mplicitfuncti
on
from  x  t
o y  .I
f( x0, y0)issuchacr it
icalpoint,then  x0 isthecor responding crit
ical val
ue.
Suchacr i
ti
cal poi ntisalsocal l
eda  bi
furcati
onpoi nt,as,gener all
y,when  x vari
es,t her
ear e
twobr anchesoft hecur veonasi deof x0 
  andzer oont heot herside.

I
tfoll
owsfrom t
hesedefi
nit
ionsthata diff
erenti
abl
ef unction f
(x)hasacri
ti
calpointx0 
  with
cri
ti
calval y0,i
ue  fandonlyif(x0,
 y0)i
sacr i
ti
calpointofitsgraphf ort
heproj
ect i
onparall
elt
o
t x-
he  axi
s,wi
ththesamecr i
tical
value y0.
 I
f f
 i
snotdi ff
erenti
ableatx0 
duetot hetangent
becomingparall
elt
othey-axis,t
henx0  i
sagainacr i
ticalpointoffbutnow( x0,y0)i
sa
cri
ti
calpoi
ntofit
sgraphforthepr oj
ecti
onpar al
lel
to y-axis.

Forexample,t
hecri
ti
cal
point
softhe uni
tcir
cle 
ofequati
on x2 
+ y2 
-1=0are(0,1)and(0,
-1)f
ortheproj
ect
ionpar
all
elt
othe x-
axis,and(1,0)and(-1
,0)f ort
hedi
rect
ionparal
l
elt
o
2
t
he y-axi
s.I
foneconsiderstheupperhalfcir
cleast
hegraphofthefunct
ion 
 f
(x)
= 1-x,
t
hen x =0isacri
ti
calpointwit
hcri
ti
calvalue1duetothederi
vat
ivebeingequalt
o0,andx=
-
1andx=1ar ecri
ti
calpointswit
hcri
ti
calvalue0duet ot
hederi
vati
vebeingundefi
ned.

Exampl
es
 2
 Thef
unct
i f
on (x)= 
x +2x 
+3i
sdi
ff
erent
iabl
eever
ywher
e,wi
tht
heder
ivat
i f
ve  
′x)=
(
2x +2.Thi sf unct
ionhasauni quecrit
icalpoi
nt−1,becauseitistheunique
number x0 
  f
orwhi ch2x0 +2=0.Thi spoi nti
sa gl
obalminimum  of f
.The
correspondi ngcrit
icalval
ueis f(
−1)=2.Thegr aphoffisaconcaveup  parabola,the
cri
ti
cal pointistheabscissaofthevertex,wherethetangentli
nei shori
zontal,andt he
cri
ti
cal val
uei st
heor di
nateofthevertexandmayber epresentedbythei ntersect
ion
ofthistangentl i
neandt he y-axi
s.

2/
3
 Thef
unct
i f
on (x)= 
x  
isdef
inedf
oral
l
 x 
anddi
ff
erent
iabl
efor
 x 
≠0,wi
tht
he
der
ivat
ive f
 ′
(x)=2x−1/3/
3.Since f
 i
snotdif
fer
enti
ableatx=0and f
'(x)
≠0 ot
herwise,i
t
i
stheuniquecr i
ti
calpoint.Thegraphofthefunct
ion f
 hasa 
cusp atthi
spointwit
h
ver
ti
caltangent.Thecor respondi
ngcri
ti
calval
ueis f
(0)=0.

 The 
absol
uteval
uef
unct
ion 
f(x)=|
x|i
sdi
ff
erent
iabl
eever
ywher
eexceptatcr
it
ical
poi
ntx=0,wher
eithasagl
obal
mini
mum poi
nt,wi
thcr
it
ical
val
ue0.

 Thef
unct
i f
on (x)=1/
x hasnocr
it
ical
poi
nts
.Thepoi
ntx=0i
snotacr
it
ical
poi
nt
becausei
tisnoti
ncl
udedi
nthef
unct
ion'
sdomai
n.

Def
ini
ti
onofaCr
it
ical
Poi
nt

Letf
  
bedefi
nedat b.I
  ff
 (b) 
=0ori f
 '
f'i
snotdif
fer
ent
iableatb,t
  hen b 
isacrit
ical
numberof f
.Ift
hiscri
ti
cal numberhasacorrespondi
ng y val
ueonthefunct
ion f,
thenacr
it
icalpoi
ntexistsat(b,y)
.

Whatexact l
ydoest hi
smean?Wel l
,
 f 
justrepr esent
ssomef unction,
and b representsthepoi ntorthenumberwe' relooki
ngf or.Thesecondpar tofthe
defi
nit
iont el
lsusthatwecansett heder i
vativeofourf uncti
onequal t
ozeroand
sol
vef or x t
ogetthecr it
icalnumber !Thethi rdpartsaysthatcri
ticalnumbersmay
al
soshowupatval uesi nwhi chtheder i
vativedoesnotexi st.We' ll
lookatan
exampl eoft hisabitl
ater.Lastl
y,ifthecrit
ical numbercanbepl uggedbacki nt
ot he
ori
ginalfunction,t
he x and y val
ueswegetwi l
lbeourcr i
ti
calpoints.

Fi
ndi
ngCr
it
ical
Poi
nts

Nowwe'
regoi
ngt
olookatagr
aph,poi
ntoutsomecr
it
ical
poi
nts
,andt
ryt
ofi
ndwhy
 wesett
heder
ivat
iveequal
tozer
o.

Thereddot
sonthegr
aphrepresentt
hecri
ti
calpoi
ntsofthatpar
ti
cul
arf
unct
ion,f
(x)
.It
's
her
ewhereyoushoul
dst
artaski
ngyoursel
fafewquestions:

I
sther
esomethi
ngsi
mil
araboutt
hel
ocat
ionsofbot
hcr
it
ical
poi
nts?Youshoul
dlookf
or
vi
sual
simi
l
ari
ti
es.

Howdoest
hiscompar
etot
hedef
ini
ti
onf
rom above?

I
fyouunderst
andt
heanswer
stot
heset
woquest
ions
,thenyoucanunder
standhowwef
ind
cr
it
ical
poi
nts.

Not
icehowbot
hcr
it
ical
poi
ntst
endt
oappearonahumporcur
veoft
hegr
aph.Mor
e
speci
fi
cal
ly,t
heyarel
ocatedatt
heverytoporbot
tom ofthesehumps.Mathemat
icall
y
speaki
ng,thesl
opechangesfr
om posi
ti
vetonegati
ve(orvicever
sa)att
hesepoi
nts.It
's
whytheyaresocri
ti
cal
!

Tounderstandhownumberonerel
atestot
hedefect
ionofacri
ti
calpoint
,wehavet o
rememberwhatexactl
yaderi
vat
ivetel
l
sus.Thederi
vati
veofafunct
ion,f(
x),gi
vesusanew
funct
ionf(
x)thatr
epr
esent
s

thesl
opesofthetangentl
inesateveryspeci
fi
cpoi
ntinf
(x)
.Sowhydowesett
hose
deri
vati
vesequalt
o0t ofi
ndcrit
ical
points
?Takealookatt
hefol
l
owi
nggr
aphthatshows
dif
fer
enttangentl
i
nestof(x)
:
Thegr eentangentli
nesrunthroughourcr i
ti
calpoi
nts.What 'st
hediff
erencebet weenthose
andt heblueones?Foronet hing,theyhavet hesamesl ope,whereasthebluetangentli
nes
allhavediff
erentsl
opes.Foranot herthi
ng,thatsl
opei salwaysonever yspecif
icnumber .
Whor emember sthesl
opeofahor izontal
li
ne?That'sright!Thesl
opeofever ytangentl
ine
thatpassesthroughacrit
icalpointisalways0!

Wesaythat
 x=cx=c 
isacr
it
ical
poi
ntoft
hef
unct
ion 
f(x)
f(x)
 i
f 
f(c)
f(c)
 exi
stsandi
fei
therof
t
hef
oll
owingaretrue.

f
′(
c)=0ORf
′(
c)doesn'
texi
st

Notet
hatwer equiret
hat 
f(c)
f(c)
 exi
stsinor
derfor 
x=cx=c toactuall
ybeacr it
icalpoint.Thi
s
i
sanimpor t
ant,andoft
enover l
ooked,point
.Whatthisisreal
lysayingisthatal
l cri
ti
calpoint
s
mustbeinthedomai nofthefuncti
on.Ifapointi
snotinthedomai noft hefunctionthenitis
notacr
it
icalpoint
.

Noteaswel l
that,att
hispoi nt,weonlywor kwithrealnumbersandsoanycompl exnumber s
thatmightariseinfi
ndingcr iti
calpoi
nts(andtheywi l
lari
seonoccasi
on)wil
lbeignored.
Therear eporti
onsofcal culusthatworksal i
tt
ledif
ferent
lywhenworkingwi
thcompl ex
number sandsoi nafi
r stcalculuscl
asssuchast hi
swei gnorecomplexnumbersandonly
wor kwithrealnumber s.Calculuswithcompl exnumber sisbeyondt
hescopeofthiscourse
andi susuall
ytaughtinhi gherlevelmathemat i
cscourses.

Exampl
e Det
ermi
neal
lt
hecr
it
ical
poi
ntsf
ort
hef
unct
ion.

f
(x)
=6x5+33x4−30x3+1
00

Sol
uti
on 

Wefirstneedt hederi
vati
veofthefunct
ioni
nor
dert
ofindt
hecr
it
icalpoi
ntsandsol
et’
sget
t
hatandnot icethatwe’l
lfact
ori
tasmuchaspossi
blet
omakeourlif
eeasierwhenwegoto
f
indthecrit
icalpoint
s.

f
′(
x)=30x4+1
32x3−90x2

=6x2(
5x2+22x−1
5)

=6x2(
5x−3)
(x+5)

Now,ourder
ivati
veisapol
ynomial
andsowil
lexi
steverywher
e.Ther
efor
e,t
heonlycr
it
ical
poi
ntswi
ll
bet hoseval
uesof
 xx 
whichmaket
hederivat
ivezer
o.So,wemustsol
ve.
6x2(
5x−3)
(x+5)
=0

Becausethi
sisthef
act
oredf
orm oft
heder
ivat
ivei
t’
spr
ett
yeasyt
oident
if
ythet
hreecr
it
ical
poi
nts.Theyare,

x=−5,
x=0,
x=3/
5

Pol
ynomial
sareusuall
yfai
rl
ysi
mpl
ef unct
ionst
ofindcri
ti
calpoi
ntsf
orpr ovi
dedt
hedegr
ee
doesn’
tgetsol
argethatwehavet
roublef
indi
ngtherootsoftheder
ivat
ive.

Mostoft
hemore“i
nter
est
ing”functi
onsforfi
ndi
ngcr
iti
cal
point
saren’
tpol
ynomial
showever
.
Sol
et’
stakeal
ookatsomef unct
ionsthatr
equir
eali
tt
lemoreeff
ortonourpar
t.

Aderivat
ivetestusesthederi
vati
vesofafunct
iont
olocatethecr
it
ical
point
sofafunct
ion
anddeterminewhet hereachpointi
salocalmaxi
mum,al ocalmi
nimum,orasaddlepoint
.
Deri
vati
vetestscanalsogiveinf
ormati
onabouttheconcavi
tyofafuncti
on.

Fi
rstder
ivat
ivet
est

Thef ir
stder i
vati
vetestexami nesaf unct i
on'smonot onicproperti
es(wher ethefuncti
oni s
i
ncr easingordecr easing)focusi
ngonapar t
icul
arpointinit
sdomai n.Ift
hef uncti
on
"switches"from increasingtodecr easingatt hepoint,t
hent hefuncti
onwi l
lachievea
highestvalueatt hatpoi nt
.Simil
arl
y,ifthef uncti
on"swi t
ches"from decreasingtoincreasi
ng
atthepoi nt,thenitwil
lachieveal eastvalueatt hatpoint.I
fthefuncti
onf ai
lsto"swit
ch",and
remai nsincreasi
ngorr emainsdecr easing,thennohi ghestorleastval
uei sachieved.

Onecanexami neafunct
ion'
smonot oni
cit
ywithoutcal
culus.However,calculusi
susuall
y
hel
pfulbecausether
earesuf
fici
entcondi
ti
onsthatguaranteethemonot onicit
yproper
ti
es
above,andthesecondi
ti
onsapplytothevastmajori
tyoffuncti
onsonewoul dencount
er.

Pr
eci
sest
atementofmonot
oni
cit
ypr
oper
ti
es

St
atedpr
eci
sely,supposefisaconti
nuousr
eal
-val
uedf
unct
ionofar
eal
var
iabl
e,def
ined
onsomeint
ervalcontai
ningt
hepointx.

I
fthereexist
saposit
ivenumberr>0suchthatfisweaklyincreasi
ngon( x−r,x]andweakly
decreasi
ngon[ x,x+r),t
henfhasalocalmaximum atx.Thisstatemental
sowor kst
heother
wayar ound,i
fxisalocalmaxi
mum point
,thenfisweaklyincreasingon(x-r,x]andweakly
decreasi
ngon[ x,x+r).
I
fthereexi
stsaposit
ivenumberr
>0suchthatfi
sst
ri
ctl
yincreasingon(x−r,x]andst
ri
ctl
y
i
ncreasi
ngon[ x,x+r),t
henfi
sstr
ict
lyi
ncr
easi
ngon(x−r ,x+r )anddoesnothavealocal
maximum ormi ni
mum atx.

Thi
sstatementi
sadir
ectconsequenceofhowlocalextremaaredef i
ned.Thati
s,i
fx0isa
l
ocalmaximum poi
ntthenther
eexist
sr>0suchthatf
(x)≤f (
x0)forxin(x-r,x+r)which
meansfhast oi
ncr
easefrom x-rtoxandhastodecr easefrom xtox+rbecausefis
cont
inuous.

Not ethatint hefir

sttwocases ,fi
snotr equi
redtobestri
ctl
yincreasingorst
rict
lydecreasi
ng
tothel eftorrightofx,whileinthelasttwocases,fisr
equir
edt obest r
ict
lyi
ncreasi
ngor
str
ictl
ydecr easi
ng.Ther easonisthatinthedefi
nit
ionofl
ocalmaxi mum andmi nimum,t he
i
nequal ityisnotrequiredtobest r
ict:e.
g.everyval
ueofaconst antfuncti
onisconsidered
bothal ocalmaximum andal ocalmi ni
mum.

Pr
eci
sest
atementoff
ir
stder
ivat
ivet
est

Thefi
rstderi
vat
ivet
estdependsont he"
incr
easi
ng-decreasi
ngtest"
,whi
chi si
tsel
fult
imat
ely
aconsequenceofthemeanval uetheor
em.Iti
sadirectconsequenceofthewaythe
der
ivati
veisdef
inedanditsconnect
iont
odecreaseandi ncr
easeofafuncti
onlocal
ly,
combinedwiththeprevi
oussecti
on.

Supposefi sareal-val
uedfuncti
onofar ealvariabl
edef
inedonsomeint
erval
cont
aini
ngt
he
cr
iti
calpointa.Furt
hersupposethatfiscontinuousataanddif
fer
ent
iabl
eonsomeopen
i
ntervalcontai
ninga,exceptpossi
blyataitself
.

I
fther
eexist
saposit
ivenumberr
>0sucht hatf
oreveryxin(
a−r,a)wehavef
′(
x)≥0,and
f
oreveryxin(a,a+r)wehavef′
(x)≤0,t
henfhasal ocal
maximum ata.

I
fther
eexi
stsaposit
ivenumberr
>0suchthatf
orever
yxin(a−r,a)∪(a,a+r)wehavef
′(
x)
>0,thenfi
sstr
ict
lyi
ncreasi
ngataandhasnei
theral
ocalmaxi
mum noralocal
mini
mum
t
here.

I
fnoneoft
heabovecondit
ionshol
d,t
henthet estfai
l
s.(Suchacondit
ioni
snotvacuous;
t
herear
efunct
ionst
hatsat
isf
ynoneofthefi
rstthreecondit
ionssuchasf(
x)=x2⋅
sin(
1/x)
.

Agai
n,corr
espondingt
othecommentsi
nthesecti
ononmonotoni
cit
ypropert
ies,not
et hat
i
nthefi
rstt
wocases,thei
nequal
i
tyi
snotrequi
redt
obestr
ict
,whil
einthenexttwo,st
rict
i
nequal
it
yisrequi
red.

Appl
i
cat
ions

Thef
ir
stder
ivat
ivet
esti
shel
pful
insol
vi
ngopt
imi
zat
ionpr
obl
emsi
nphysi
cs,economi
cs,and
engineeri
ng.I
nconjuncti
onwi t
htheextremeval uet
heorem,i
tcanbeusedt ofi
ndthe
absolut
emax i
mum andmi ni
mum ofar eal
- val
uedfunct
iondefinedonacl osed,bounded
i
nterval
.Inconjunct
ionwit
hotherinf
ormationsuchasconcavity,inf
lect
ionpoint
s,and
asymptotes,i
tcanbeusedt osketchthegraphofaf uncti
on.

St
abi
l
it
yandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofi
sol
atedcr
it
ical
poi
nts

Oncewehaveani solatedcr i
ti
cal point,thesyst em isalmostl inearatt hatcrit
icalpoint,and
wecomput edt heassoci atedlinear i
zedsyst em,wecancl assifywhathappenst othe
solut
ions.Wemor eorl essuset hecl assifi
cat i
onf orli
neart wo- variabl
esyst emsf rom §3. 5,
withonemi norcaveat .Letusl i
stt hebehavi orsdependi ngont heei genval
uesoft he
Jacobianmat ri
xatt hecr i
ti
calpoi nti
nTabl e1ont henextpage.Thi stablei
sver ysimil
arto
Table3.1onpage1 13,wi ththeexcept ionofmi ssing“ center”poi nts.Wewi l
ldiscusscent er
s
l
ater,ast heyar emor ecompl i
cat ed.I
nt henewt hir
dcol umn,wehavemar kedpoi ntsas
asympt oticall
yst ableorunst able.Formal ly,ast abl ecrit
icalpoi nt(x0,y0)isonewher egiven
anysmal l distance t o( x0,y0),andanyi nitialcondi ti
onwi thinaper hapssmal lerradius
around( x0,y0) ,thet rajectoryoft hesyst em wi l
l nevergof urtherawayf rom (x0,y0)t han.
Anunst abl ecr i
ti
cal pointisonet hatisnotst able.Informally,a

Eigenval uesoft heJacobi anmat ri

xBehavi orStabil
i
tyreal andbot hposi ti
vesour ce/
uns tablenodeunst abler eal andbot hnegat i
vesink/stablenodeasympt ot i
callystabl
er eal
andoppos it
esi gnssaddl eunst ablecompl exwithposit
iver eal partspir
al sour ceunstable
compl exwi thnegat iver eal par tspiralsi
nkasympt oti
call
yst abl eTable8. 1:Behavi orofan
al
mostl i
nearsyst em nearani solatedcr i
ti
calpoint
.pointisst ableifwest ar tclosetoacr i
ti
cal
pointandf ollowat rajectorywewi l
leit
hergot owards,oratl eastnotgetawayf rom,t his
cri
tical point.Ast abl ecr i
tical poi nt(x0,y0)iscall
edasympt otical
lystablei fgivenanyi niti
al
condi ti
onsuf fi
cient l
ycl oset o( x0,y0)andanysol ut
ionx( t),y(t)givent hatcondi ti
on,t hen
x(t)
,y( t)=( x0,y0) .Thati s,thecr i
ti
calpointisasymptoticall
yst abl
ei fanyt rajectoryfora
suffici
ent l
ycl osei nitialcondi ti
ongoest owardsthecr i
ti
cal point(x0,y0) .
Exampl
ePr
obl
ems:Li
nearandNonl
i
nearFunct
ions

Exampl
e1:
 Sol
vet
hesyst
em ofnonl
i
nearequat
ionsbel
ow.

Thi
ssystem hastwoequati
onsofeachki
nd:ali
nearandanonlinear.St
artwi
ththefi
rst
equat
ionsinceiti
sli
near
.Youcansolvef
or 
x or
 y.Fort
hisone,let
’ssol
vefor
 y 
inter
msof 
x.

Subst
it
utet hevalueof y 
intot
hesecondequation,andt
hensolvefor
 x.I
nthi
sprobl
em,
moveever ythi
ngt oonesideoftheequati
onwhi l
ekeepi
ngtheoppositesi
deequalt
ozero.
Aft
erdoingso,f actoroutthesi
mpletr
inomial
,andthenseteachfact
orequalt
ozeroto
sol
vefor x.

Aft
ersol
vingt
heequat i
on,wear r
ivedattwovaluesof x.Substi
tut
ethesenumeri
calval
ues
toanyofthet
wooriginalequati
ons.However,pickthe“simpler
”equati
ontosi
mplif
ythe
cal
cul
ati
on.Obvi
ously,theli
nearequati
on x 
+ y 
=1  
isthebestchoice!

I
f 
x =−3,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(–3,4)

I
f 
x =2,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(2,
 –1
)

Theref
ore,t
hesoluti
ontothegivensyst
em ofnonl
i
nearequat
ionsconsi
stoft
wopoi
nts
whichare(–3,4)and(2,–1).

Graphical
l
y,wecant hi
nkoft
hesol
uti
ontothesystem ast
hepoi
ntsofi
nter
sect
ionsbet
ween
t
helinearfunct
ion(
x+y=1 )andquadrat
icf
uncti
on(y=x2−5) .

Exampl
e2:
 Sol
vet
hesyst
em ofequat
ionsbel
ow.

Thefi
rstequati
oni
saci
rcl
ewi
thar
adi
usof3si
ncet
hegener
alf
ormul
aofaci
rcl
e
i
s x2 
+ y2 
= r2.

WhatIwill
 doi
stosubst
it
utet
heval
ueof“y”ofthebot
tom equat
iont
othe“
y”oft
het
op
equat
ion.Thenweshoul
dbeabletosol
vefor 
x.

Uset
heseval
uesof
 x 
tof
ind 
y.Iwoul
dpi
ckt
hebot
tom equat
ion 
y = 
x +3 
tosol
vef
or 
y.

I
f 
x =0,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(0,3)

I
f 
x =−3,sol
vef
or 
yAnswer
: 
(–3,0)
Thefi
nalanswer
sar
ethepoi
nts 
(0,3) 
and 
(–3,0)
. 
Thesear
ethepoi
ntsofi
nter
sect
ionsof
thegi
venli
neandci
rcl
ecent
eredattheori
gin.

Exampl
e3:
 Sol
vet
hesyst
em ofequat
ionsbel
ow.

Thi
sprobl
em i
sverysimil
artopr
oblem #2.Wehaveal
i
ne(
topequat
ion)t
hati
nter
sect
sa
ci
rcl
e(bot
tom equat
ion)att
wopoints
.

Sol
vet
het
opequat
ionf
or 
y.

Plug 
inthevalueof
 yi
ntot
hebott
om equat
ion.Youwil
lberequi
redtosquar
eabinomial
,
combineli
ketermsandfact
or 
outat
rinomi
altogett
hevaluesof x.Her
eist
hesol
uti
on:

Ther
efor
e,t
heval
uesof
 x 
are

:Backsubst
it
utet
hese 
x-val
uesi
ntot
het
op 
equat
ion 
 x 
+y 
=–1
 togett
hecor
respondi
ng 
y-
val
ues.

Answer
: 
(–3,2)

Answer
: 
(2,
 –3)

Exampl
e4:
 Sol
vet
hesyst
em ofnonl
i
nearequat
ions

Substi
tut
ethevalueof“y 
=”oft
hetopequati
ontothebott
om equat
ion.Appl
ythe
dist
ri
buti
vepropert
ythenmoveeveryt
hingt
otheleft
.Fact
oroutt
het r
inomi
alt
henseteach
fact
orequalt
ozer otosol
vefor
 x.

Sot
henwehave…

Si
ncewenowhavet
heval
uesof
 x,pi
ckanyoft
heor
igi
nal
equat
ionst
osol
vef
or 
y.

Answer
: 
(–1
,2)

Answer
: 
(–2,1
)

Thegraphshowst
hei
nter
sect
ionofanobl
i
quehyper
bol
aandt
hel
i
neatpoi
nts 
(–1
,
2) 
and (
–2,1)
.
Exampl
e5:
 Sol
vet
hesyst
em ofnonl
i
nearequat
ions

Observethatthefi
rstequat
ionisofacir
clecent
eredat(-
2,2)wit
haradiusof1.Thesecond
equati
onisapar abolai
ns t
andard 
for
m withver
texat(
-2,3).Weexpectthatt
hesolut
iont
o
thi
ssystem ofnonli
nearequati
onsist
hepointsofi
nter
secti
onsoft
hegivencir
cleand
parabol
a.

Wewil
lsol
vet
hist
woways.Fi
rstbysubst
it
uti
onmet
hodt
henf
oll
owedbyel
i
minat
ion
met
hod.

I
.Usi
ngt
heSubst
it
uti
onMet
hod:

I
twouldbet empt
ingtoj
ustsubsti
tut
etheval
ueofyoft hebott
om equat
iont
othetop
equat
ion.Youmaytryit
.Butyoushould i
mmediatel
yreal
izet
hati
tmakestheprobl
em mor
e
compli
catedtoworkon.There’
sabet t
erwaythough.

I
sol
atet
het
erm 
(x 
+2)
2 oft
hesecondequat
ion,andpl
ugi
ntot
hef
ir
stequat
ion.

Next
,subst
it
utet
hisi
ntot
hesecondequat
ionwhi
chgi
vesusanequat
ionwi
thsi
ngl
evar
iabl
e
j
usti
n y.

Set
ti
ngeachf
act
orequal
tozer
o,andsol
vi
ngf
or 
y weget
…

Now,wewanttofindt
hecor
respondi
ngval
uesof
 x 
when 
y =2and 
y =3.Iwi
l
luset
he
equat
ionofaci
rcl
etodoj
ustt
hat.

I
f 
y =2,sol
vef
or 
x

Answer
: 
(–1
,2)
 and 
(–3,2)

I
f 
y =3,sol
vef
or 
x

Answer
: 
(–2,3)

I
tlooksl
iket
hepar
abol
aandci
rcl
eint
ersectatt
hreepoi
ntswhi
char
e (
–1,2)
, 
(–3,
2)
 and (
–2,3).

Exampl
e6:
 Sol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngsyst
em

Si
ncethe y2 t
ermshavethesamecoeffi
cientsbutopposit
einsigns,wecanaddthetwo
equat
ionstogethert
oel
iminat
ethevari
abley.Thisshouldl
eaveuswi t
hasimplequadr
ati
c
equat
ionthatcanbesol
vedeasil
yusingthe squarerootmethod.

Next
,di
vi
debothsi
desoftheequat
ionbyt
hecoeff
ici
entoft
he x2 
term,andfol
l
owedby
appl
yi
ngsquar
erootonbothsi
destogett
heval
uesofx.Don’tf
orgettoat
tacht
hepl
us
mi
nussymbol
wheneveryougett
hesquar
erootofsomet
hing.

Pickanyofthetwooriginal
equat
ions,andf
indt
heval
uesofywhen 
x =±3.Iwi
l
luset
he
fi
rstequat
ionbecauseitismuchsimpler
!

I
f 
x =3,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(3,1
) and 
(3,
 –1
)

I
f 
x =–3,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(–3,1
) and 
(–3,
 –1
)

Exampl
e7:
 Sol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngsyst
em

Wewill
alsosol
vet
hisusi
ngel
imi
nat
ionmethod.However
,mult
ipl
ybothoftheequat
ions
f
ir
stbysomenumbersothatt
hei
rconst
ant
sbecomet hesamebut opposi
tei
nsi
gns.

El
imi
nat
e y2 
bymulti
plyi
ngt
hef
ir
stequat
ionby2,andt
hesecondequat
ionby3andf
inal
l
y
addi
ngt
hem toget
her!

Now,sol
vef
or x 
by 
divi
dingboths
idesbythecoeff
ici
entoft
he 
x2 
ter
m,andt
hen
per
for
mingsquarer
ootoperati
ononbothsidesoft
heequati
on.

Backs ubst
it
utet
heval
uesof
 xi
ntoanyoft
heor
igi
nal
equat
ionst
osol
vef
or 
y.Let
’suset
he
fi
rstequati
on.

I
f 
x =3,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(3,2)
 and 
(3,
 –2)

I
f 
x =–3,sol
vef
or 
y

Answer
: 
(–3,2)
 and 
(–3,
 –2)

Thesolut
iont
othi
snonl
i
nearsyst
em ar
ethepoi
ntsofi
nter
sect
ionsoft
hegi
venel
l
ipseand
hyper
bola.

Exampl
e8-
Sol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngequat
ionandcheckyouranswer
.

4−2z3=34−5z64−2z3=34−5z6

Thef
ir
stst
epher
eist
omul
ti
plybot
hsi
desbyt
heLCD,whi
chhappenst
obe1
2for
t
hispr
obl
em.

1
2(4−2z3)
=12(
34−5z6)
12(4−2z3)
=1 2(
34)−1
2( 5z6)
4(4−2z)
=3(
3)−2(
5z)
12(
4−2z3)
=12(
34−5z6)
1
2(4−2z3)
=12(
34)−1
2(5z6)4(
4−2z)=3(3)
−2(5z)

Nowweneedtofi
ndt hesol
uti
onandsoal
lweneedtodoisgothr
ought
hesamepr
ocess
t
hatweusedi
nthefi
rsttwopract
icepr
obl
ems.Her
eist
hatwork.

4(
4−2z)
=3(
3)−2(
5z)
16−8z=9−1
0z2z=−7z=−724(
4−2z)
=3(
3)−2(
5z)
16−8z=9−1
0z2z=−7z=−72

Nowal lweneedt
odoischeckouranswerfr
om St
ep2andver
if
ythati
tisasol
uti
ontothe
equati
on.I
tisi
mport
antwhendoi
ngthisst
eptover
if
ybypl
uggi
ngthesol
uti
onfrom St
ep2
i
ntotheequati
ongi
venint
heprobl
em stat
ement
.

Her
eist
hever
if
icat
ionwor
k.

4−2(
−72)
3?=34−5(
−72)
64+73?=34−−35261
13?=34+351
211
3=1
13OK

Exampl
e9

4x−7(
2−x)
=3x+24x−7(
2−x)
=3x+2

Fi
rst
,weneedt
ocl
earoutt
hepar
ent
hesi
sont
hel
eftsi
deandt
hensi
mpl
i
fyt
hel
eftsi
de.

4x−7(
2−x)
=3x+24x−1
4+7x=3x+21
1x−1
4=3x+24x−7(
2−x)
=3x+24x−1
4+7x=3x+21
1x−1
4=3x+2

Nowwecansubtract3xx 
andadd14tobot
hsi
dest
ogetal
lt
he 
xx’
sononesi
deandt
he
t
ermswi
thoutan 
xx ontheot
hersi
de.

1
1x−1
4=3x
+28x=1
611
x−1
4=3x+28x=1
6

Final
l
y,all
weneedt odoi
sdi
vi
debot
hsi
desbyt
hecoef
fi
cientoft
he 
xx 
(i
.e.
 t
he8)t
ogett
he
solut
ionof 
x=2x=2.

Nowallweneedt odoischeckouranswerfrom St
ep3andver
if
yt hati
tisasolut
ionto
t
heequati
on.I
tisi
mpor t
antwhendoingthi
ssteptover
if
ybypl
uggingthesolut
ionf r
om St
ep
3int
otheequati
ongiveninthepr
oblem st
atement.

Her
eist
hever
if
icat
ionwor
k.

4(
2)−7(
2−2)
?=3(
2)+28=8OK4(
2)−7(
2−2)
=? 3(
2)+28=8OK
Exampl
e10-
Sol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngequat
ionandcheckyouranswer
.

2(
w+3)
−10=6(
32−3w)
2(w+3)
−10=6(
32−3w)

Fi
rst
,weneedt
ocl
earoutt
hepar
ent
hesi
soneachsi
deandt
hensi
mpl
i
fyeachsi
de.

2(w+3)−1
0=6(32−3w)2w+6−1
0=1
92−1
8w2w−4=1
92−1
8w2(
w+3)
−10=6(
32−3w)
2w+6−1
0=1
92−18w2w−4=192−18w

Nowwecanadd18ww 
and4tobot
hsi
dest
ogetal
lt
he 
ww’
sononesi
deandt
het
erms
wi
thoutan 
ww 
ont
heot
hersi
de.

2w−4=1
92−1
8w20w=1
962w−4=1
92−1
8w20w=1
96

Final
l
y,allweneedtodoisdivi
debothsi
desbyt
hecoef
fi
cientoft
he 
ww 
(i
.e.
 t
he20)t
oget
thesolut
ionof
 w=19620=495w=19620=495.

Don’
tgetexcit
edaboutsol
uti
onst
hatar
efr
act
ions
.Theyhappenmor
eof
tent
hanpeopl
e
t
endtoreal
ize.

2(
495+3)−1
0?=6(
32−3(
495)
)2(
645)
−10?=6(
135)
785=785OK2(
495+3)
−10=? 6(
32−3(
495)
)
2(
645)−1
0=?

6(
135)
785=785OK

OBJECTI
VES:

Appl
i
cat
ionofmaxi
maandmi
nimai
nbusi
ness

 Appl
yder
ivat
ivesi
nsol
vi
ngmaxi
mum pr
ofi
tandmi
nimum cost

 Appl
ymaxi
maandmi
nimai
nbusi
nessset
ti
ng

Thetermsmaxi maandmi nimar ef

ertoextremevaluesofa functi
on,thati
s,themaxi mum
andmi nimum valuesthatthefunct
ionattai
ns.Maximum meansupperboundorl argest
possibl
equant i
ty.Theabsolutemaximum ofaf uncti
onisthelar
gestnumbercont ai
nedin
therangeoft hefuncti
on.Thatis,i
ff(
a)isgreat
erthanorequal tof(x)
,forall
xi n
the 
domai n oft
hef unct
ion,thenf(
a)istheabsolut
emaxi mum.Forex ample,thef unct
ionf
(x)
2
=- 1
6x  +32x+6hasamaxi mum valueof22occur r
ingatx=1 .Everyvalueofxpr oducesa
valueofthefunctiont hatislessthanorequal to22,hence,22i sanabsol utemaximum.I n
termsofitsgraph,theabsol utemaximum ofaf uncti
onist hevalueoft hefuncti
onthat
correspondstothehi ghes t 
point onthegraph.Conver sely,minimum meansl owerboundor
l
eas tpossi
blequant i
ty.Theabsol utemi ni
mum ofaf uncti
oni sthesmal l
estnumberi nit
s
rangeandcor respondst othevalueoft hefunctionatthel owestpointofitsgraph.Iff
(a)i
s
l
esst hanorequal tof(x),forallxinthedomai noft hefunct i
on,thenf(a)i
sanabsol ute
2
minimum.Asanexampl e,f(x)=32x  -32x-6hasanabsol utemi ni
mum of- 22,because
everyvalueofxpr oducesaval uegreatert
hanorequal to- 22.

Insomecases,af uncti
onwi l
lhavenoabsol utemaxi mum ormi nimum.Fori nst
ancethe
funct
ionf (
x)=1 /
xhasnoabsol utemaxi mum val ue,nordoesf (x)=- 1
/xhaveanabsol ute
minimum.I nsti
llot
hercases,funct i
onsmayhaver el
ati
ve( orlocal)maximaandmi nima.
Relat
ivemeansr el
ati
vetolocal ornearbyval uesoft hef unct i
on.Thet ermsrelati
vemaxi ma
andrelati
vemi ni
mar efertothel ar
gest,orleast,valuet hataf unct i
ontakesonoversome
smallporti
onor  
int
erval 
ofit
sdomai n.Thus,iff(
b)i sgreat erthanorequal t
of (b±h)for
smallval
uesofh,t henf (
b)isalocal maximum;i ff(b)i
sl esst hanorequal t
of (
b±h) ,thenf(
b)
4 3 2
i
sar elat
iveminimum.Forexampl e,thefunctionf (
x)=x  -
1 2x  -58x  +180x+225hast wo
rel
ati
vemi nima(pointsAandC) ,oneofwhi chisal sotheabsol uteminimum ( poi
ntC)oft he
funct
ion.Ital
sohasar el
ati
vemaxi mum (pointB) ,butnoabsol utemaximum.

Findingt hemaxi maandmi ni ma,bot habsoluteandr elati

ve,ofvar i
ousf unct i
onsr epresents
animpor tantclassofpr oblemssol vablebyuseofdi f
ferential
 calculus.Thet heorybehind
fi
ndingmaxi mum andmi nimum val uesofaf unctionisbasedont hef actt hat
the derivati
ve ofaf unctionisequal totheslopeoft hetangent .Whent heval uesofa
functionincr easeast heval ueoft hei ndependent  vari
able increases ,thel inest hatare
tangentt othegr aphoft hef uncti
onhaveposi ti
vesl ope,andt hef unct i
oni ssai dtobe
i
ncr easing.Conver sely,whent heval uesoft hefunct i
ondecr easewi t
hi ncr easingvaluesof
theindependentvar i
able,thet angentl i
neshave  negat i
ve slope,andt hef unct i
onissaidt o
bedecr easing.Pr eciselyatt hepoi ntwher ethefunct ionchangesf r
om i ncr easingt o
decr easingorf r
om decr easingtoi ncreasing,thetangentl ineishor izont al (hasslope0) ,and
theder i
vat i
vei s zero.(Wi t
hr eferencet ofigure1,thef unctioni sdecr easi ngt othel ef
tof
pointA,aswel lasbet weenpoi ntsBandC,andi ncreasingbet weenpoi nt sAandBandt o
therightofpointC) .Inor dert
of i
ndmaxi mum andmi nimum poi nt
s,fir
stfindt hevaluesof
thei
ndependentvar i
ablef orwhicht heder i
vati
veofthef uncti
oni szero,thensubst itut
e
them intheor i
ginalfunctiontoobt ainthecor r
espondingmaxi mum ormi ni mum valuesof
thefunction.Second,i nspectthebehavi orofthederi
vativetot heleftandr ightofeachpoi nt
.
I
ftheder ivat
ive 
isnegat iveont helef tandpositi
veont heright,thepointisami ni
mum.I ft
he
deri
vativeispositi
veont heleftandnegat i
veont heri
ght,thepoi ntisamaxi mum.
Equivalentl
y,fi
ndt hesecondder ivativeateachvalueoft heindependentvar i
ablethat
corr
espondst oamaxi mum ormi nimum;i fthesecondder ivat
iveisposi t
ive,thepoi nti
sa
mini
mum,i fthesecondder i
vati
vei snegativethepointisamaxi mum.

Awi devariet
yofpr oblemscanbesol vedbyf i
ndingmaxi mum orminimum valuesof
functi
ons.Forexampl e,supposei ti
sdesi r
edtomaxi mizetheareaofa rectangl
e inscri
bed
i
nasemi ci
rcle.Thear eaoft her ectangl eisgi
venbyA=2xy.Thesemi cir
cleisgivenbyx2  +
2 2 2
y  =r,fory≥0,wher eri st
her adius .Tosi mpl
if
yt he mat hemati
cs,notethatAandA ar e
bothmaxi mum f orthesameval uesofxandy,whi choccur swhenthecor nerofthe
2 2 2
rectangl
eintersectsthesemi ci
rcle,thatis,wheny  =r  -x.Thus,wemustf i
ndamaxi mum
2 2 2 2 22 4
valueofthefunct i
onA   =4x( r -x)=4rx-4x

A2) 2
Ther equi
redcondi
ti
oni st
hatthederi
vativebeequaltozer o,t
hatis,d( /dx=8r x-1 6x3 
=
1
0.Thisoccur swhenx=0orwhenx=  ⁄ 2(r√+2).Cl
ea r
lythea r
eais ama xi
mu m whe nx
1 1
=  ⁄2(
r√+2) .Subst
it
utionoft
hisval
ueint otheequat
ionoft hesemi ci
rcl
egivesy=  ⁄2(
r√+2
),thatis,y=x.Thus,themaximum areaofar ect
angleinscri
bedinasemi cir
clei
sA=2xy=
2
r.

Therear enumerouspr acti

cal appli
cati
onsinwhi chitisdesir
edt ofi
ndt hemaxi mum or
minimum valueofapar t
icul
arquant i
ty.Suchappl i
cationsexisti
neconomi cs,business,
and engineeri
ng.Manycanbesol vedusi ngthemet hodsofdi ff
erenti
alcalculusdescribed
above.Forexampl e,inanymanuf acturi
ngbusines sitisusuall
ypossibl
et oexpr essprofi
tas
afuncti
onoft henumberofuni t
ssold.Findi
ngamaxi mum f orthi
sfunctionrepresentsa
st
raight
forwardwayofmaxi mizingprofi
ts.I
nothercases,t heshapeofacont ai
nermaybe
determinedbymi nimizi
ngt heamountofmat er
ialr
equi redtomanuf actureit
.Thedesi gnof
pi
pingsyst emsisoftenbasedonmi ni
mizing pr
essure  dropwhichinturnmi nimizesrequir
ed
pumpsi zesandr educescost .Theshapesof  steel
 beamsar ebasedonmaxi mi zi
ngstrength.

Findi
ngmaximaormi ni
maal sohasi mportantappli
cati
onsi
n l
inearal
gebra and game
theor
y.Forexample,l
i
nearpr ogrammingconsi st
sofmaximizi
ng( ormini
mizing)apar
ticul
ar
quanti
tywhi
lerequi
ri
ngthatcer t
ainconstr
aint
sbei mposedonot herquanti
ti
es.Thequanti
ty
tobemaximized(ormini
mized) ,aswellaseachoft heconst
raint
s,i
srepresentedbyan
equationor i
nequalit
y.Ther esult
ingsystem ofequat i
onsorinequali
ti
es,usuall
yli
near,oft
en
contai
nshundr edsort housandsofvar iables.Thei deaistofi
ndt hemaximum val ueofa
part
icularvari
abl
et hatrepresentsasolut i
ontot hewhol esystem.Apr act
icalexamplemi ght
bemi nimizi
ngthecostofpr oducingan  automobi l
e gi
vencer t
ainknownconst rai
ntsonthe
costofeachpar t,andt he 
time spentbyeachl abor er
,all
ofwhi chmaybei nterdependent.
Regardlessoftheappl i
cati
on,t hough,thekeyst epinanymaxi maormi nimapr oblem i
s
expressingtheproblem inmat hemat i
cal t
erms .

Manyi mpor tantappl i

edprobl emsi nvolvefi
ndingthebestwayt oaccompl ishsomet as k.
Oftenthisinvolvesf i
ndingthemaxi mum ormi ni
mum val ueofsomef uncti
on:theminimum
ti
met omakeacer t
ainjourney,t hemi ni
mum costf ordoi ngat ask,themaxi mum powert hat
canbegener atedbyadevi ce,andsoon.Manyoft hesepr oblemscanbesol vedbyf inding
theappr opriatefuncti
onandt henusi ngtechniquesofcal culust ofi
ndt hemaxi mum ort he
minimum val uer equir
ed.Gener all
ysuchapr obl
em wi llhavet hef ol
lowingmat hematical
form:Findt helargest(orsmal lest)val ueoff(x)whena≤x≤b.Somet imesaorbar einf i
nit
e,
butfrequent l
yt herealworldimpos essomeconst r
aintont heval uesthatxmayhave.Sucha
problem differsintwowaysf rom t hel ocalmaximum andmi nimum pr obl
emswe
encounteredwhengr aphingf unctions :Wear einterestedonl yinthefuncti
onbet weenaand
b,andwewantt oknowt hel argestorsmal l
estvaluet hatf (
x)t akeson,notmer el
yvalues
thatarethel argestorsmal l
esti nasmal lint
erval
.

Thatis,weseeknotal ocalmaxi mum orminimum butaglobalmaximum ormi nimum,

somet i
mesal socal
l
edanabsol utemaxi
mum ormi nimum.Anygl obalmaximum or
minimum mustofcour sebeal ocalmaximum ormi nimum.Ifwef i
ndallpossi
blelocal
extr
ema,t hentheglobalmaximum,i fi
texi
sts,mustbethelargestofthelocal
maxi maand
theglobalmi ni
mum,ifitexi
sts
,mus tbethesmallestoft
helocalminima.Weal readyknow
wherel ocalext
remacanoccur :onlyatt
hosepointsatwhichf′ (
x)iszeroorundefined.