EG3121/EG4121/EG7038

All Candidates

Midsummer Examinations 2017

DO NOT OPEN THE QUESTION PAPER UNTIL INSTRUCTED TO DO SO

BY THE CHIEF INVIGILATOR
Department Engineering
Module Code EG3121/EG4121/EG7038
Module Title Aerospace Materials
Exam Duration (in words) Two Hours

CHECK YOU HAVE THE CORRECT QUESTION PAPER

Number of Pages 10
Number of Questions 5
Answers are expected to three questions. Answers to only
three questions will be marked. Attempted solutions which
you do not wish to submit should be crossed out. If you do
Instructions to Candidates attempt more than three questions, and do not identify which
three you want to be marked, only the first three in the
answer book will be marked. For each question, the
distribution of marks out of 20 is indicated in brackets.

FOR THIS EXAM YOU ARE ALLOWED TO USE THE FOLLOWING:

Calculators Permitted calculators are the Casio FX83 and FX85 models

Books/Statutes provided Yes

by the University Engineering Data Book

Are students permitted to

No
bring their own
Books/Statues/Notes?

No
Additional Stationery

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1.) Question One [20 marks total]

(a) Figure Q1 overleaf shows the aluminium-lithium phase diagram. The upper
horizontal axis is labelled in weight % lithium. Pure annealed aluminium has a
hardness of 30 Hv. When 1.4% of lithium is in solid solution in the aluminium its
hardness rises to 70 Hv. If the alloy is solution heat-treated at 600˚C for one
hour, quenched, then aged at a different temperature and finally cold-worked, the
hardness can be increased to 180 Hv.

(i) Briefly explain the reasons for the above changes in hardness.
[5 marks]

(ii) Suggest and justify a temperature for the ageing treatment and state which
factors determine the treatment time.
[4 marks]

(iii) The Young’s modulus of aluminium is 72 GPa. The alloy considered above
has E = 78 GPa both before and after the ageing and cold-working.
Explain why the Young’s modulus of the Al-Li alloy is higher and why
neither the alloying nor the ageing appears to affect the value of Young’s
modulus of the Al-Li alloy.
[3 marks]

(b) What are the key advantages of alloys made from Al-Li and therefore which
components would Al-Li alloys be candidates for in aerospace applications?
[5 marks]

(c) Explain why aluminium alloys are sometimes clad in pure aluminium.
[3 marks]

Question continues overleaf…

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Figure Q1 – Al–Li binary system. Ref: N. Eswara Prasad, T.R. Ramachandran

Aluminium-lithium Alloys, 2014, 61–97 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-401698-
9.00003-3
Please note that you are not required to submit a copy of the figure with your answer.

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2.) Question Two [20 marks total]

(a) Titanium alloys are usually grouped into four classes: α alloys, near- α alloys, α/β
alloys and β alloys. Two alloy compositions are given below. For each
composition, state which class the alloy belongs to and explain the effect of each
of the major alloying elements.
(i) Ti-0.2Cu
[2 marks]
(ii) Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al
[2 marks]

(b) Two important heat treatments for Ti-6Al-4V are Beta Annealed (BA) and
Solution Treated and Aged (STA). A sketch of the important features of the
phase diagram and the relevant microstructures is given in Figure Q2.1 overleaf.
State the steps required for each treatment, with reference to the region of the
phase diagram where they occur. Explain the microstructural features and how
these contribute to the properties obtained.
[9 marks]

(c) Titanium is often selected for components operating at elevated temperatures in

gas turbine engines. One such component operates at a tensile stress of 300
MPa and a temperature of 455°C. Using the Larson-Miller chart in Figure Q2.2
overleaf, compare the time to rupture of the alpha/beta alloy IMI 550 with the
near-alpha alloy IMI 685 for this component. Comment on your answers.

[7 marks]

Question continues overleaf…

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Figure Q2.1 – Sketches of phase diagram and microstructures of (top right)

Beta Annealed (BA) and (bottom right) Solution Treated and Aged (STA) Ti-6Al-4V.

Larson-Milller parameter, P=T[20+log(t)]/1000

Figure Q2.2 – Creep life of various titanium alloys. Ref: Duncan RM, Hanson BH. 1980. The
selection and use of Titanium. Materials Engineering Design guides. p13

Please note that you are not required to submit a copy of the figure with your answer.

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3.) Question Three [20 marks total]

(a) Sketch and label the key features of the production process for single-crystal Ni-
superalloy high-pressure turbine blades. Use your sketch to explain the role of
the three key features of this configuration and process in achieving the required
microstructure.

[6 marks]

(b) Three important aeroelastic effects on aircraft structures are divergence, aileron
reversal and flutter. Explain each of these three effects briefly and describe how
materials selection can be used to mitigate their effects.

[8 marks]

(c) Define, and give an example of, a ‘smart’ or ‘multifunctional’ material, explaining
the physical principles on which it operates. Propose a specific aerospace
component or system that could benefit from this material, explaining the benefit
such a material could offer.

[6 marks]

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4.) Question Four [20 marks total]

A helicopter rotor blade is to be constructed from unidirectional carbon fibre-reinforced

polymer laminate skins and an Aluminium honeycomb core. For initial design it can be
considered a single sandwich beam in pure bending. A schematic diagram of the applied
limit loading, a simplified geometry for analysis, the skin lay-ups and sandwich panel design
formulae are shown in Figure Q4 overleaf. Material data are provided in Table Q4 below.

(a) Use the ‘ten percent rule’ to estimate the laminate modulus and strength values
, σ * xt and .
[3 marks]

(b) Using an Ultimate Factor of Safety of 1.5, calculate Reserve Factors for skin and
core failure, skin wrinkling and intracell buckling modes, and comment on the
sandwich panel design for this application.
[12 marks]

(c) Explain why sandwich panels are widely applied in aerospace structures. Give
two specific examples of aerospace components (other than helicopter rotor
blades) that use sandwich construction and the driving requirement that makes a
sandwich structure a good material for these components.

[5 marks]
Table Q4 – Material data

Property Units Value

UD CFRP Longitudinal elastic modulus, GPa 200

Lamina
Longitudinal tensile strength, MPa 2500

Longitudinal compressive strength MPa -1300

Cured ply thickness mm 0.125

Al 5052 Cell size mm 5

honeycomb
core Elastic modulus, Ec MPa 310

Shear modulus, Gc MPa 220

Shear strength MPa 0.96

Question continues overleaf…

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Figure Q4 – Schematic of a helicopter rotor showing key loading and dimensions,

and key design relations for a sandwich structure. The x-axis of the composite
laminate is taken along the blade length.

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5.) Question Five [20 marks total]

(a) A prototype composite panel for an aerospace application has been

manufactured using resin infusion of 3 plies of multiaxial Non-Crimp Fabric
(NCF) with an aerial weight of 808 g/m2. The fibre is carbon with a fibre density
of 1900 kg/m3. After infusion and cure, the panel thickness is measured as 2.3
mm.

(i) Estimate the fibre volume fraction stating any assumptions you make.
[3 marks]

(ii) Describe the techniques that could be used to confirm the estimated fibre
volume fraction and confirm the panel quality.

[4 marks]

(b) The Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 are the first large passenger aircraft with
fuselage structures mostly manufactured from CFRP. The manufacturing
approaches selected by the two manufacturers differ, although both use the pre-
preg and autoclave approach. Boeing 787 fuselage sections are manufactured in
complete barrel sections, whilst the A350 fuselage sections are initially cured in 4
curved panels which are then joined. These approaches are illustrated
schematically in Figure Q5 overleaf.

(i) Briefly describe the key materials requirements and loading experienced by
and aircraft fuselage, and in particular the different areas of the structure –
the crown area (top), keel area (bottom) and side walls.
[5 marks]

(ii) Critique the manufacturing approaches for the fuselage used in the 787 and
A350. In your answer you should explain why a pre-preg and autoclave
approach has been selected for both aircraft and discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of the ‘barrel’ and ‘panels’ approaches.
[8 marks]

Question continues overleaf…

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Figure Q5 – Schematic of CFRP fuselage manufacturing approaches used in the

Boeing 787 and Airbus A350.

END OF PAPER

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