CONTENT COURSE IN ENGLISH

 As subjective complement:
I. PARTS OF SPEECH DrCouchworthy is acting president

NOUNSare names of persons, places, things, animals, of the board.

concepts/ideas, qualities and activities. Ex: Alfred,  As direct object: The new addition to
governor, shoes, deer, education, cowardice, the faculty donated a new
running
microscope to the university.
1. Collective nouns –name groups of  As indirect object: Grandfather left
people or animals
Rosita and Raul all his money.
2. Gender of Nouns – nouns may be  As object of the preposition: The
classified into 4 genders, such as guests stayed in a five-star hotel.
common, masculine, feminine and
 As objective complement: The
neuter. The common gender is the
gender for both sexes; the masculine convention named Mr.
gender refers to the male while the Dogbreathvice chairman to
feminine gender refers to the female. appease
The neuter gender can neither be
him.
masculine or feminine.
 As appositive: Kathleen, an Olympic
3. Abstract nouns from which some swimmer, just received a scholarship
adjectives have been derived
from Harvard.
4. Noun or adjective?  As nominative of address: Shut up,
 A noun ceases to be classified as a Joe!
noun when it is followed by another PRONOUNS
noun 1. Personal pronouns – refer to persons or
Ex: I love eating rice cakes. (rice things (it)
here has already become an
adjective modifying the noun cake) NOMINATIVE POSSESSIV
Do you like Italian pizza? (Italian has OBJECTIVE E
become a proper adjective (subjec (compl (used as (show
because it is followed by another t) ement) objects) possession
noun) )
I I me my, mine
5. Noun or verb?
you you your, yours
 Some words may be similarly spelled
Singular

but they may function as either a he he him his

noun or a verb in a sentence, such
she she her hers
as object, conduct, digest, escort,
insult, produce, record. it it it its
Ex:I do not approve of his cónduct. we we us our, ours
John Williams will condúct the
Plur
al

symphony. they they them their, theirs

He subscribes to the Ex: (as subjects)
congressional Dígest. Dan and I bought the used car.
Sally and he went fishing.
Some food is difficult to digést. Eve and she worked at the lodge.
 Other nouns make a slight change in (as complement)
spelling or pronunciation when used
It was I who refused.
as verbs, such as advice, bath,
Could it have been she who won?
breath, cloth, grief, prophecy
It must have been they who gave the
Ex: Take his advice with a grain of
signal.
salt. (n)
Are you implying that it was he?
Who will advise the king? (v)
He likes a warm bath. (n) (as objects)
They bathe in the river. (v) The Ford Foundation gave her a grant.
I invited Theresa and him to the party.
It’s cold enough to see our breath.(n)
Don’t breathe the chemical fumes. (showing possession)
(v) This transistor radio is mine.
6. Uses of Nouns I agree that his is better.
 As subject: The really
2. Demonstrative pronouns are used to
important issue of the conference,
point to or demonstrate what is
stripped of all other considerations, is expressed in the sentence
the morality of the nation.

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 Ex: That is the newly inaugurated science
building.
This is the approved plan of that
building.
These are necessary documents for
employment.
Those are swampy areas behind the
building.
3. Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a
definite person or thing.
Singular: each, neither, one, everybody,
anything, something
Ex: Each of you has award.
Someoneis in the room.
Neither of the students
waspresent.(the word with a single
underscore is the pronoun and the one
with the double underscore is the
singular verb)
Plural:both few many several
others
Ex: Several were killed in the car crash.
Many are expecting salary increase.
Few have voted for the crooked
candidate.
Singular or plural: all any most
none some
Ex: All of the research was
complete. (singular)
All of the supplies were donated by a
politician. (plural)
Some of the butter was rancid. (singular)
Some of the stories were published.
(plural)
4. Relative pronouns are words that relate
a clause to some other words in the
sentence. When used this way, the
clause is then called a relative clause.
The relative pronouns are: who, whose,
whom, which, what and that
Ex: The phone,that was just installed,
does not work.
The swimmer,whom I coached last year,
qualified for the Olympic trials.
I visited the house of the gentleman who
wrote “Rip Van Winkle.”
The woman, whose house is filled with
valuable antiques, is planning to have a
garage sale.
A long rest is what the doctor ordered.
5. Interrogative pronouns are used to
denote a question. These are: who,
whose, whom, what and which
Ex: Who won the game?
Whomdid you she vote for?
What did he say?
Which should I choose?
Whose is this envelope?
6. Compound personal pronouns are
formed by adding –self or –selves to
certain personal pronouns. These may
be used either intensively or reflexively.
They are intensive when they add
emphasis to noun to which it refers to
and reflexive when used as object of the
verb.
Ex: The mayor herself inspected the slum
buildings. (intensive)
Mary hurt herself when she fell. (reflexive)
Darlene taught herself how to play the
guitar. (reflexive)
They took the responsibility upon
themselves. (intensive)
The use of WHO andWHOM; WHOEVER
andWHOMEVER:
CASE PRONOUNS USE IN
SENTENCE
Nominativ Who, Subject of a
e whoever verb
Predicate
nominative
Objective Whom, Direct object
whomever Object of a
preposition
Possessive Whose, To shoe
whosever ownership
Ex: Who wrote the Decalogue? (subject)
Whoever would commit such a heinous act?
(subject)
The news commentator was who? (predicate
nominative)
Assign the task to whoever will accept it. (subject of
the verb ‘will accept’ in the subordinate clause)
Whom did you consult? (direct object)
Whom are you writing to? (object of the preposition
‘to’)
John charmed whomever he spoke with. (object of
the preposition ‘with’)
PRONOUN or ADJECTIVE (modifier)?
When a pronoun is followed by a noun it becomes a
modifier or an adjective.
Ex: What section do you belong to? (followed by the
noun ‘section’)
Whose bicycle is this? (followed by the noun
‘bicycle’)
These are her science books. (followed by the noun
‘science’)
His face is red. (followed by the noun ‘face’)
Several victims have been brought to the hospital for
treatment. (followed by the noun ‘victims’)
Any student can join the competition. (followed by
the noun ‘students’)
VERBS
1. Regular verbs are verbs that add –d,or –edto
the base form to create the past form.
Ex: act – acted; walk – walked, create –
created, walk – walked
2. Irregular verbs are verbs that change spelling
to create their past and past participle forms
Some irregular verbs have the same base,
past and past participle forms:
Burst, cast, hurt, set, spread, split, sweat, thrust
3. The linking verbsare used to link or join the
subject with its complement (a noun, a
pronoun or an adjective). These are be, am,
is, was, were, been, being
Ex: I amexhausted. (adjective)
She is a geologist. (noun)
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 We areglad to hear that. (adjective) Winters are cold
It wasshe I saw. (pronoun) seasons.

4. Special linking verbs are verbs which may be

Expresses completed
used as linking verbs or action verbs, such as:
action
seem, look, appear, sound, feel, taste, stand,
Ex: The concert
remain, grow, become, get, stayand loom.
began at eight o’clock.
He closed the
Ex: You look pretty in that dress. (linking
store early.
verb)
States completed
Do not look at him. (action)
condition
The soup tastes sour. (linking verb)
Ex: There was drought in
He often tastes all the food on the table.
2. Simple Past California.
(action)
It was warm last
Singular subj. + was night.
5. Auxiliary verbs are used together with action
verbs. These are also referred to as ‘helping
Plural subj. + were Gives a series of actions
verbs’. These are: do, does, did, has, have,
in the order that they
had, will, shall, could, may.
Subj. + past form of happened
verb Ex: The burglar came in
Auxiliary verbs may also be used as main
the front door, picked up
verbs. The linking verbs may also function as auxiliary
Subj. + had the woman’s handbag,
verbs.
emptied it out and stole
her purse.
AS MAIN VERB
Ex: I will do his duty.
Talks about long term
situations in the past
AS AUXILIARY VERB
Ex: My friend’s uncle
I do need a new dress.
served as mayor for two
terms during the
Have they a reason for the rally? We have
Japanese occupation.
received your notice. The hinges are rusty. Some
researchers are conducting a study under water. She Denotes future action
has a meeting to attend. Our professor has Ex: Carmela will report
already dismissed us. about folk literature.
We shall surely
THE VERB TENSES attend your birthday
party.
3. Simple future
The simple tenses Expresses future condition
Ex: She will be worried
Shows present action Subj. + will/shall + base
about us.
Ex: I hear a radio in the form of verb
They will be eager
next room.
to see you.
She looks at me
with dejection. Makes predictions, based
on opinions or past
Expresses present
experiences
condition
Ex: It will rain again.
Ex: Barbara is very ill.
1. Simple present The progressive tenses
I am excited at the
idea. Long continuing action
Singular subj. + s-form Ex: She is writing a
Expresses regularly
of the verb novel.
occurring action
Ex: Some animals They are
I + base form of the conducting a study of
hibernate during winter
verb the marine biology in Sulu
time.
We walk to school Sea.
I + am Short continuing action
every day.
Expresses regularly 1. Present progressive Ex: My brother is setting
Singular subj. + is / has the table
occurring condition
Ex: He is often late for Singular subj. + is + -ing She is cooking
Plural subj. + base form of a verb supper.
work.
form of the verb Plural subj. + are + -ing Continuing condition
I amrarely patient.
Expresses constant action form of a verb Ex: The weather is being
Plural subj. + are / very unpredictable.
Ex: The earth revolves
have You are being
around the sun.
The sun sets in the obstinate again.
west. Talks about events one
Expresses constant intends to do in the future
condition with the use of going to
Ex: Some people are not Ex: We are going to
infallible. hire a bus.

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 We are going to
ride the ferry to the
island.
Long continuing action in
the past
Ex: We were visiting
museums last December.
He was
completing his thesis the
other year.
Short continuing action in
the past
Ex: I was helping my
sisters this morning
We were watching
2. Past Progressive
a movie a while ago.
Continuing condition in
Singular subj. + was + -
the past
ing form of a verb
Ex: Elaine was being
Plural subj. + were + -
very irritable yesterday.
ingform of a verb
They were being
very secretive about the
changes during the
meeting.
Provides background
scene when narrating a
past event
Ex: He was doing his
homework when the
burglar came in.
Continuing future action
Ex: Gerard will be
3. Future progressive
growing pineapple next
summer.
Subj. + will + be + -ing
They will be
form of a verb
studying internal
medicine for ten years.
The perfect tenses
Completed action (at an
indefinite time)
Ex: I have eaten lunch
already
Marissa has
received a letter.
Completed condition (at
an indefinite time)
Ex: I have also been
happy.
They have been
blessed many times.
Action continuing to the
1. Present perfect present
Ex: The baby has cried
Singular subj. + has + all evening.
past part. of the verb She has talked all
afternoon.
Plural subj. + have + Condition continuing to
past participle the present
Ex: You have been very
calm today.
The dog has been
very docile lately.
Used together with words
like since, for, never, so
far, up to now
Ex: I have lived in this
house since birth.
Karen has
collected 20 cards so far.
They have never
gotten over the loss of
their dad.
Action completed before
another past action
Ex: He had worked as a
veterinarian before he
began his book.
I had studied art
until I started to teach.
2. Past Perfect
Condition completed
Subj. + had + past before another past
participle form of verb condition
Ex: She had been an
accomplished writer until
she fell ill.
I had been very
patient before we
became friends.
Future action completed
before another
Ex: I will have finished
writing my book by 2013.
She shall have
arrived by the time you
3. Future perfect finish cooking.
Future condition
Subj. + will/shall + completed before
have + past participle another
of verb Ex: The survivors will
have been without food
for days by the time help
arrives.
The lion will have
been tamed by the time
it grows old.
The perfect progressive tenses
1. Present perfect
progressive Action continuing to the
present
Singular subj. + has + Ex: They have been
been + -ing form of a listening to music all
verb morning.
Plural subj. + have + The kid has been
been + -ing form of throwing tantrums.
verb
Continuing action
interrupted by another
2. Past perfect
Ex: I had been taking a
progressive
bath whenthe water ran
out.
Subj. + had + been + -
We had been
ing form of verb
chatting boisterously until
we heard the explosion.
Continuing future action
3. Future perfect completed before
progressive another.
Ex: He will have been
Subj. + will/shall + driving for ten hours by
have + been + -ing the time he reaches
form of a verb Legazpi City.
I will have been
studying for eight years
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 before I become a full- Ex: The machine with all its parts sells for five
fledged surgeon. hundred pesos.
His property, including two cars, is up for sale.

6. Collective nouns often require a singular verb

unless it is thought of as individuals.
Ex: The choirsings well.
VOICES of the VERB The choirdo not agree on the songs for the
program.
The voice of the verb indicates whether the
subject is doing the action or not. 7. Subjects joined by andtake plural verb except
when they refer to only one and the same person
The Active Voice: The verb is active if its subject or thing.
performs the action Ex: The engine and one carwere derailed.
Pins and tackswere holding the pieces
Ex: Mike introduced the new professor. together.
Rossana writes with conviction. The proprietor and managerhas left for
The cops caught the fugitive earlier today. Canada. (the absence of a determiner before
the noun manager denotes that the two nouns
The Passive Voice:A verb is passive if its action is refer to only one person.)
performed upon the subject Macaroni and cheeseis an easy dish to
make.
Ex: The new professor was introduced by Mike.
The article was written with conviction. 8. Subjects joined by either-or, neither-nor, or, nor
A bill on anti-smoking will be passed by congress. take the singular verb when both subjects have
the same number. When the subjects do not
The verb CHOOSE in the passive voice have the same number, the verb agrees with the
Present is chosen nearer subject.
Ex: Neither the folk singers nor their agentlikes the
Past was chosen
program.
Future will be chosen
The management or the unionsare making
Present perfect has been chosen concessions.
Past perfect had been chosen
Future perfect will have been chosen 9. Nouns plural in form and meaning always take
Present is being chosen the plural verb or the base form of the verb.
progressive Ex: Where are the green scissors?
Past progressive was being chosen Your trousershave a torn crotch.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. A verb must agree with the subject in person and
in number
Ex: Ritalistens attentively. (Rita is a singular
subject thus it takes the –s form of theverb listenin
the present tense)
They often explain the lessons clearly. (They is a
plural subject so it takes the base form of the
verb explain in the present tense)
2. The pronouns, Youand I, always take the base
form of the verbin the present tense.
Ex: Youwash the dishes after you eat.
Iread books often.
3. The singular indefinite pronouns take the singular
verbs.
Ex: Each of them is responsible.
Everyoneis bothered about corrupt
politicians.
No onehas seen the thief come in.
4. The indefinite pronouns some, all, most, none and
any may take either the singular or the plural
verbs depending on the noun after the ‘of
phrase’.
Ex: Some of the moneywas stolen.
Some of their answerswere wrong.
5. Intervening phrases introduced by with, together
with, in addition to, as well as and including do
not affect the verb.
10. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take
the singular verb.
Ex: Mathematicsis often considered a difficult
subject.
Ethicswas one of the subjects I disliked.
11. The phrase a number of takes the plural verb,
while the phrase the number of takes the singular
verb.
Ex: A number of students have been found to be
under the influence of liquor during class hours.
The number of English plus enrollees has
increased tremendously.
12. When the sentence is introduced by here or
there the verb agrees with the subject.
Ex: Here is the ticket for the game.
There are only two possible answers.
13. In inverted order sentences, the verb still agrees
with the subject.
Ex: Around the bend careens a speeding car.
Into the deep and murky well drops the dead
bird.
14. A verb in the subordinate clause introduced by a
relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent.
Ex: Those are the researchers who are observing
the volcanoes eruption.
Kathleen is popular with those classmates who
enjoy her vitality and exuberance.
Every book on these shelves that appears on
your list should be catalogued.

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15. Predicate nominatives do not affect the verb.
Ex: Joe’s first loveis sailboats.
The fruit I like best is seedless grapes.
16. Subjects following expressions of amount or
measurement require a singular verb.
Ex: Two meters of wireis enough for the fence.
Three dollarsseems like a fortune to him.
17. The verb agrees with the noun following an
expression of fraction or portion.
Ex: Half of the appleis rotten.
Three-fourths of the bananaswereripe.
18. Titles of books, songs, stories, plays or other works
of art and names of countries require a singular
verb.
Ex: The Netherlandshas a colorful history.
The Potato-Eatersis a famous painting by Van
Gogh.
19. Adjectives used as subjects take the plural form
of the verb.
Ex: The rich often have the privilege to travel
anywhere.
The rural poorhave been ignored by the media.
ADJECTIVES
1. Kinds of adjectives
 Determiners: a, an, the, several, that, those
 Quality: beautiful, rough, delicious
 Size: large, minute, tiny
 Shape: long, square, round
 Age: old, antique, young
 Color: red, blond, raven, lilac
 Proper: American, English, Thai
 Material: silky, wooden, bronze
♠ Adverb of manner: answers the question
‘how?’quietly, roughly, steadily, remorsefully
♠ Adverb of place: answers the question
‘where?’across, outside, down, upward,
there, here, out
♠ Adverb of frequency: answers the question
‘how often?’always, seldom, everyday,
often, yearly, daily
♠ Adverb of time: answers the question
‘when?’today, yesterday, tomorrow, last
night, next week
2. Order of adverbs: the order of adverbs follows the
same order as the arrangement of the types of
adverbs shown above
Ex: Beth enthusiastically goes outevery
morningbefore dawn.
Dad walks impatientlyupstairsevery afternoonbefore
supper to get his newspaper.
3. Adverbs as intensifiers: they emphasize, amplify or
downtone
 Emphasizer
Ex: I really do not like him.
He literallypounded his mother’s antique jar.
Ella simply ignored me.
 Amplifier
Ex: The committee completely rejected his
proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend anymore faculty
meetings.
The board heartily endorsed the new
restaurant.
 Downtoner
Ex: I kind of like the movie.
He sort of appreciated the award.

Note: The arrangement of the above kinds of 4. Adverb or Adjective?

adjectives is also the arrangement to be followed  Some words may be used as both an
when there is a series of adjectives modifying a noun adjective and an adverb without a change
or pronoun. in form. These are: fast, half, straight, just,
late, low, most, clearand clean
Ex: Several delicious large square red Italianpizzas Ex: He drives a fast car. (adjective)
were served for us. He drives his car fast. (adverb)
They both have half ownership of the
2. Comparison of adjectives property. (adjective)
She was half crying, half laughing with joy.
3. Position of adjectives (adverb)
 Before a noun Don’t expect to get a straight answer from
Ex: Gorgeous ladies often get to join beauty her. (adjective)
pageants. He shot the arrow straight to the bull’s eye.
Fierce dogs can scare people. (adverb)

 Between noun determiners and nouns PREPOSITIONS

Ex: The clear lake has become murky.
Those marble domes existed even before I Some commonly used prepositions and their
was born. functions and meanings:

 After linking verbs Across – on the opposite side of; moves or reaches
Ex: The jar is exquisite. from one side to the other Ex: across the street
He seems upset. across cultures
After – later than; behind; agreeing with; past hour
 After intensifiers Ex: after her after supper
Ex. A rather shy girl began the singing of the Against – in opposition to; in contact with by leaning;
anthem. in sudden contact or collision with Ex: He
He looks quite scholarly in his get-up. banged his head against the wall I leaned
against a tree.
ADVERBS Among – belonging to a particular group; in a group
of more than two members
1. Types of adverbs Ex: among physicists among us

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Around – to the other side of; surrounding Subordinating conjunctions – are used to introduce
Ex: around the corner around his waist adverb clauses; it also links a subordinate clause to
Behind – at back of; following somebody; in the past; the main clause
Ex: behind the door behind him behind me as although as long as as though
because before as if after
Beneath – underneath; too low for; lower provided unless since
Ex: beneath the bed beneath contempt where till so that though
Beside – at side of; compared with; until whatever when
Ex: sit beside Noel beside his brother than whenever wherever while
Besides – aside from; as well as
Ex:Besides handouts, we also give take home tests. Ex: Come for a visit whenever you can.
By – along; beside or close to The crowd cheered as the mayor waved.
Ex: by the window by Sunday
In – nonspecific time, address or location Conjunctive adverbs – are adverbs used to join main
clauses. These are used together with a semicolon
Ex: in a few minutes in my bag in time before it.
Into – motion or action Ex: into the air accordingly furthermore moreover
On – indicates exact date or location; on top of therefore also nevertheless
something Ex: on the table on July 7 hence yet consequently
Onto – making a discovery; in contact however otherwise
Ex: onto the suppliers onto something
Outside – out of doors; beyond the scope of Ex: The roads where partly flooded;nevertheless, we
Ex: outside the room outside my abilities kept on driving.
Over–above; across; more than A paralyzing snowfall hit Buffalo; consequently, all
Ex: over the fireplace over your quota transportation was halted.
Through – by way of; by means of
Ex: through Europe through the fire through a B. THE SENTENCE
hole
Toward/towards – in a particular direction; shortly A sentence is a word or a group of words that
before; regarding; express a complete thought, a complete idea or a
Ex: toward her toward dawn complete question.
Within – inside; not beyond
Ex: within a country within 24 hours Avoiding sentence errors
 Run-ons: a run-on sentence is two or more
Preposition or adverb? complete sentences that are unintentionally
capitalized and punctuated as if they were
An adverb does not require an object while a one. Four ways to correct run-ons:
preposition requires an object a. With end marks and capitals.
Run-on: Elizabeth turned at the
Ex: If you want to see that eclipse, you will need to sudden noise a bird had crashed into
go outside. (adverb) the picture window.
Dorothy colors outside the lines. (preposition because Sentence: Elizabeth turned at the
it has an object ‘lines’) sudden noise. A bird had crashed
It will be some time before his stomach settles down. into the picture window.
(adverb)
The dog ran down the alley. (preposition) b. With commas and conjunctions
Run-on: I baked a cake this
CONJUNCTIONS morning, I have not frosted it yet.
Sentence: I baked a cake this
Coordinators – connect words, phrases and morning, but I have not frosted it yet.
sentence elements that have the same grammatical
structure c. With semicolons
and but or for so nor yet Run-on: The stallion kept trying to
jump the fence, however he failed
Ex: Joanna and Susanna are twins. each time.
Reading novels and painting landscapes are two of Sentence: The stallion kept trying to
my past times. jump the fence; however, he failed
Melanie wants to earn her own money so she sells each time.
cookies.
d. By rewriting
Correlative conjunctions – are conjunctions that Run-on: My aunt stayed with us for a
come in pairs. These too connect sentence week, my cousins came too.
elements with the same grammatical structure Sentence: My aunt and cousins
stayed with us for a week.
both . . . and either. . . or neither. . . nor not
only. . . but also whether. . . or  Dangling or misplaced modifiers: This
Ex: Motocross racing requires not only skill but also happens when a modifier seems to modify
great daring. the wrong word in the sentence. To correct,
Either basic accounting or finance is required. simple place the modifiers close to the word
it should logically modify.
Misplaced modifier:He told us how to cut
wood through written directions.

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 Corrected placement: Through written
directions, he told us hot to cut wood.
Misplaced modifier: Turning green, I watched
the lights.
Corrected placement: I watched the lights
turning green.
 Faulty parallelism: parallelism is the
placement of equal ideas in words, phrases,
or clauses of similar types.
Faulty parallelism in a series:
Nonparallel structure:Strength, agility and
carefully concentrating make a successful
wrestler.
Corrected sentence: Strength, agility and
careful concentration make a successful
wrestler.
Nonparallel structure:The mouse ran across
the floor, under the table and its hole was the
last stop.
Corrected sentence:The mouse ran across
the floor, under the table and into its hole.
Faulty parallelism in comparison:
Nonparallel structure: I prefer concertos to
listening to jazz.
Corrected sentence: I prefer concertos to
jazz
Nonparallel structure: I like giving speeches
as much as writing a story thrills Ben.
Corrected sentence: I like giving speeches
as much as Ben likes writing stories.
II. THE CLAUSE
A clause is a group of words containing a
verb and its subject. A clause that can stand by itself
as a sentence is a main clause, while a sentence
that cannot stand by itself as a sentence is a
subordinate clause.
1. The adjective clause is a subordinate clause used
to modify a noun or a pronoun in the main clause.
Ex: That is the spot where I fell. (modifies the noun
‘spot’)
It’s a program that I always enjoy. (modifies the noun
‘program’)
2. The adverb clause is a subordinate clause used to
modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in the
main clause.
Ex: We put the key where we could locate it easily.
(modifies the verb ‘put’)
The dog looked as if it would attack us. (modifies the
verb ‘looked’)
The test is as hard as the first one. (modifies the
adjective ‘hard’)
The dog ran quicker than the sheep did. (modifies an
adverb)
3. The noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a
noun.
Ex: I understand what you need. (direct object)
He was thinking about what they did the night
before. (object of the prep)
III. THE PHRASE
A phrase is a group of words used within a
sentence as a single part of speech. It may be used
as a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb. It
does not contain a subject and verb.
IV. THE PARAGRAPH
 A paragraph is a series of related sentences
that represents a unit of thought.
 It explains one idea, usually presented in one
sentence called the TOPIC SENTENCE.
 The rest of the sentences in the paragraph
discuss the main idea, adding specific
information.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
 The topic sentence expresses the main idea
of the paragraph and defines the scope of
the paragraph.
 The topic sentence may be at the beginning,
in the middle or at the end of the paragraph.
 A topic sentence at the beginning of a
paragraph prepares the reader for the
information that follows throughout the rest of
the paragraph.
Ex: One of the great seventeenth-century
contributors to science and the use of the lens was
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). While he was in Venice in
1609, Galileo heard about an instrument, rumored to
have been invented the year before, which made
objects in the distance appear larger and nearer. The
principle of this new instrument interested him, so he
immediately set to work making such a device himself.
The result was his telescope. Galileo fitted into one
end of a metal pipe a convex lens, called the
objective, and at the other end of the tube he fixed a
concave lens, called the eyepiece. The eyepiece
intercepted the converging light rays which
proceeded from the objective, before they reached
the point of focus. As they passed through the
concave eyepiece, the light rays again changed
direction. Hey no longer converged, but diverged,
and passed on to the eye of the viewer. Galileo
improved the telescope until his third attempt
magnified observed objects thirty-three times. Here
was a combination of lenses – mere bits of ground and
polished glass – assembled in such a way that it was
possible for he human eye to see far beyond its
natural limitations. The principle of Galileo’s telescope
is still used today in opera glasses. Anne Huether.
 In the following paragraph, the topic
sentence is in the middle of the paragraph.
Ex: Along island beaches, the water changes
color as it becomes deeper. In the shallows it is a milky
green. In deeper waters over the coral heads and
reefs, the color is clear greenish-blue. The color line
changes from green-blue to deep blue where the
drop-off into the deep water begins. The drop-off
marked by this color change is the best place for a
good swimmer to see Hawaii’s underwater scenery.
Here are deep lava-rimmed valleys paved with white
sand. Here are lava rock arches and tunnels and
caves where big fish, lobsters, and big eels live.
Looking through a face mask into water sixty feet
deep, a diver can see that the coral and sand bottom
appears a pale, bleached blue. In the deep water,
big fishhover in schools like herds of cattle browsing
by. A great sea turtle paddles along. A manta ray
swims below with the same graceful swoops as a bird
in flight. Its big side flaps move like wings. Its pop eyes
8
watch the diver watching it. – adapted from Ruth M.
Tabrah
 In the next, the topic sentence is at the end.
Ex: The word toy may come from the Dutch tuig –
tools, things, or stuff – or, as once suggested, from the
Danish toeve meaning to stay, to tarry. The variety of
toys is almost limitless. They may be large or miniature,
lifelike creatures. Some are static, such as dolls’
houses and furniture, to be admired and cherished
rather than used; others are dynamic, mechanical
toys that you can put into action. From autos to dolls,
diamonds to games, toys are anything that enables us
to tarry during the last whip of ordinary life. – Athelstan
Spilhaus
V. READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES
 Skimming is used to quickly identify main
ideas of a text; to find dates, names of
persons or places and to review graphs and
tables
 Scanning is used to find specific details, like
the age of the character or a word used to
describe a character or a place
 Extensive reading is used to obit general
understanding a subject matter or it is
reading longer text or pleasure
 Intensive reading used to understand theme,
tone and mood
 Visualizing is creating visual images in the
mind of the text being read
 Synthesizing Involves evaluating, sorting, and
sifting through information that is known and
new and reorganizing it into a larger idea or
concept
 Inferring is drawing upon a reader’s
background knowledge and connecting this
with new information
 Questioning is generating questions that
demonstrate that students are synthesizing,
evaluating, and attempting to get a clearer
picture of what is being read.
VI. VOCABULARY BUILDING
VOCABULARY BUILDING SKILLS
A. Using CONTEXT clues
Context means the words, phrases, or
passages that come before and after a particular
word or passage in a speech or piece of
writing and help to explain its full meaning.
B.
How context reveals meaning:
 Definition – the most obvious and
straightforward method.
Ex: The sycophant can be formed
wherever there is power; he is the
person who works his way into favor
with flattery.
 Restatement – an explanation of a
term usually done by restating. This is
usually signaled by words like, in other
words, that is, to put it another way,
or and this means.
Ex: One astronomer claims there is
total absence of plasma, or gaseous
matter, in certain parts of the corona.
Commas, parentheses, or dashes
may also signal an appositive, which is
another kind of restatement.
Ex: A doctor will usually check the
functioning of the thyroid, the gland that
regulates body
growth and metabolism, if the patient has a
weight problem.
 Example – examples are given in
order to show the meaning of a
word. Words that signal example
are: such, such as, like, other,
especially, particularly, for example,
for instance
Ex: Like Manhattan, each of the other
boroughs is an administrative unit of
New York City.
 Synonyms – the use of more familiar
word or words having the same
meaning as the unfamiliar word.
Ex: The staff unanimously agreed that
their boss is so gelid, a person so cold
and frigid, you seldom see him
smile.
 Comparison – the unfamiliar word is
compared with a more familiar idea
Ex: Like a modern-day Judas, the
actor betrayed his benefactor.
 Contrast – the use of dissimilarity
between two things
Ex: The actor emerged from the
stage with mirth, in contrast to the
grim-faced person he was
after he slipped in a dance number.
 Explanation – a difficult word is
explained, usually in simpler words,
but longer sentences
Ex: Plants like cactus are succulent.
They have tissues that conserve
moisture. This enables them to
survive the dry and hot atmosphere
of deserts.
 Cause and effect – involves cause-
and-effect relationship between
ideas.
Ex: Because of the dearth of jobs in
the Philippines, many people
immigrated to Europe and the USA.
Analyzing word structure
Noting prefixes Ex:ambi- (both) ambivalence
– presence of two opposing ideasdys- (bad,
abnormal) dysplasia – medically abnormal
growthamphi- (both kinds, around)
amphibious, amphitheater
Noting suffixes
Ex: -ancesustenance – nourishment
-icemalice – wish to harm others
-archy(form of government)monarchy
-ics(science or skills) athletics
Adjective suffixes
Ex: -able(capable of being) changeable
-fic(causing or producing) sudorific
Greek roots Ex: anthrop- human -
anthropology (study of humankind)
9
 Chrom - color - chromagen (potential
pigment)
Derm - skin - dermatology (skin specialty)
hydr - water - hydrant (water source in
the street)
Latin roots Ex: animus - mind, spirit -
animate (make lively)cred - believe
- credulity (gullibility)ject - throw,
hurt - reject (discard)
C. Using etymological formation: Etymology is
the study of the origin of words or parts of
words and how they have arrived at their
current form and meaning.
o Shows the different forms the world
has taken in passing from one
language to another and sometimes
shows related words in other
languages
D. Other processes of word formation
 Affixation – use of affixes in changing
the form and function of words
Ex: Un + kind = unkind
friend + ship = friendship
Fulfill + ment = fulfillment
dis + able = disable
 Compounding
Ex: air + plane = airplane
book + shelf = bookshelf
Ear + rings = earrings
 Blending (portmanteau words –
formed by merging a portion of
one word with a portion of
another)
Ex:motor + hotel = motel
Feces + analysis =
fecalysis
 Clipping Ex:ad –
advertisement; TV – television; bio
– biology
 Coinage – words developed from
brand names
Ex: Colgate – toothpaste
fridge – refrigerator
Kodak – camera or picture
Xerox - photocopy
 Acronym – word formed from the
initial letters of other words
Ex: SCUBA – Self-contained
Underwater Breathing
ApparatusLASER – Light
Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
E. Idiomatic Expressions
 Back To Square One - to start again
 Air one’s dirty linen in public (verb
phrase) – to talk about your private
quarrels where others can hear
 Can't see your nose in front of your
face: being oblivious to something
obvious, in clear view.
 Best thing since sliced bread - A
good invention or innovation. A good
idea or plan.
 Caught between two stools -
When someone finds it difficult to
choose between two alternatives.
 Cry over spilt milk - When you
complain about a loss from the past.
 Cut corners - When something is
done badly to save money.
 Cut the mustard - To succeed; to
come up to expectations; adequate
enough to compete or participate
 Devil's Advocate - To present a
counter argument
 Don't count your chickens before the
eggs have hatched - This idiom is
used to express "Don't make plans for
something that might not happen".
 Don't put all your eggs in one basket -
Do not put all your resources in one
possibility.
 Drastic times call for drastic measures
– When you are extremely desperate
you need to take drastic actions.
 Hear it on the grapevine - 'to hear
rumors' about something or
someone.
 Let sleeping dogs lie- do not disturb a
situation as it is - since it would result
in trouble or complications.
 Not a spark of decency - No manners
 On the ball - When someone
understands the situation well.
 Put wool over other people's eyes - to
deceive someone into thinking well
of them.
 Speak of the devil! - This expression is
used when the person you have just
been talking about arrives.
 Steal someone's thunder - To take
the credit for something someone
else did.
 To have one’s hand tied – to be
restricted
VII. LITERATURE
Literature is an art form which comes as either oral or
written record of man’s thoughts, behavior,
aspirations, emotions and manifold experiences that
has withstood the test of time because of its universal
appeal.
 Timely and timeless
 Transcends age, race, gender, time,
religion, geographical borders,
philosophy, culture
CLASSIFICATIONS OF LITERATURE:
1. Literature of KNOWLEDGE
 Appeals to the mind and intellect
 Chief objective is to supply information
 Utilitarian
 CHARACTERISTICS:FACTUAL – information
must be truthful and the evidence must
be measurable; as perceived by the
senses. (EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE –
measurable and observable); OBJECTIVE–
perceivable by all or a large majority in
the same manner; IMPARTIAL – does not
take sides; no biases or prejudices; USES
10
 SIMPLE and DIRECT LANGUAGE - must be
understood by all.
2. Literature of POWER
 Appeals to the heart and emotion of man
 Chief purpose is to entertain
 Artistic and creative
 CHARACTERISTICS:FICTION / result in making an impression or
FANCIFUL;SUBJECTIVE – subject to varied
interpretations; PARTIAL AT TIMES
(impartiality always sides with the truth);
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IS USED to catch
the reader’s attention or interest, to allow
variety of interpretations, to entertain
TWO LITERARY FORMS
1. PROSE – all forms of written or spoken
expressions that are consciously organized
and lack rhythmic patterns. It implies logical
order, continuity of thought and individual
style.
2. POETRY – an arrangement of lines in which
form and content fuse to suggest meanings
beyond the literal meanings of the words. The
language of poetry is more compressed and
more musical. It has:
 PERSONA–the speaker in the poem. He is
the character whose voice a reader
“hears”. The speaker may be the poet, or
a completely different character.
Sometimes the identity of the speaker is
obvious. At other times, part of all the
poems must be read before the identity of
the speaker becomes clear,
 RHYME – words rhyme when the sound of
their accented vowels and all succeeding
sounds are identical.
 RHYTHM – the cadence of poetic lines or
prose passage; the regular recurrence of
stressed and unstressed, long and short,
high-pitched and low-pitched syllables
creating a pattern in the lines of the
poem; gives the poem its melodious
quality.
 METER – (organized rhythm) the repetition
of regular rhythmic unit in a line of poetry;
measured pattern or grouping of syllables
called METRIC FOOT, according to
accent and length; a group of metric feet
forms a POETIC LINE and a group of poetic
lines or verses is called a STANZA.
Four patterns:
Iamb (iambic foot, x /) – unaccented,
accented; An iambic foot is an unstressed
syllable followed by a stressed syllable. We
could write the rhythm like this: da DUM
Anapest (anapestic foot, x x /) – two
unaccented, accented. Dr. Seuss’ Yertle the
Turtle has anapestic tetrameter:
Trochus (trochaic foot, / x) –
accented, unaccented.A line of trochaic
octameter is eight of these in a row:
Dactyl (dactylic foot, / x x) –
accented, two unaccented. The following
lines from The Beatles' "Lucy in the Sky with
Diamonds" demonstrate this, the scansion
having dactylic tetrameter:
 IMAGERY – refers to expressions evocative
of objects of sensuous appeal; products of
the writer’s creative imagination and
experience more precise and vivid; may
be in the form of direct description or may
be figurative, which later involves the use
of figures of speech and symbols.
Visual imagery: visual descriptions so
vivid they seem to come to life in the reader's
mind's when they are read
Ex: “The look-out man will see some
lakes of milk-color light on the sea’s night-
purple”
“The Purse-Seine” Robinson Jeffers
Auditory imagery: descriptions of
sound so vivid the reader seems almost to
hear them while reading the poem.
Ex: “she quietly rolledflour tortillas
the‘papas’cracking in the hot lardwould
wake me”“My Grandmother Would Rock
Quietly and Hum” Leonard Adamé
Images of smell (olfactory imagery):
descriptions of smells so vivid they seem
almost to stimulate the reader's own sense of
smell while reading
Ex: “The morning comes to
consciousness of faint stale smells of beer from
the sawdust-trampled street with all its muddy
feet that press to early coffee-stands”
“Preludes” T. S. Eliot
Tactile or "physical" imagery:
descriptions conveying a strong, vivid sense of
touch or physical sensation that the reader
can almost feel himself or herself while reading
Ex: “The only things moving are swirls
of snow.As I lift the mailbox door, I feel its cold
iron.”“Driving to Town Late to Mail a Letter”
Robert Bly
Images of taste (gustatory imagery):
descriptions conveying images of taste can
which also help in the reading of a poem.
Ex: “Take out a three-pound leg of
lamb,rub it with salt, pepper and cumin,then
push in two cloves of garlic splinters”
“How to Eat Alone” Daniel Halpern
Kinesthetic images (movement) –
images of motion which can contribute to the
setting; can create metaphors that increase
the reader’s understanding of the poem.
FIGURES OF SPEECH – are ways of saying something
other than the ordinary way. One does this to make
assertions about an external quality, or to present
some insights of realities that cannot be fully expressed
in any logical language. Through the use of figures of
speech, the poet communicates not only a state of
mind but also calls to mind the image of some things
that interest the reader. It cannot be taken literally.
Figures of speech pertaining to repetition of
sounds:
11
1. Alliteration – the repetition of initial
consonant sounds
Ex: The soul selects her own society
2. Anaphora – The repetition of the same word
or phrase at the beginning of several lines
Ex: I needed a drink,
I needed a lot of life insurance,
I needed a vacation,
I needed a home in the country.
What I had was a coat, a hat and a
gun.
(Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My
Lovely)
3. Assonance – the similarity of medial vowel
sounds in a line
Ex: "I must confess that in my quest I felt
depressed and restless."
(Thin Lizzy, "With Love")
4. Onomatopoeia – The use of words that
imitate the sounds associated with objects or
actions they refer to.
Ex: "I'm getting married in the morning!
Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime."
(Lerner and Loewe, "Get Me to the Church
on Time," My Fair Lady)
5. Pun – a play on words sometimes on different
senses of the same word and sometimes on
the similar sense or sound of different words.
Ex: When it rains, it pours.
Kings worry about receding heir lines.
On comparison and contrast:
6. Similes - specific comparison by means of the
words “like” or “as” between two kinds of
ideas or objects.
Ex:Christianity shone like a beacon in the
black night of paganism.
7. Metaphor – use of a word or phrase denoting
one kind of idea or object in place of
another word or phrase for the purpose of
suggesting a likeness between the two.
Ex:"Between the lower east side tenements
the sky is a snotty handkerchief."
(Marge Piercy, "The Butt of Winter")
"The streets were a furnace, the sun an
executioner."
(Cynthia Ozick, "Rosa")
8. Personification – is a portrayal of an idea,
object, or animal, as having human traits.
Ex: The wind stood up and gave a shout.
He whistled on his fingers and
Kicked the withered leaves about
And thumped the branches with his hand
And said he'd kill and kill and kill,
And so he will and so he will.
(James Stephens, "The Wind")
9. Antithesis – the juxtaposition of two words,
phrases, clauses or sentences contrasted or
opposed in meaning in such as way as to
give emphasis to contrasting ideas.
Ex: Love is an ideal thing, marriage is a real
thing. To err is human, to forgive divine.
10. Hyperbole – form of inordinate exaggeration
according to which a person or thing is
depicted as being better or worse, or larger
or smaller, than is actually the case.
Ex: Dr. Johnson drank his tea in oceans.
"I was helpless. I did not know what in the
world to do. I was quaking from head to foot,
and could have hung my hat on my eyes,
they stuck out so far."
(Mark Twain, "Old Times on the Mississippi")
11. Litotes – Understatement employed for the
purpose of enhancing the effect of the ideas
expressed.
Ex: "The grave's a fine a private place,
But none, I think, do there embrace."
(Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")
Relationships:
12. Synecdoche - A figure of speech in which a
part is used to represent the whole.
Ex: All hands on deck (everyone on deck)
50 head of cattle (50 cattles)
13. Metonymy – use of a word or phrase for
another to which it bears an important
relation, as the effect for the cause, the
abstract for the concrete, and similar
constructions.
Ex: The hostess kept a good table. (good
food is implied)
He was an avid reader of Chaucer. (this
refers to the poems of Chaucer)
Other figures of speech:
14. Apostrophe – a device by which an actor
turns from the audience, or a writer from
readers, to address a person who usually is
absent or deceased, an inanimate object or
idea.
Ex:"O western wind, when wilt thou blow
That the small rain down can rain?"
"Then come, sweet death, and rid me
of this grief."
(Queen Isabella in Edward II by
Christopher Marlowe)
15. Irony – is the use of words to convey the
opposite of their literal meaning.
Three kinds of Irony:
a. Verbal irony is a trope in which the
intended meaning of a statement
differs from the meaning that the
words appear to express.
b. Structural/situational irony involves an
incongruity between what is
expected or intended and what
actually occurs.
c. Dramatic irony is an effect produced
by a narrative in which the audience
knows more about present or future
circumstances than a character in
the story.
Ex: Oedipus attempts to find the
murderer of Laius, king of Thebes, unaware
that he himself is the culprit.
16. Oxymoron – incongruous or contradictory
terms appear side by side.
12
 Ex: How is it possible to have a civil war?
(George Carlin)
The best cure for insomnia is to get a lot of
sleep.
EPICS OF THE WORLD
17. Paradox – a statement that appears to
contradict itself.
Ex: The swiftest traveler is he that goes afoot.
(Henry David Thoreau, Walden, 1854)
SYMBOLS – images or concrete references
that stand for something else in reality and suggest
another level of meaning; for example, the flag is used
a symbol for the country; the rose, for beauty; the
serpent, for evil.
 SENSE OR MEANING – a poem must say
something. It must enlighten, reveal a
truth, open new vistas, gives new
perceptions, enable us to understand the
world around us more deeply and see
things beyond our physical senses.
LITERARY GENRES
POETRY
 Poetry of thought - philosophical,
reflective, interpretative and didactic.
- The essay mood in poetry.
 Poetry of feeling – highly emotional and
personal
A. NARRATIVE POETRY – tells a story in verse form
1. EPIC – a long narrative poem set against the
background of a distant past told from a
grand majestic style, exulted in tone,
entreating of the exploits and adventures of
a hero or a semi-legendary being who mirrors
the ideals, aspirations, ways of life of a people
or a race.
-the language is chaste and polished,
befitting of the lofty themes it embodies.
-Example: Iliad & Odyssey, Aeneid, Ibalong
3 MAJOR THEMES:
- THE CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF A
GREAT CIVILIZATION OR RACE
- THE CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF A
GREAT RELIGION
- A REVEREND IDEALIZATION OF THE PAST
TWO TYPES:
FOLK EPIC, TRIBAL EPIC, EPIC OF
GROWTH – product of the preliterate society
(concept of education has not been
conceived of; oral in origin and verbal in
transmission; people/generation involved;
many versions or interpretations; no original
version only most popular; standard
measurement per line/verses/melody; no
known author because authorship is
communal.
Epic of Growth – an epic which
continues to grow/change/evolve through
the years; no fixed form; always in the process
of becoming until it is written down.
LITERARY EPIC – a product of a literate
society, educated class; written; has a
single known author.
 The Aeneid - The Aeneid is a Latin epic poem
written by Virgil in the 1st century BC (between
29 and 19 BC) that tells the legendary story of
Aeneas, a Trojan who traveled to Italy, where
he became the ancestor of the Romans. It is
written in dactylic hexameter (considered to
be the Grand Style of classical poetry). The first
six of the poem’s twelve books tell the story of
Aeneas’ wanderings from Troy to Italy, and
the poem’s second half treats the Trojans’
ultimately victorious war upon the Latins,
under whose name Aeneas and his Trojan
followers are destined to be subsumed.
 Beowulf - This is an Old English language
heroic epic poem of anonymous authorship,
dating as recorded in the Nowell Codex
manuscript from between the 8th to the 11th
century and relates events described as
having occurred in what is now Denmark and
Sweden. Commonly cited as one of the most
important works of Anglo-Saxon Literature,
Beowulf has been the subject of much
scholarly study, theory, speculation, discourse
and, at 3183 lines, it has been noted for its
length. In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the
Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel,
who has been attacking the mead hall in
Denmark called Heorot and its inhabitants;
Grendel’s mother and, later in life after
returning to Geatland (modern southern
Sweden) and becoming a king, he fights an
unnamed dragon. Beowulf is fatally wounded
in the final battle, and after his death he is
buried in a barrow in Geatland by his retainers.
 Mahabharata (Great Epic of the Bharata
Dynasty) One of the two major Sanskrit epics
of India, valid for both its high literary merit and
its religious inspiration. It consists of a mass of
legendary and didactic material surrounding
a central heroic narrative that tells of the
struggle for supremacy between two groups
of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
Together with the second major epic, the
Ramayana (Romance of Rama), the
Mahabharata is an important source of
information about the evolution of Hinduism
during the period of about 400BC – AD200.
Contained withint the Mahabharata is the
Bhagavadgita (Song of the Lord) the single
most important religious text of Hinduism.
 The Iliad - This, together with the Odyssey, is
one of two ancient Greek epic poems
attributed to Homer. The poem is commonly
dated to the late 9th or to the 8th century BC
and many scholars believe it is the oldest
extant work of literature in the ancient Greek
language, making it the first work of
European literature. The poem concerns
events during the tenth and final year in the
siege of the city of Ilion or Troy, by the Greeks.
 The Odyssey - This is one of two major ancient
Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. The
13
 poem was probably written near the end of
the eighth century BC, somewhere along the
Greek-controlled western Turkey seaside
Ionia. The poem is, in part, a sequel to Homer’s
Iliad and mainly centers on the Greek hero
Odysseus and his long journey home to Ithaca
following the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten
years to reach his kingdom of Ithica after the
ten-year Trojan War. During this absence, his
son Telemachus and wife Penelope must deal
with a group of unruly suitors, called Proci, to
compete for Penelope’s hand in marriage,
since most have assumed that Odysseus has
died.
 The Divine Comedy – Long narrative poem
originally titled Comedia written by Dante. The
work is divided into three major sections –
Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradiso – which trace
the journey of a man from darkness and error
to the revelation of the divine light,
culminating in the beatific vision of God. It is
usually held to be one of the world’s greatest
works literature.
 The Nibelungenlied – (Song of the Nibelungs)
a middle German epic written about 1200 by
an unknown poet from the Danube region in
what is now Austria. It is preserved in three
main 13th century manuscript, A (now in
Munich), B ( St. Gall), and C (Donaueshingen);
modern scholars regard B as the most
trustworthy. The name Nibelung appears in
the first part of the poem as the name of
Siegfried’s lands and peoples and his treasure,
but, throughout the second, it is an alternate
name for the Burgundians.
 The Shah Nameh– this is a celebrated work
completed in 1010 by the Persian epic poet
Ferdowsi. It is the composition in which the
Persian national epic found its final and
enduring form. Ferdowsi’s work was based
mainly on the Pahlavi (Middle Persia)Khvatay-
namak, a history of the kings of Persia
 The Song of Roland- (French: La Chanson de
Roland) is the oldest surviving major work
of French literature. It exists in various different
manuscript versions which testify to its
enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th
to 14th centuries. The oldest of these is
the Oxford manuscript which contains a text
of some 4004 lines (the number varies slightly
in different modern editions) and is usually
dated to the middle of the twelfth century
(between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem is
the first and most outstanding example of
the chanson de geste, a literary form that
flourished between the eleventh and fifteenth
centuries and celebrated the legendary
deeds of a hero.
The story told in the poem is based on
a historical incident, the Battle of Roncevaux
Pass on 15 August 778, in which the rear guard
of Charlemagne's withdrawing Franks,
escorting a rich collection of booty gathered
during a campaign in Spain, was attacked
by Basques. In this engagement, recorded by
historian and biographer Einhard (Eginhard) in
his Life of Charlemagne (written around 830),
the trapped soldiers were slaughtered to a
man; among them was "Hruodland, Prefect of
the Marches of Brittany"
(HruodlandusBrittannicilimitispraefectus).
2. METRICAL ROMANCE – a long rambling story
which embodies the ideals of medieval times
- Talks about the tales and
adventures of the nobility, chivalry
and knighthood
Example: King Arthur and the
Knights of the Round Table by T.
Mallory
3. METRICAL TALE – a long narrative poem which
tells the lives of ordinary people.
- has an element of realism
Example: Decameron by
Boccaccio, Canterbury Tales by
Chaucer
4. BALLAD – a narrative about heroic deeds,
love episodes or romantic encounters, a
supernatural element but simpler than the
epic, metrical romance and the metrical
tale. The word ballad means “dance song”
because originally ballad-singing often
formed the accompaniment of dancing
games and rhythmic swaying of the body.
 Example: Lord Randall, Lochinvar
3 types:
a. Popular or folk ballad – The
popular ballad is a folk literature. It
reflects the beliefs of the common
folk and may be considered
primitive and elemental. The
popular ballad was the common
people’s way of expressing their
interests and ideals in a poetry
that was cruder and more naïve
than the poetry of the nobility; yet
it is this simplistic naiveté that
grants the folk ballad a more
genuine feeling.
b. Broadside or journalistic ballad –
so-called because it is printed on
one side of a printer’s sheet and
hawked through the streets and
at fairs by professional ballad-
mongers. This type of ballad took
the place of the newspaper at a
time when newspapers were
unknown.
c. Literary ballad – Like all imitations,
literary ballads usually lack the
spirit of the original but boast the
finish of an individual art.
5. FABLIAU – a comical and often grotesque
verse tale with plot often hinge on the
comical treatment of bodily functions: sex,
flatulence or diarrhea. It was written by the
unknown writers of the thirteenth or
fourteenth centuries. About 200 of them are
in existence today. They are at the opposite
pole from the courtly poetry with pictures of
knights and ladies and its elaboration of the
14
 subtleties of love. They describe life and
people and ridicule the absurdities and
abuses of the time.
6. SOCIAL POEM – this form is either purely
comic or tragic and it pictures the life of
today. It may also aim to bring out changes
in the social conditions.
B. DRAMATIC POETRY – a stage presentation or
production in verse form.
1. TRAGEDY – has a sad ending, main
character often meets death, has a
serious or somber tone.
 Example: Oedipus the King by Sophocles,
Hamlet by Shakespeare
2. COMEDY – light and sprightly tone, always
has a happy ending
 Example: The Merchant of Venice by
Shakespeare, Lysistrata by Aristophanes
3. FARCE – an exaggerated comedy based
on broadly humorous situations. Ex.
Tartuffe by Moliere (1664)
4. HISTORICAL PLAY – a drama about the
lives of outstanding figures in history.
Ex.:Shakespeare’s King John
5. MELODRAMA – a play with sensational
actions, a sentimental love story,
extravagant emotions, and generally, a
happy ending. Ex.: Pygmalion by Jean-
Jacques Rousseau
6. DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE – a combination
of drama and poetry, which presents the
speech of a single character “in a specific
situation at a critical moment.” The
speaker addresses one or more persons
who are present and who are listening to
the speaker but remain silent. The
speaker’s personality and character, his
relationship to others, his sense of values
and attitude towards life are indirectly
gleaned from his monologue. Ex.:
Helena’s Monologue in All’s Well That Ends
Well by Shakespeare
7. SOLILOQUY – like the monologue, the
soliloquy is a passage spoken by a
speaker in a poem or by a character in a
play, except that there is no one present
to hear him (except the reader or the
audience, of course). The thoughts
expressed, the emotions displayed, and
the revelations made, freely and without
inhibition, give deep insights into the
character. Ex.: Romeo’s soliloquy in
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
8. CHARACTER SKETCH – this is a particular
type, classified by Laurence J. Zillman in
the Art and Craft of Poetry under
dramatic poetry. It is a poem in which “the
writer is concerned less with matters of
story, complete or implied, than he is with
arousing sympathy, antagonism or merely
interest for an individual.” The poet serves
as observer and commentator. Ex.: My
Last Duchess by Robert Browning
9. MASQUE – is a form of court pageantry
which was popular in England in the 16th
century. The actors were dressed in
lavished costumes against a lavish
scenery and music.
C. LYRIC POETRY – a short poem that expresses
feelings which may or may not be set to music. It
is the metrical embodiment of the author’s
thoughts and feelings, and becomes the direct
and immediate channel of his communication
with his reader. Lyric poetry is not confined to
emotions alone, it may in fact, also reflect
philosophical, reflective, interpretative and
didactic thoughts.
1. ODE – a monodrama where the author is
the actor himself who shares an
unforgettable experience in life; a poem
addressed to some person or thing; most
majestic type of lyric poetry; exalted in
tone and express a lofty praise for some
person, object, event or idea. Example:
Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe; Ode on
a Grecian Urn and Ode to a Nightingale
by John Keats
2. ELEGY – a poem about death or mourning
expressed in lamentation. Example: O
Captain, My Captain by Walt Whitman
3. SONNET – a poem of fourteen rhymed
lines in iambic pentameter; was devised in
Italy in the 1220’s and was first perfected
and popularized by Francesco Petrarch;
Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey
popularized it in England in 16th century.
a) Italian or Petrarchan sonnet –
named after the Italian poet
Francesco Petrarch who
perfected it. It consists of an
octave (eight lines) which
develops the theme, followed by
a sestet (six lines) which
recapitulates the idea. The
octave has a rhyme scheme of
abbaabba and the sestet,
cdecde or cdcdcd, or some other
combinations.
b) English, Elizabethan or
Shakespearian sonnet – named
after William Shakespeare and
Queen Elizabeth I. it is divided into
three quatrains (four lines) plus a
couplet (two lines) with a rhyme
scheme of ababcdcdefefgg. The
idea is developed in the 3
quatrains and is summarized or
reinforced in the closing couplet.
c) Spenserian sonnet – named after
the English poet Edmund Spenser.
It is divided, like the Shakespeare
sonnet, into three quatrains and a
closing couplet with a rhyme
scheme of ababbcbccdcdee.
4. SONG – a poem intended to be sung.
a) Secular – have non-religious
themes; deals with different
15
 themes and emotions, including
present-day protest.
b) Sacred – includes hymns,
anthems, oratories, cantatas;
basically songs of praise to God.
5. PSALM – a religious song.
6. HYMN – a song of praise or adoration
either sacred or secular
7. MODERN BALLAD – based on a narrative
which serves as the poet’s inspiration.
There is a story behind the ballad.
Example: Puff the Magic Dragon by Paul
Simon
8. IDYLL – a poem of rural or pastoral feeling,
the author expresses sentiment for his
immediate surroundings. Example: Trees
by Joyce Kilmer
9. SIMPLE LYRIC – a short poem with verses
that are musical and with a subjective
and emotional tone.
10. HAIKU – a form of poetry that originated in
Japan. A Haiku has three lines: the first and
third lines have five syllables each; the
second line has seven. It depends on
imagery. Each word or phrase evokes an
image. A haiku usually depicts a scene in
nature and often implies a strong feeling.
PROSE
A. SHORT STORY –a narrative told by a known
author with characters, setting, plot and time.
B. NOVEL - an extended form of the short story
with several settings and more characters,
minor and major themes, main plot and
subplots.
a. Bildungsroman – a novel chronicling the
intellectual, spiritual, or moral
development of a young protagonist; this
is also known as a coming-of-age novel
Ex: James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist
as a Young Man”
Charles Dicken’s “David Copperfield”
b. Dystopian – A novel set in an imagined
future in an imagined society that purports
to be utopian but is revealed and
terrifyingly restrictive and inhuman. The
intent is usually to warn contemporary
readers that their own society is in danger
of turning into this horrifying future world.
Ex: Seminal works include Aldous Huxley’s
Brave New World and George Orwell’s
“Animal Farm” 1984; also Margaret
Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale.
c. Epistolary novels – these are novels told
through the medium of letters written by
one or more of the characters. This was
one of the earliest forms of novel to be
developed, originating with Samuel
Richardson’s Pamela in 1740. It remained
one of the most popular up to the 19 th
century. The novel’s reliance on
subjective points of view makes it the
forerunner of the modern psychological
novel. Pamela is a story of a servant girl’s
Victorian struggle against her master’s
attempts to seduce her.
Ex: Bridget Jones Diary; Samuel
Richardson’s “Clarissa”; Alice Walker’s
“The Color Purple”
d. Gothic novel – European romantic,
pseudomedieval fiction having a
prevailing atmosphere of mystery and
terror. Its heyday was the 1790s but it was
frequently revived thereafter. It was called
gothic because its imaginative impulse
was drawn from the rough and primitive
grander of medieval buildings and ruins.
Such novels were expected to be dark
and tempestuous and full of ghosts,
madness, outrage, superstition and
revenge.
Ex: Mary Shelley’s “Frankenstein”;
Charlotte Bronte’s “Jane Eyre”; Edgar
Allan Poe’s “Short Stories”
e. Kunslerroman– a novel portraying the
artistic realization or development of a
maturing protagonist. This is one type of
bildungsroman. Ex: James Joyce’s “A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” &
Marcel Proust’s “Remembrance of Things
Past”
f. Historical novel – is a novel that has as its
setting a period of history and that
attempts to convey the spirit, manners
and social conditions of a past age with
realistic detail and fidelity to historical
past.
g. Local Color Novel – A work that
incorporates cultural details of a particular
region-dialect, mannerisms, though
patterns – to portray a community, often
sentimentally. Frequently includes
eccentric characters.
Ex: Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening” &
Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”
h. Novel of manners – this is a work of fiction
that recreates a social world, conveying
with finely detailed observation of the
customs, values and mores of a highly
developed and complex society. The
conventions of the society – codified
behavior, acceptable forms of speech,
and so on – dominate the story, and
characters are differentiated by the
degree to which they measure up to or fall
below the uniform standard or ideal, of
behavior.
Ex: the works of Jane Austen, which deal
with the domestic affairs of English country
gentry families of the early 19th century
i. Picaresque novel- a popular sub-genre of
prose fiction which is usually satirical and
depicts, in realisticand often humorous
detail, the adventures of a roguish hero of
low social class who lives by his wits in a
corrupt society. This style
of novel originated in sixteenth
century Spain and flourished
16
 throughout Europe in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. It continues to
influence modern literature.
Ex: Miguel de Cervantes “Don Quixote” &
Mark Twain’s “Huckleberry Finn”
ELEMENTS OF A PLOT:
j. Philosophical novel – a novel serving as a
vehicle to explore philosophical ideas.
k. Psychological novel – a novel whose
primary focus is on the character’s
emotions and internal motivations as they
respond to external events.
A. PLOT – a series of events that give the story its
meaning and effect. In most stories, these
events arise out of the conflict experienced by
the main character.
1. EXPOSITION– the introduction which gives the
setting, creates the tone, presents the
characters and other facts necessary to
understanding the story.
2. FORESHADOWING– the use of hints or clues to
suggest what will happen later in the story.

Ex:Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s “Crime and
Punishment” & Henry James’ “Portrait of a
Lady”
l. Roman-a-clef – this a novel that has the
extraliterary interest of portraying
identifiable, sometimes real people more
or less thinly disguised as fictional
characters.
Ex: Ernest Hemingway’s “The Sun also
Rises”
m. Social Protest – a novel that aims to
illuminate and draw attention to
contemporary social problems with the
goal of inciting change for the better.
n. Thesis – (Novel of Ideas) a novel that
presents problems and argues in favor or
a solution.
Ex: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s
Cabin” & Charles Dikens’ “Hard Times”
C. MYTH – prose narratives considered sacred
and true in societies where they are told;
embodiment of dogma or religious doctrines
set in the remote past.
D. LEGENDS – prose narratives considered to be
true in societies where they originated and
thrived; set in the distant past.
E. FOLKTALES – not an embodiment of dogma,
told for entertainment, definitely fiction
3. INCITING FORCE – the event or character that
triggers the conflict
4. CONFLICT – the essence of fiction. The conflict
creates the plot. Common conflicts are:
 MAN vs MAN – puts one person in rivalry
with another
 MAN vs NATURE – a run-in with the forces
of nature. On one hand, it expresses the
inconsequentiality ofone man in the
vastness of the universe. On the other, it
puts a man’s strength and will to live to the
test.
 MAN vs SOCIETY – the values and customs
of the society are challenged. The
character may come to an untimely end
as a result of his convictions. Or, he may
bring others around to a sympathetic
point of view --- or it may be decided that
society was right after all.
 MAN vs SELF – internal conflict which tests
the character’s values. Sometimes,
people are their own worst enemy.
5. RISING ACTION – a series of events that builds
from the conflict. This begins with the inciting
force and ends with the climax.
6. CRISIS - the conflict reaches a turning point. At
this point, the opposing forces in the story
meet and the conflict becomes most intense.
May occur before or at the same time of the
climax.

F. PARABLES – stories containing morals or 7.
religious lessons and allegories
G. FABLES – characters are animals, expresses the
follies of men without directly attacking them.
8.
H. NON FICTION – is prose writing that presents
and explains ideas or that tells about real
people objects, or events. 9.
a. Biography is a form of non-fiction in which
a writer tells the life story of another person
b. Autobiography is a form of nonfiction in B.
which a person tells his or her own life story
c. Essay - a literary exposition expressing the
author’s views or ideas about a subject,
may be formal or informal.
I. HISTORICAL PROSE such as chronicle, diary,
journal and history
ELEMENTS OF FICTION
CLIMAX – the result of the crisis and the
moment of highest interest and greatest
emotion. It is the high point of the story for the
reader.
FALLING ACTION – events after the climax
which close the story.
RESOLUTION (DENOUEMENT)– concludes the
action.
CHARACTERS – the textual representation of a
human being.
In literature, as in real life, we can evaluate
character in three ways:
a) what the individual says
b) what the individual does
c) what others say about him or her
 MAJOR CHARACTERS - almost always
round or three-dimensional characters.

17
 They have good and bad qualities. Their
goals, ambitions or values change.
 ROUND CHARACTERS are
convincing and true-to-life and
changes as a result of what
happens to him. They have many
different and sometimes even
contradictory traits.
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERS undergo
some type of change or
development in the story often
because of what happens to him.
A dynamic character progresses
to a higher level of understanding
in the course of the story.
 MINOR CHARACTERS - almost always flat
or two-dimensional figures. They have only
one or two striking qualities. The
predominant quality is not balanced by
an opposite quality.
 FLAT CHARACTERS are
stereotyped, shallow and often
symbolic.
 STATIC CHARACTERS do not
change throughout the course of
the story.
Seven Common Character Types
by Terry W. Ervin II
Confidante- someone in whom the central
character confides, thus revealing the main
character’s personality, thoughts, and intentions.
The confidante does not need to be a person.
Dynamic Character - a character which
changes during the course of a story or novel.
The change in outlook or character is
permanent. Sometimes a dynamic character is
called a developing character.
Flat Character - a character who reveals only
one, maybe two, personality traits in a story or
novel, and the trait(s) do not change.
Foil - a character that is used to enhance
another character through contrast. Cinderella’s
grace and beauty as opposed to her nasty, self-
centered stepsisters is one clear illustration of a
foil many may recall from childhood.
Round Character - a well-developed character
who demonstrates varied and sometimes
contradictory traits. Round characters are
usually dynamic (change in some way over the
course of a story).
Static Character – a character that remains
primarily the same throughout a story or novel.
Events in the story do not alter a static
character’s outlook, personality, motivation,
perception, habits, etc.
Stock Character - a special kind of flat
character who is instantly recognizable to most
readers. Possible examples include the “ruthless
businessman”, “shushing old librarian” or “dumb
jock.” They are not the focus nor developed in
the story.
C. SETTING – this is where the story/action takes
place.
Stories actually have two types of
setting: Physical and Chronological.
The physical settingis of course where the
story takes place. The “where” can be very
general—a small farming community, for example—
or very specific—a two story white frame house at
739 Hill Street in Scott City, Missouri. Likewise, the
chronological setting, the “when,” can be equally
general or specific.
D. POINT OF VIEW – source and scope of the
narrative voice.
o First Person POV – The narrator is a
character in the story who can reveal
only personal thoughts and feelings or
what he sees and is told by the other
characters in the story. He cannot tell
the reader the thoughts and feelings
of other characters.
o Third Person Objective - The narrator is
an outsider who can only report what
he sees and hears. He tells us what is
happening but not the thoughts of the
characters.
o Third Person Limited – The narrator is
an outsider who sees the mind of only
one character.
o Omniscient – The narrator is an all-
knowing outsider who can enter the
minds of more than one character.
E. TONE / MOOD
o TONE is the author’s attitude, stated or
implied, towards a subject. This is
revealed through choice of words
and details within the story.
o MOOD is the climate of feeling in a
literary work. The choice of setting,
objects, details, images and words all
contribute towards creating a specific
mood.
F. SYMBOLISM – A person, place or object which
has a meaning in itself but suggests other
meanings as well.
G. THEME – The main idea or underlying meaning
of a literary work. A theme may be stated or
implied.
FOUR WAYS IN WHICH A THEME MAY BE EXPRESSED:
1. Themes are expressed and emphasized
by the way the author makes us feel. By
sharing feelings of the main character you
also share the ideas that go through his
mind.
2. Themes are presented in thoughts and
conversations. Authors put words in their
character’s mouths only for good reasons.
One of these is to develop the story’s
themes. Look for thoughts that are
repeated throughout the story.
3. Themes are suggested through the
characters. The main character usually
18
 illustrates the most important theme of the PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
story. What does the main character learn
in the course of the story? The Literary Periods
4. The actions or events in the story are used
to suggest the theme. People naturally 1. Pre-colonial (-- to 1564)
express ideas and feelings through their Characteristics
action. One thing authors think about is a. Based on oral traditions
what an action will “say”. b. Crude on ideology and
phraseology
Other literary terms: Literary Forms
Oral Literature
 Checkov’s gun – this refers to the insertion of a. Riddles(bugtong) battle of wits among
an apparently irrelevant object early in a participants
narrative for a purpose that is revealed later. Tigmo – Cebu; Paktakon – Ilonggo;
Patotdon – Bicol
 Cliffhanger – the narrative ends unresolved
and draws the audience back to a future
b. Proverbs or aphorisms(salawikain) –
episode for the resolution.
express norms or codes of behavior,
 Defamiliarization – forces the reader to community beliefs
recognize common things in an unfamiliar or or they instill values by offering nuggets of
strange way to enhance perception of the wisdom in short, rhyming verse
familiar.
c. Tanaga- a mono-riming heptasyllabic
 Epiphany – a sudden revelation of insight-
quatrain expressing insights and lessons
usually with a symbolic role in the narrative.
on life is "more
 Foreshadowing–the organization or emotionally charged than the terse
presentation of events and scenes in a work proverb and thus has affinities with the
of fiction or drama so that the reader or folk lyric."
observer is prepared to some degree for what Basahanon (Bukidnon) or
occurs later in the work. This can be part of the extended didactic sayings
general atmosphere of the work or it can be
a specific scene or object that gives a clue or Daraida and daragilon (Panay)
hint as to a later development of the plot.
Folk Songsis a form of folk lyric which
 Flashback – a literary or theatrical technique
expresses the hopes and aspirations, the
that involves the interruption of the
people's lifestyles as well as their loves.
chronological sequence of events by
These are often repetitive and sonorous,
interjection of events or scenes of earlier
didactic and naïve
occurrence, often in the form of
Ida-
reminiscence.
ida(Maguindanao); tulangpambata (Tagalog)
 Magic Realism – a Latin American literary or cansionesparaabbing (Ibanag).
phenomenon characterized by the a. Hele or oyayi – lullaby: Ili-ili (Ilongo)
incorporation of fantastic or mythical b. Love songs
elements matter-of-factly into otherwise the panawagon and balitao (Ilongo)
realistic fiction. The term was applied to c. Serenade or Harana (Cebuana)
literature in the late 1940s by Cuban novelist d. Ambahan (Mangyan) – 7-syllable per
AlejoCarpentier, who recognized the line poem that are about human
tendency of his region’s traditional storytellers relationships and
as well as contemporary authors to illumine social
the mundane by means of the fabulous. entertainment
Prominent among the magic realists in e. Kalusan (Ivatan) - work songs that
addition to Carpentier, were the Brazilian depict the livelihood of the people;
Jorge Amado, the Argentines Jorge Luis soliraninor Tagalog rowing songs;
Borges and Julio Cortazar, the Columbian mambayu a Kalinga rice pounding
Gabriel Garcia Marquez and the Chilean song
Isabel Allende. f. Tagay (Cebuano and Waray) –
drinking song
 Satire – this refers to the usually topical literary g. Kanogan (Cebuano) – song of
composition holding up human or individual lamentation for the dead;
vices, folly, abuses, or shortcomings to censure Annako(Bontoc)
by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque irony h. Duplo verbal jousts/games during
or other methods, sometimes with an intent to wakes
bring about improvement. i. Parangsabiluses for its
 Stream-of-consciousness – a narrative subject matter the exploits of
technique in nondramatic fiction intended to historical and legendary heroes. It
render the flow of myriad impressions – visual, tells of a Muslim hero who seeks
auditory, physical, associative, and subliminal death at the hands of non-Muslims.
– that together with rational thought impinge Folk Tales
on the consciousness of an individual. The a. Myths – how certain animals possess certain
term was first used by the psychologist William characteristics, why some places have
James in The Principles of Psychology in 1890. waterfalls, volcanoes,
mountains, flora or fauna

19
 b. Legends – explain the origin of things
c. Fables – use animal characters and
allegory
d. Fantastic stories – deal with underworld
characters such as “tiyanak”, “aswang”,
“kapre” and others
Epics.These epics revolve around supernatural
events or heroic deeds and they embody or validate
the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community.
These are sung or chanted to the accompaniment of
indigenous musical instruments and dancing
performed during harvests, weddings or funerals by
chanters. The chanters who were taught by their
ancestors are considered "treasures" and/or
repositories of wisdom in their communities.
“narratives of sustained length based on oral
tradition revolving around supernatural events or
heroic deeds” (Arsenio Manuel)
The Philippine epic is also
calledGuman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hud
hud (Ifugao); Ulahingan (Manobo)Ex.Lam-ang
(locano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Da
rangen (Maranao); Ulahingan (Livunganen-
Arumanen
Manobo); MangovaytBuhongnaLangit (The Maiden
of the Buhong Sky from Tuwaang--Manobo); Ag
TobignegKeboklagan (Subanon);
and Tudbulol (T'boli).
2. Spanish Colonization Period (1565 – 1863)
Characteristics
a. It has two distinct classifications:
religious and secular
b. It introduced Spanish as the
medium of communication
Literary Forms
Religious Literature - Religious lyrics written by
ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish
and Tagalog were included in early
catechism and were used to teach Filipinos
the Spanish language.
Pasyon – long narrative poem about the
passion and death of Christ. The most
popular was “AngMahalna Passion
niJesuCristongPanignoonNatin” by Aguino
de Belen
Senakulo – dramatization of the pasyon, it
shows the passion and death of Christ
Secular (non-religious) Literature
a. Awit - colorful tales of chivalry made for
singing and chantingEx: IbongAdarna
b. Korido – metrical tale written in
octosyllabic quatrainsEx: Florante at Laura by
Francisco Baltazar
Prose Narratives – written to prescribe proper
decorumEx: Modesto de Castro's
"PagsusulatanngDalawangBinibininasi Urbana at
siFeliza" and Joaquin Tuason's "AngBagong Robinson"
(The New Robinson) in 1879
III. Nationalistic/ Propaganda & Revolutionary Period
(1864 – 1896)
Characteristics: planted seeds of nationalism
in Filipinos; language shifted from Spanish to Tagalog;
Addressed the masses instead of the “intelligentsia”
Literary Forms
1. Propaganda Literature - Reformatory in
objective
Political Essays – satires, editorials and news
articles were written to attack and expose the evils of
Spanish rule (Diariong Tagalog – founded by Marcelo
del Pilar; La Solidaridad – whose editor-in-chief
is Graciano Lopez-Jaena)
Political Novels: Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo – Jose Rizal’s masterpieces that paved
the way to the revolution
2. Revolutionary Literature – more
propagandistic than literary as it is more violent in
nature and demanded complete independence for
the country
a. Political Essays – helped inflame the spirit
of revolution: Kalayaan – newspaper of the society,
edited by Emilio Jacinto
b. Poetry: True Decalogue –
ApolinarioMabini; KatapusangHibikngPilipinas –
Andres Bonifacio;Liwanag at Dilim – Emilio Jacinto
IV. American Colonial Period (1910 – 1945)
A. Period of Apprenticeship (1910-1930)
1. Filipino Writers imitated English and American
models
2. Poems written were amateurish and mushy, which
phrasing and diction is awkward and artificial
a. Short Stories: Dead Stars – Paz Marquez Benitez;
The Key – Paz Latorena; Footnote to Youth – Jose
Garcia Villa
b. Novels: Childe of Sorrow – first novel in English, by
ZoiloGalang
B. Period of Emergence (1920-1930)
1. Highly influenced by Western literary trends like
Romanticism and Realism.
a. Short Stories – most prevalent literary form; Jose
Garcia Villa – earned the international title “Poet of
the Century
V. Japanese Occupation (1942 - 1960)
A. War Years (1942-1944)
1. Tagalog poets broke away from the Balagtas
tradition and instead wrote in simple language and
free verse
2. Fiction prevailed over poetry
a. 25 PinakamabutingMaiklingKathang Pilipino (1943)
– compilation of the short story contest by the military
government: SuyuansaTubigan – Macario Pineda;
Lupang Tinubuan – Narciso Reyes;
UhawangTigangnaLupa – LiwaywayArceo
B. Period of Maturity and Originality (1945-1960)
1. Bountiful harvest in poetry, fiction, drama and
essay
2. Filipino writers mastered English and familiarized
themselves with diverse techniques
3. Literary “giants” -Palanca Awards for Literature:
Jose Garcia Villa, Nick Joaquin, NVM Gonzales,
Bienvenido Santos, Gregorio Brillantes, Gilda Cordero
Fernando, National Artist Awards, Jose Garcia Villa ii.
Nick Joaquin
VI. Contemporary/Modern Period (1960 – PRESENT)
A. Characteristics
1. Martial Law repressed and curtailed human rights,
including freedom of the press
2. Writers used symbolisms and allegories to drive
home their message, at the face of heavy censorship
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3. Theater was used as a vehicle for protest, such as
the PETA (Phil. Educational Theater Association)
and UP Theater.
4. From the eighties onwards, writers continue to
show dynamism and innovation
Award-Winning Filipino Authors and Their Works
Jose Corazon de Jesus (1896-1932) was popularly
known as “Batute”. He created his own generation
with his first book of poems. MgaGintongDahon
(1920) revealed that a new temper was at work in
Tagalog poetry, for the poems were concerned with
non-traditional themes as passion-slaying, grief-
induced insanity, and lover’s suicide.
Jose Garcia Villa (1906-1997) his short stories and
poems did much to establish Philippine writing
alongside Tagalog and Spanish literatures. His
“Footnote to Youth” (1931) heralded the arrival of a
Filipino author steeped in the Anglo-American literary
tradition.
Amado V. Hernandez (1903-1970) wrote two novels
that reflected the political and economic troubles of
the 1950s. LuhangBuwaya (1962) depicted the plight
of the peasantry and how exploitation by the
landlords taught them to organize in order to fight for
their rights.
Lualhati BautistaShe is known for novels that were
adapted for movies such as "Bata, Bata,
Pa'nokaginawa?" in 1998 and "Dekada '70" in 2002.
 AngHukom - Written in Tagalog, the story
revolves around the judge, the assistant
and the verdict.
 Seven Short Stories - Compilation of some
of the writings of Lualhati Bautista.
N. V. M. GonzalesNestor Vicente Madali Gonzales
was the first recipient of the Commonwealth Literary
Contest in 1940. He received the National Artist
Award in 1990.
 The Happiest Boy in the World [From the
book Seven Hills Away] - Situated in the
island of Mindoro, it is a short story that
talks about provincial life.
Nick Joaquin Also known under his pseudonym
"Quijano de Manila,"Nick Joaquin is so far the most
distinguished Filipino writer in English Writing. He was
awarded as the National Artist for Literature in 1973.
 Culture and History [Excerpt] In the last
chapter of this book, Nick Joaquin tries to
attest that there is a Filipino identity.
 BUSINESSWORLD (PHILIPPINES):
WEEKENDER: Portrait of Vivian Velez as
stage actress
The article features the play, Larawan,
and an interview with Vivian Velez
 May Day Eve [Excerpt]
One of the best short narratives that
believed to pioneer the literary style
called "magic realism".
BienvenidoLumbera. A critic, librettist and poet, Beny
created famous musical plays such as the "Tales of
the Manuvu and Rama Hari" at "Hibik at Himagsik
Nina Victoria Laktaw."
 A Eulogy of Roaches The analogous
poem depicts the roaches of the general
public.
 Agunyassa Hacienda Luisita A poem that
commemorates the massacre of farmers
in Tarlac.
 AngAtingBagongPanatangMakabayan
Pledged by the protestors in 2008, it
sardonically condones corruption.
 PaggunitasaPamamaslang A poem
about the massacre executed by the
Ampatuan Family in 2009.
 Toward a National Literature Originally a
speech, it was delivered by Lumbera
himself to an assembly of writers.
 Tribute to Alex Remollino A poetry
dedicated by BienvenidoLumbera to his
friend.
Alejandro Roces. Anding won the Best Short Story
award for "We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers" in the United
States. He received the Rizal Pro Patria, one of the
highest recognitions given by the Republic of the
Philippines. As a nationalist, he was known for
promoting Ati-atihan, Moriones and Penafrancia
Festivals, to name a few.
 I wrote as I wrote Roces bids farewell in
this last article published in Philippine Star.
 My Brother's Peculiar Chicken The
humorous short tale was featured in
Martha Foley's Best American Stories.
 We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers A funny
short story set during World War II.
Edith Tiempo. She is the only female among the
receivers of the National Artist Award in Literature.
 Bonsai A poem, surreally written about
love.
The Black Monkey Though typically short for a short
story, the baffling plot and intricate details contribute
well.
“Right Attitude + Right Strategy + Right Inputs = A
Successful Passer !!! ”
-ACES & STARS 2017
For further info and queries text or call me:
SAHLEE BARTOLAY-ALMONTE
09502981793, sahleealmonte@gmail.com
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