Female participation in intramural sports: An exploratory study

by

Christopher A. Lee

a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Education

at

Carroll University Waukesha, Wisconsin

May 2017
 Acknowledgments

To our research facilitator, Dr. Suzanne Warell, thank you for your guidance

throughout this fifteen-month process. Your passion for research and education were

evident and motivating. Thank you for your patience, persistence, and constructive

feedback. I could not have done this without your help.

To my course colleagues: Ashley, Alexa, Tracey, and Ty, thank you for your

support. We completed this project as a team and I could not have done it without your

constructive sandwich evaluations and your help when I was struggling to choose a topic.

To my thesis mentor, Tyler, thank you for you continued encouragement and

guidance. You are a great role model to any young professional and you take great pride

in your work. Your feedback and assistance were very helpful throughout this process.

To my supervisor, Dan, thank you for your understanding and assistance. Many

hours at work were spent discussing this topic and I valued your input and professional

knowledge on the subject. And to my work colleagues: Elizabeth, Jake, Katie, Ashley,

and Alexa, thank you for your support and understanding as well.

To my wife, Taryn, thank you so much for your unwavering support and

understanding as I spent many long hours focused on this project. Your ability to keep

our family happy and healthy as I spent many hours out of the house did not go

unnoticed. Countless times throughout this process you asked me “how can I help?” and

that meant the world to me.

Thank you all!

 ii

Table of Contents

Approval Page
Title Page
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. i
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ ii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................1

Background ....................................................................................................................1
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................2
Statement of the Problem ...............................................................................................3
Perceived Benefits ...................................................................................................3
Perceived Constraints...............................................................................................4
Perceived Motivators ...............................................................................................6
Significance of the Study ...............................................................................................6
Research Question .........................................................................................................7
Participants .....................................................................................................................7
Research Model .............................................................................................................8
Definition of Terms......................................................................................................12
Limitations ...................................................................................................................12
Overview of Chapters ..................................................................................................13

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................14

Introduction ..................................................................................................................14
Perceive Benefits .........................................................................................................16
Sense of Belonging ................................................................................................16
Recruitment and Retention ....................................................................................17
Perceived Constraints...................................................................................................18
Intrapersonal ..........................................................................................................18
Interpersonal ..........................................................................................................18
Structural ................................................................................................................19
Perceived Motivators ...................................................................................................19
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................20

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................22

Introduction ..................................................................................................................22
Research Question .......................................................................................................22
Research Design...........................................................................................................22
Research Participants ...................................................................................................23
Data Collection ............................................................................................................25
Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................26
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................27
 iii

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................28

Introduction ..................................................................................................................28
Study Participants ........................................................................................................28
Central Themes ............................................................................................................33
Benefits .................................................................................................................33
Constraints .............................................................................................................34
Motivators ..............................................................................................................35
Sub-themes...................................................................................................................35
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................36

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .................................................38

Introduction ..................................................................................................................38
Interpretation of Results ...............................................................................................38
Implications..................................................................................................................39
Create female only leagues ....................................................................................39
Increase advertising and awareness .......................................................................39
Diversify sport offerings ........................................................................................40
Limitations ...................................................................................................................40
Recommendations for Future Study ............................................................................41
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................41

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................43

APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................46
Appendix A: Participant Solicitation Email ................................................................46
Appendix B: Interest Survey........................................................................................47
Appendix C: Research Consent Form..........................................................................51
Appendix D: Focus Group and Interview Protocol .....................................................53
 iv

Abstract

Female Participation in Intramural Sports: An Exploratory Study

By

Christopher A. Lee

Carroll University, 2017

Under the Supervision of Dr. Suzanne Warell

Due to lack of intramural sports participation, most women on college campuses miss out

on the benefits. The purpose of this study is to explore how perceived benefits,

constraints, and motivators influence a sample of female students’ intramural sports

participation on a college campus. Using an exploratory approach, two focus groups with

11 participants and two informant interviews are used to collect data from female

students at a small, private, four-year institution in the upper Midwest. Participants

include six females who have participated in intramural sports and five females who have

not participated. The results of this study could be applied to the field of campus

recreation and help professionals better understand how to increase participation

numbers. The goal of the research is to help more females experience the benefits that
 v

come with intramural sports participation. An outcome of the study is a list of

suggestions and methods for recreational sports professionals to help increase

participation among the female population. Recommendations for intramural

programming professionals include creating female only sport offerings, increase

advertising and promotional efforts to target the female population, and to increase the

diversity of sport offerings to appeal to a larger audience.

Keywords: intramural sports, female participation, benefits, constraints,

motivators, campus recreation

 vi

List of Figures

Figure 1: Leisure Constraints Model ...................................................................................5

Figure 2: Research Model ..................................................................................................11

Figure 3: Literature Map ....................................................................................................15

 vii

List of Tables

Table 1: Focus Group Participants – Intramurals Yes .......................................................30

Table 2: Focus Group Participants – Intramurals No ........................................................31

Table 3: Non-Focus Group Participants ............................................................................32

 Chapter One: Introduction

Background

Going into college I knew absolutely nothing about intramural sports. My first

year of college I attended a small, four-year institution that did not offer an intramural

program. At that school, many of the students, myself included, played pick-up soccer or

basketball for fun whenever the courts or fields were not being used by the intercollegiate

athletic teams. I had no idea that there was the potential for the typical student to

participate in sport leagues or tournaments and compete in a structured format. During

my first year at school, outside of academics and work, I was also involved in coaching

and officiating youth ice hockey. I found a passion for officiating and knew it was

something I wanted to continue doing as an avocation for as long as I could.

After my first year, when I made the decision to transfer to a larger institution, I

made a conscious effort to look for sports officiating opportunities in the community that

I was moving to. A friend of mine, who attended the school I was transferring to, knew

about my search and recommended I try to work for the intramural sports program. This

was the first time I had ever heard of intramural sports so I asked for further details. He

said he had participated the year prior and that it was a lot of fun and a very relaxed

atmosphere. I immediately looked on the university website and found that they needed

intramural officials. I applied that day and was interviewed for the job my first day on

campus. I was soon hired and began officiating flag football three weeks later.

Being an official, I had the opportunity to meet a lot of people. These included

other officials, participants, spectators, and many other employees who did not work in

the intramural sports department. I met many individuals who shared my same interests
 2

and we could create teams to compete in numerous intramural leagues. I officiated and

participated in every sport that I could. I played in multiple intramural leagues and

tournaments, including hockey, soccer, broomball, kickball, dodgeball, and flag football

every semester for the rest of my undergraduate years.

The greatest benefit I received while participating in intramural sports would have

to be the people that I met and the connections that I made. Intramural sports introduced

me to so many people that I became great friends with. I found future roommates, study

partners, mentors, best friends, and even a few of my groomsmen in my wedding were

introduced to me during intramurals.

I enjoyed my time participating in intramural sports. I want everyone to

experience what I did and gain from the countless benefits that participation can bring.

Given this fact, I am very aware that many individuals, for a variety of reasons, do not

participate in intramural sports. The lack of participation in intramural sports among the

female population is somewhat alarming. The aim of this study is to find out how the

perceived benefits, constraints, and motivators and other potential factors may influence

female intramural sports participation and document the research that has been conducted

on this topic.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to explore the known factors that influence intramural

sports participation on a college campus and find other factors that may emerge from

participants’ experiences. In particular, how do the perceived benefits, constraints, and

motivators influence female participation on a college campus? Literature is sparse

regarding female participation in intramural sports (Sturts & Ross, 2013). There is limited
 3

research on the constraints that limit female intramural sports participation and even less

research on what motivates or influences the females that do participate.

Statement of the Problem

A small, private, four-year institution in the Midwest was chosen for this study.

From fall 2014 to today, at the research site, only 31% of the intramural sports

participants have been female while 69% have been male (IMleagues, 2016). This

statistic is not far from the national average. Additional research is needed in this area to

better understand the reasons why many female students are not participating in

intramural sports. At the same institution, per website statistics, the academic enrollment

rate is 65% female and 35% male. One problem is clear from this statistic: based on the

population of enrolled students, many female students are not participating in intramural

sports. Because of this, many female students are missing out on the perceived benefits

that come with intramural sports participation. The following sections explain further the

three major factors in the literature that are known to influence participation in intramural

sports; perceived benefits, perceived constraints, and perceived motivators.

Perceived Benefits. Previous studies suggest that the female students who do not

participate in intramural sports are missing out on many perceived benefits. Moffitt

(2010) suggests that participating in intramural sports programs more likely increases a

student’s sense of belonging in the community, interactions with peers, emotional health,

and leadership potential at the university. Furthermore, Bryant, Banta, and Bradley

(1995) suggest that outside structured first year programs, such as orientation and formal

events and recreational sports may be the single bond between students. The positive

outcomes associated with recreational sports on college campuses have been documented
 4

through the examination of participation in a variety of areas including intramural sports

(Artinger, Clapham, Forrester, Hunt, Meigs, Milord, & Sampson 2006; Rothwell &

Theodore, 2006). For example, intramural sports and collegiate recreational sports

programs and facilities have been recognized as a positive factor in student recruitment,

retention, and satisfaction (Lindsey & Sessoms, 2006; Lindsey, Sessoms, & Willis,

2009). Conversely, students who are not involved on campus early in their college life

tend to stay uninvolved and in turn are less likely to persist (Berger & Milem,1999;

Miller, 2011).

For females in particular, intramural sports participation is especially beneficial.

According to Sturts and Ross (2013) females who participate in intramural sports self-

reported higher degrees of social outcomes in all areas, with the biggest difference in

improving abilities to work within a team.

Perceived Constraints. Crawford and Godbey (1987) laid the foundation for the

classic theoretical model into constraints, categorizing them into three groups:

intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural. First, intrapersonal constraints refer to

individual’s psychological state and attitude, which prevail in interacting with preferred

activity rather than interfere with preference and participation (Crawford, Gobdey &

Jackson, 1991). Second, interpersonal constraints result from interactions or relations

among persons who participate in an activity (Crawford et al., 1991). And third,

structural constraints are parameters that interfere with preference/intention for

participation and actual participation. See Figure 1 for the Leisure Constraints Model

created by Crawford and colleagues (1991).

 5

Figure1. Leisure Constraints Model.

From Crawford, Gobdey & Jackson (1991)

 6

In an additional study that focused on Greek University students (Masmanidis,

Gargalianos, & Kosta, 2009) suggest that the top two constraints among students were

found to be “accessibility” and “lack of information.”

Perceived Motivators. Crandall (1980) stated that needs and motivation can be

treated as forces that cause people to seek certain behaviors. A student's initial

motivation, whether intrinsic (participating in sport for enjoyment) or extrinsic

(participating in sport to gain rewards) usually predicts the individual's attendance and

adherence to that particular sport (Fredrick, Lepes, Rubio, Ryan & Sheldon, 1997).

However, Rintaugu and Ngetich (2012) found that for the females, the most significant

motivating factors to participate were fitness, weight management, appearance, and

revitalization. Conversely, the least significant factors were reported as strength and

endurance, competition, challenge, stress management, and skill development. In general,

it was found that students who participate in sport and physical activities for intrinsic

motives are more likely to stick with the activities while individuals who participate for

extrinsic motives are less likely to continue after extrinsic needs are met. In other words,

competence and enjoyment predict participation and adherence while body-related

motives do not predict adherence to a particular sport.

While gender is an aspect of our society which influences all of us, there are

studies that indicate women tend to be more motivated to participate in sports by intrinsic

motives rather than extrinsic motives (Colly, Berman, & Van Milligen, 2005).

Significance of the Study

The aim of this study is to provide a list of suggestions and methods that could aid

in the field of Student Affairs at institutions of higher learning. In particular, collegiate

 7

recreational sports professionals could gain valuable insight from this study as it relates

to intramural sports participation. The professionals at the research site could gain

valuable input from undergraduate females, from their institution, and more evidence

outside of program statistics that show what additional factors exist in relation to

intramural sports participation. The information gathered from this study could reveal

additional constraints as well as more motivational factors that contribute to female

participation in intramural sports. The results of this study could be of assistance to

recreational sports professionals by providing them with relevant information to make

decisions to develop strategies, modify programs, and promote campus recreational

sports programs to increase female students’ participation rates.

Research Question

The primary research question for this study is:

 How do the perceived benefits, constraints, and motivators influence

female participation in intramural sports on a college campus?

The secondary research question is:

 What other factors, aside from benefits, constraints, and motivators,

influence female participation in intramural sports on a college campus?

Participants

Criteria to participate in this study include the following: the participant must be a

student at a small, four-year private institution in the Midwest, they must identify as a

female, and they must be over the age of 18. All participants are recruited from Exercise

Science and Physical Education classes with approval from course instructors. A

signature to show informed consent is needed from all participants before they are
 8

eligible to participate in the initial interest survey. Participation in this study is voluntary

and all participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

Participants’ identities are not compromised and remain anonymous. No participants are

included in the sample if they belong to a vulnerable population.

Further criteria are needed to participate in the focus groups and later the

informant interviews. These include all the initial study criteria as well as consent to

participate further in the study. The participants who consent to participate in the initial

interest survey are asked if they are interested in participating in a focus group with the

possibility of a follow-up interview. A minimum of twenty participants are selected to

participate in two different focus groups. One focus group consists of intramural sports

participants and the other consists of non-participants, which is specified in the interest

survey.

Finally, two participants are selected for interviews, one who is an intramural

sports participant and one who is not, based on willingness and thickest description in

focus group data. Participants selected for interviews must meet all the aforementioned

criteria and be available for a one-hour one-to-one interview.

Research Model

For the purposes of this study a qualitative method of data collection is used. Data

are collected from 20 female undergraduate and graduate students at the research site

who are 18 years of age or older. The female students are recruited from Exercise Science

and Physical Education academic courses with the approval of the course instructors.

Twenty female students, who consent to participate, fill out a short interest survey, that I

created, which should take no more than ten minutes to complete. Out of the total number
 9

of participants, eleven females are selected for a one-hour focus group. The selection

criteria require that each participant is available for a one-hour focus group and for a

potential follow-up interview to discuss intramural sports experience or lack of

experience this semester. Participants are informed that two interview informants are

selected from the focus group based on availability, intramural sports participation and

non-participation, and thick descriptions provided in focus group data.

With the approval of the course instructors, I administer the research consent form

for participants to complete. I explain the parameters of the study as well as the

expectations of the participants to ensure that no participant feels coerced in any way.

Participation in this study is completely voluntary and there are no negative consequences

if one chooses not to participate. Informed consent forms are kept in my locked office file

cabinet. After the study, all forms are destroyed after approximately three years.

This study has no more than minimal risk associated with it. Risks cannot be

predicted and all measures are taken to minimize any risk. Participants in the study

remain anonymous. This study requires time outside of the participant’s daily routine.

Those who participate in the focus group receive the benefit of a free lunch provided by

me worth a value of no more than ten dollars.

For the purpose of this study a triangulation method of data collection is used.

Data are collected in the following ways:

1. A short interest survey, that I created, is distributed to female Exercise

Science and Physical Education students over the age of 18 who have

signed the attached consent form. I recruit the study participants with the
 10

approval of course instructors. The interest surveys are distributed during

a class visit.

2. Consent to participate in a focus group is asked at the conclusion of the

interest survey. I then choose eleven participants to take part in the focus

group. At least half of the focus group participants must be non-intramural

sports participants. The focus groups take place over a lunch hour at a

location on campus. I provide lunch for all focus group participants.

3. Finally, I conduct two separate one-to-one interviews. Both interviewees

have completed the interest survey and participated in the focus group.

One interviewee is an intramural sports participant and the other has not

been involved in an intramural sport. The two interviewees selected

provide greater detail in the focus group and are willing to dig deeper to

answer the research question. The interviews take place on campus.

All data collected for this study are anonymous and confidential. The data

collected are kept secure. All copies of consent forms, surveys, and focus group and

interview transcriptions are kept in my locked office file cabinet. No institution or

individual is identified by name; all is given a number or a pseudonym. After the study,

all collected data and documents are destroyed.

Participants are not compensated for their participation in this study. I provide

lunch for each focus group participant valued at no more than $10 each. All participants

are given a link to the digital library for the opportunity to view the results of this study

(See Figure 2: Research Model).

 11

Step One:
Step Two:
Participant Recruitment
Initial Interest Survey
1. Obtain Permission from Exercise
Science and Physical Education 1. Receive signed informed consent.
instructors.
2. Pass out interest survey.
2. Describe parameters of study
and participant expectations. 3. Receive interest survey with
consent at the bottom for the focus
3. Administer informed consent to group.
potential participants.

Step Four:

Two Interviews
Step Three:
1. Choose one participant and one
Focus Group
non-participant who give thickest
responses from focus group for 1. Schedule lunch hour focus group
further discussion. for female participants who give
consent.
2. Schedule interviews.
2. Explain guidelines and
3. Explain guidelines and
expectations.
expectations.
3. Conduct focus group with
4. Conduct interviews with
recording.
recordings.
4. Inform group that two participants
will be asked to be interviewed.

Step Six:
Step Five:
So What??!
Data Analysis
1. How to the perceived benefits,
1. Review instrument responses
constraints, and motivators
and transcribe focus groups and
contribute to participation?
interviews.
2. What additional factors contribute
2. Explore themes/factors.
to participation?
3. Find which factors are unique to
3. Recommendations
the research site.

Figure 2. Research Model

This figure shows the an outline of the research model I used for the study.
 12

Definition of Terms

There are terms used throughout this study that need to be defined for clarity of

understanding. These terms include the following:

Intramural sports are athletic opportunities involving only students from the same

school or college. Intra- meaning “within” and muralis- meaning “pertaining to a wall”.

Activity “within the walls” of a city building, community, school, etc. (intramural, 2010)

Campus recreation, also referred to as recreational sports or RecSports, is the

department that sometimes falls under Intercollegiate Athletics, or in this case Student

Affairs, that is responsible for programming and organizing recreation services to college

students, faculty, and staff. Campus recreation can include a variety of programs

including, but not limited to; intramural sports, club sports, informal recreation (open

gym), group fitness, personal training, and wellness promotion.

Limitations

One potential issue that I may encounter as a study limitation is a small sample. If

this is the case, I could consider recruiting more participants from other academic classes

at the same university research site. Another issue that could arise, but is unlikely, is little

or no interest from the participants to conduct the focus groups or one-to-one interviews.

I could then recruit the participants from a convenient sample of Exercise Science and

Physical Education classes. It is reasoned that this population is more likely to have a

high interest in the outcome of this study and is willing to participate due to a higher

degree of interest in sports based on career choice.

I only gather information form one small, private, four-year institution in the

Midwest. This limits my ability to generalize the results of the study. The research site
 13

and its recreational programming stakeholders gain valuable information that could be

used to improve intramural sports programs and services to female students and to the

entire student body.

Overview of Chapters

Chapter One presents the introduction to the topic, the qualitative research model,

and describes the overall process for the thesis. The research problem and primary

question are presented and the methods and limitations are detailed.

In Chapter Two, I present a literature review. The literature is used to frame the

study: benefits, constraints, and motivators for female participation in intramural sports.

In Chapter Three, I present a detailed explanation of the methodology used to

address the research question: How do the perceived benefits, constraints, and motivators

influence female participation in intramural sports on a college campus? A three-phase

qualitative research model is detailed to analyze participants’ feedback. A short interest

survey, focus groups, and one-to-one interviews are all utilized to dig deep into the

problem and explore the phenomenon under study.

In Chapter Four, I present the results and analysis of the study. The qualitative

information is presented along with descriptive statistics from the initial interest survey.

In Chapter Five, I provide a summary and conclusion of the study. I discuss

limitations of the study, recommendations, and suggestions for further research.

 14

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Introduction

Literature in regards to female intramural sports participation is sparse. This study

focuses on individual experiences pertaining to participation and non-participation.

Previous research has shown what some of the perceived benefits, constraints, and

motivators are for intramural sports participants. This study explores the issue further and

focuses on experiences and feedback from a sample of female students.

This chapter is broken down into three sections; benefits, constraints, and

motivators. These perceived factors are known to influence intramural sports

participation. The first section is perceived benefits. By not participating, many females,

at the research site and around the country, are missing out on the benefits that come with

intramural and recreational sports opportunities. Three benefits that this study describes

further are community involvement and a sense of belonging on campus, health and

wellness benefits, and student recruitment and retention.

The second section is perceived constraints. Constraints are what might limit

females from participating in intramural sports. The constraints are further grouped into

three areas: intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints, and structural constraints.

The third section explains the perceived motivators. The motivators describe what

drives females to participate in intramural sports. An intrinsic motivator, like enjoyment,

love of the game, or personal benefits, is one type while extrinsic, such as winning the

end of season tournament or receiving championship t-shirts, is another type.

The literature map in Figure 3 outlines the literature review and shows the

literature that framed this study (See Figure 3: Literature Map).

 15

Figure 3. Literature Map.

Figure shows all the literature used to frame this study.

 16

Perceived Benefits

This study suggests that female students who do not participate in intramural

sports are missing out on many perceived benefits. Research in this literature review

suggest that a sense of belonging and recruitment and retention are some of the known

perceived benefits.

Sense of belonging. Moffitt (2010) suggests that participating in intramural sports

programs increases a student’s sense of belonging in the community, interactions with

peers, emotional health, and leadership potential at the university. In the study, Moffitt

uses the Campus Recreation Participation Ladder which begins with the student initiating

in campus recreation programs, i.e. intramural sports. Next, the student involves self in

given programs on a daily or weekly basis. Third, the student invests self in recreation

programs through leadership opportunities. And finally, the student is integrated in

campus recreation programs that add to a sense of belonging in the institution. Wade

(1991) agrees and concluded in a study of how students chose to spend their time outside

the structured class that an essential and critical component of retention and persistence

of students was their feeling of belonging to a community.

Furthermore, Bryant, Banta, and Bradley (1995) suggest that outside structured

first year programs, such as orientation and formal events, recreational sports may be the

single bond between students. They also found that 30% of students reported that campus

recreational facilities and programs were key factors in their decision to either attend or

continue at their institution.

For females in particular, intramural sports participation is especially beneficial.

According to Sturts and Ross (2013) females who participate in intramural sports self-
 17

reported higher degrees of social outcomes in all areas, with the biggest difference in

improving abilities to work within a team. Intramural sports provide many social

outcomes for college students that aid in development, satisfaction, and creating healthy

social networks. Sturts and Ross (2013), go on to explain that females experience

significant social outcomes related to intramural participation, so it is important for

recreational sports departments to continually involve more females in efforts to improve

the overall quality of life for more students on college campuses.

Recruitment and retention. Over the past 30 years, researchers and university

administrators have realized that students often choose to remain at a college or

university because of extracurricular activities in which they become involved (Tinto,

1975). The positive outcomes associated with recreational sports on college campuses

have been documented through the examination of participation in a variety of areas

including intramural sports (Artinger, Clapham, Forrester, Hunt, Meigs, Milord, &

Sampson 2006; Rothwell & Theodore, 2006). For example, intramural sports and

collegiate recreational sports programs and facilities have been recognized as a positive

factor in student recruitment, retention, and satisfaction (Lindsey & Sessoms, 2006;

Lindsey, Sessoms, & Willis, 2009).

Conversely, students who are not involved on campus early in their college life

tend to stay uninvolved and in turn are less likely to persist (Berger & Milem,1999;

Miller, 2011). Uninvolved students were less likely to perceive the institution or their

peers as supportive, less likely to become integrated, and thus, less likely to persist

(Berger & Milem, 1999). Miller (2011) also states that the more involved in and

committed to the university students become, the more likely they will persist at the
 18

university. Additionally, Light (1990) found that more involvement in co-curricular

collegiate activities correlated with higher satisfaction of college life and academic

success.

Perceived Constraints

Hurd and Forrester (2006) define leisure constraints as the “factors that limit the

formation of leisure and/or inhibit or prohibit participation and enjoyment in leisure.

Crawford and Godbey (1987) laid the foundation for the classic theoretical model into

constraints, categorizing them into three groups: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and

structural. First, intrapersonal constraints refer to individual’s psychological state and

attitude, which prevail in interacting with preferred activity rather than interfere with

preference and participation (Crawford, Gobdey, & Jackson, 1991). Second, interpersonal

constraints result from interactions or relations among persons who participate in an

activity (Crawford et al., 1991). And third, structural constraints are parameters that

interfere with preference/intention for participation and actual participation.

Intrapersonal. Nam et al. (2009) defines intrapersonal constraints as those

individual psychological states and attributes which interact with leisure preferences

rather than intervening between preferences and participation. Godbey et al. (2010)

agrees with the above definition and provides the following examples of intrapersonal

barriers: interest, individual/psychological constraints, lack of motivation, stress and

depression. Intrapersonal constraints, per Crawford et al. (1991), involves individual

psychological states and attributes like stress and depression.

Interpersonal. Interpersonal constraints are constraints that arise out of social

interaction with friends, family, and others (Hurd & Forrester, 2006). Interpersonal
 19

constraints encompass factors inhibiting interaction with others, like the difficulty in

finding co-participants (Tsai & Coleman, 2007).

Structural. Structural constraints are aspects that interfere between leisure

preference and actual participation and might include lack of time, lack of finances, and

facility constraints (Crawford et al., 1991). Structural constraints are more easily

overcome than interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints (Hurd & Forrester, 2006).

As reported in Chapter One, an additional study by Masmanidis, Gargalianos, and

Kosta (2009) focused on Greek university students. The authors suggest that the top two

constraints among students were found to be “accessibility” and “lack of information.”

Perceived Motivators

Crandall (1980) stated that needs and motivation can be treated as forces that

cause people to seek certain behaviors. A student's initial motivation, whether intrinsic,

participating in sport for enjoyment, or extrinsic, participating in sport to gain rewards,

usually predicts the individual's attendance and adherence to that particular sport

(Fredrick, Lepes, Rubio, Ryan, & Sheldon, 1997).

Rintaugu and Ngetich (2012) found that the most significant motivating factors to

participate for females were fitness, weight management, appearance, and revitalization.

Conversely, the least significant factors were reported as strength and endurance,

competition, challenge, stress management, and skill development. Students who

participate in sport and physical activities for intrinsic motives are more likely to stick

with the activities while individuals who participate for extrinsic motives are less likely

to continue after extrinsic needs are met.

 20

While gender is an aspect of our society which influences all of us, there are

studies that indicate women tend to be more motivated to participate in sport by intrinsic

motives rather than extrinsic motives (Colly, Berman, & Van Milligen, 2005).

Conclusion

Literature is sparse regarding female participation in intramural sports. Much of

the research presented in this chapter explores other populations and does not study

female students in particular. This study explores the issue of participation, or lack

thereof, and gets personal feedback from female students who both participate and do not

participate in intramural sports programs.

The results of this study could contribute to the body of knowledge within the

field of recreational sports regarding intramural sports participation among the female

population. The findings could aid recreational sports professionals in providing the

needed evidence in better illustrating intramural sports overall importance and value

within the larger university community. The recreational sports department at the

research site could gain valuable evidence to support growth in participation numbers and

overall better program offerings. The individual experiences highlighted in this study

could show the research site compelling qualitative evidence that past research applies to

their institution and could also be valuable for peer institutions.

In Chapter Three, I present a detailed explanation of the triangulated methodology

used to address the two research questions:

 How do the perceived benefits, constraints, and motivators influence

female participation in intramural sports on a college campus?

 21

 What other factors, aside from benefits, constraints, and motivators,

influence female participation in intramural sports on a college campus?

A qualitative, grounded theory research model is detailed to analyze participants’

feedback. A short interest survey, focus groups, and one-to-one interviews are all utilized

to dig deep into the problem and explore the phenomenon under study.
 22

Chapter Three: Methodology

Introduction

This study was based on the experiences of female students and their perceptions

about intramural sports participation. I gathered qualitative data from participants to find

out what factors, such as benefits, constraints, and motivators, may influence college

students, particularly females, when making the decision to participate in intramural

sports or not participate.

In this chapter, I outline the research methodology, which includes: the research

design, the participants used in the study, and the data collection and analysis methods

used. Any ethical considerations and permissions needed for the research are also

explained.

Research Question

The central question of this research study explored: How do perceived benefits,

constraints, and motivators influence female participation in intramural sports on a

college campus? A secondary question I wanted to answer was: What other factors, aside

from benefits, constraints and motivators, influence female participation in intramural

sports on a college campus?

Research Design

A qualitative research design was utilized for this study. As stated by Creswell

(2015), “In qualitative inquiry, the intent is not to generalize to a population but to

develop an in-depth exploration of a central phenomenon” (p. 204). In this case, the

existing theories do not address the exact participants whom I planned to study. Creswell

also states that the grounded theory design is used to explain actions of people, such as
 23

the process of participating in an adult education class (Courtney, Jha, & Babchuk, 1994).

More specifically, the systematic design for grounded theory was utilized.

Research Participants

Multiple sampling techniques were used to identify participants for this study.

The research site was selected through concept sampling, meaning that certain sites are

used because “they can help the researcher generate or discover a theory or specific

concepts within the theory” (Creswell, 2015 p. 207). As a professional staff member at

the research site, I had familiarity and access which allowed for an in-depth study.

To find specific participants, I used maximal variation sampling which, per

Creswell (2015), is “a purposeful sampling strategy in which the researcher samples

cases or individuals that differ on some characteristic or trait” (p. 206). In this case, a

primary criterion was intramural sports participation or non-participation. By engaging

two different groups in this study, it allowed a theory to emerge about the differences in

perceptions about intramural sports. Snowball sampling was also used to identify

additional study participants from initial respondents. Initial participants of the study

were asked to identify other female students who were potentially interested in

participating in the study. These referrals were used to identify additional research

participants for the study. Female students were accepted for the study if they agreed to

the informed consent, provided information in the short interest survey, and agreed to

participate in the focus group.

The eligible participants in this study were female, full-time, undergraduate and

graduate students, over the age of 18, at a small, four-year private institution in the

Midwest. All participants were solicited through email. The solicitation email went to
 24

different listservs on campus that I had access to. I was given permission from faculty

and staff on campus to reach out to the sorority women on campus, all the female

intramural participants in the past two years, as well as the RecSports Department student

staff list. The email included a link to the informed consent and interest survey (See

Appendix A: Participant Solicitation Email).

Participation in this study was voluntary and all participants had the right to

withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participants’ identities were not

compromised and remain anonymous. To help ensure anonymity, each participant chose

a pseudonym that they would be referred to as for the duration of the study. No

participants were included in the sample if they belonged to a vulnerable population.

Further criteria were needed to participate in the focus groups and later the one-to-one

interviews. Further discussion of the focus group and one-to-one interview participants is

discussed in Chapter Four.

The participants who gave consent to participate in the initial interest survey were

asked if they were interested in participating in a focus group with the possibility of a

follow-up interview (See Appendix B: Interest Survey). I then selected two groups to

participate in separate focus groups. One group consisted of six females who had

participated in intramural sports. The other group consisted of five females who had

never participated in intramural sports.

Two participants were then selected for one-to-one interviews. One who was an

intramural sports participant and one who was not, based on willingness and the thickest

description provided in the focus group transcripts. The participants selected for one-to-
 25

one interviews met all the aforementioned criteria and were available for a one-hour

interview.

Data Collection

Prior to any data collection, I obtained permission from the Institutional Review

Board (IRB) to conduct the study at the research site. Permission was also granted by

faculty and staff at the research site to solicit females from their classes and departments

to participate in the study. Before participating in the study, students were given, and

asked to sign, an informed consent form detailing the purpose and scope of the research

(See Appendix C: Research Consent Form). Signing the informed consent meant the

participants agreed to participate in the study.

Qualitative instruments were used to collect data. In-person focus group meetings

and one-to-one interviews were utilized to gain an in-depth understanding of each

participant’s experiences related to intramural sports participation. A semi-structured

process and protocol were used for the focus groups and interviews (See Appendix D:

Focus Group and Interview Protocol). This approach allowed for flexibility and the

ability to adjust to individual experiences. The protocol was used to initiate conversations

and gain a baseline understanding from each participant to ensure a level of consistent

information. The same protocol was used for the focus groups discussions and the one-to-

one interviews.

Protocol questions that were used to gather qualitative evidence include:

 When I say “intramural sports” what comes to mind?

 What are the strengths of the intramural department on this campus?

 What are the benefits of participating in intramural sports for females?

 26

 What are some constraints that females mat encounter when it comes to

intramural sports participation?

 What motivated females to participate in intramural sports?

These questions, along with others, helped identify what potentially influences females to

participate or not participate in intramural sports. The questions also helped identify how

select female students understand and describe their experiences with intramural sports

on a college campus.

The focus group meetings and one-to-one interviews were conducted at the

research site in a location that was convenient and available to the participants. Each

interview was audio recorded and transcribed. The transcription was graciously done with

the help of two of my colleagues. I recorded notes and observations during the interviews

which are also used for data analysis.

Data Analysis

The systematic design in grounded theory was used to analyze the data in this

study. According to Creswell (2015), the systematic design “emphasizes the use of data

analysis steps of open, axial, and selective coding and the development of a logic

paradigm or a visual picture of the theory generated” (p. 427).

Each focus group and interview transcription was analyzed on its own initially.

Initial analysis proceeded with an open coding process that allowed a large set of

incidents, events, or happenings to emerge. A hand coding process was selected for

analysis. For example, after the transcriptions were reviewed several times, three colored

markers were used to code language or data segments that are consistent with the

categories found in the literature; benefits, constraints, and motivators. Green for
 27

perceived benefits, red for perceived constraints, and yellow for perceived motivators. A

blue marker was then used to underline data segments that did not fit those categories.

With the initial coding process, a set of deductive themes was used based on previous

research. Those themes were based on the perceived benefits, constraints, and motivators

known in the literature to explain why college student participate in intramural sports. As

new categories emerged, themes provided an explanation for the phenomenon under

study.

Validity in data analysis was ensured through the use of member checking and an

external review of the data. Transcriptions were shared to the participants for review.

Participants were asked to comment and determine if the transcriptions and notes were

fair and accurate with their perspectives. Additionally, an external review of the

procedures and conclusions drawn was done by an individual outside of the study in a

review. My thesis mentor and research instructor were recruited as third-party evaluators

to assist in the validation and interpretation of the data.

Conclusion

This chapter outlines the design of the research study, the study participants, as

well as the collection and analysis of the data. This chapter also provides a framework of

the steps taken to collect and interpret the data.

In Chapter Four, I present the results and analysis of the study. The qualitative

data collected through focus groups and one-to-one interviews are presented along with

descriptive statistics from the initial interest survey.

 28

Chapter Four: Results and Analysis

Introduction

In this chapter I provide a summary of the research findings and data analysis.

The primary research question for this study is: How do perceived benefits, constraints,

and motivators influence female participation in intramural sports on a college campus?

A secondary question I want to answer is: What other factors, aside from benefits,

constraints and motivators, influence female participation in intramural sports on a

college campus?

This chapter is organized into two primary sections. The first section shares an

overview of participant backgrounds, demographics, and intramural involvement

experiences. The second section summarizes the three central themes and details any new

sub-themes that emerged in this study.

Study Participants

This section provides a description of each participant’s background and

involvement with intramural sports. It also describes an overview of each participant’s

focus group and interview responses.

The three tables show the name (a pseudonym chosen by the participants), year in

school, age, and intramural involvement of all 20 individuals who responded to the

interest survey. Table 1 shows the individuals who participated in intramural sports and

who were involved in the first focus group discussion (See Table 1: Focus Group

Participants – Intramurals Yes). Table 2 shows the individuals who did not participate in

intramural sports and who were involved in the second focus group discussion (See Table

2: Focus Group Participants – Intramurals No). Table 3 shows the individuals who chose
 29

not to participate in either focus group but did complete the interest survey (See Table 3:

Non-focus Group Participants).

 30

Table 1

Focus Group Participants – Intramurals Yes

Name
(pseudonym) Year Age Intramural Sports
Volleyball,
Carley Freshman 18 Dodgeball
Volleyball,
Octavia Freshman 18 Dodgeball
Volleyball,
Micky Junior 21 Basketball
Basketball,
Sara Sophomore 20 Volleyball

Kayla Freshman 18 Volleyball

Ashley Junior 21 Volleyball

 31

Table 2

Focus Group Participants – Intramurals No

Name
(pseudonym) Year Age Intramural Sports

Maddie Freshman 18 N/A

Sam Junior 21 N/A

Jo Junior 20 N/A

Violet Sophomore 20 N/A

Hollie Freshman 18 N/A

Note. The intramural sport “N/A” signifies that they have no prior experience
participating in intramural sports.
 32

Table 3

Non-Focus Group Participants

Name
(pseudonym) Year Age Intramural Sports

N/A Senior 22 N/A

N/A Sophomore 19 N/A

Basketball,
N/A Sophomore 20 Ultimate Frisbee
Indoor Soccer,
N/A Senior 21 Volleyball
Volleyball,
N/A Freshman 18 Basketball

N/A Freshman 18 Volleyball

Indoor Soccer,
N/A Junior 20 Bubble Soccer
Volleyball,
N/A Senior 22 Basketball
Indoor Soccer,
Dodgeball,
Volleyball,
N/A Grad Student 23 Basketball
Note. The pseudonym “N/A” signifies that they did not participate in the focus groups
or the interviews but they did complete the interest survey. The intramural sport “N/A”
signifies that they have no prior experience participating in intramural sports.
 33

Central Themes

The framework for this study is based on three central themes related to

participation in recreational activities: benefits, constraints, and motivators. Based on

existing research, the three central themes can be broken down into sub-themes. Benefits

are broken down into recruitment and retention, a sense of community, and health and

wellness benefits. Constraints are broken down into interpersonal, intrapersonal, and

structural constraints. Motivators are broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Benefits. Participants in the focus groups and interviews primarily agreed with

the existing literature when it came to the benefits of participating in intramural sports.

Recruitment and retention, a sense of community, and health and wellness benefits were

all touched on throughout the interviews and focus group discussions. Responses related

to a sense of community include:

 The biggest benefit for me is meeting new people. – Octavia

 Intramurals gives me a break from school and work, an opportunity to meet new

people, and a chance to develop closer friendships. – Ashley

 The social aspects like meeting new people and hanging out with friends are a

great benefit. – Carley

Responses related to recruitment and retention include:

 They (intramurals) give students something to look forward to after class. – Micky

 A break from school and studying. – Jo

 Students get on a team and look forward to playing each week. Intramurals gives

them more of a reason to stay. – Sara

Responses related to health and wellness benefits include:

 34

 Intramural sports are a great stress relief. – Kayla

 That little bit of physical activity every week is great! – Micky

 I enjoy staying active and getting a workout in while having fun with my friends. -

Ashley

Constraints. The three constraint themes are intrapersonal, interpersonal, and

structural constraints. Per Godbey et al. (2010) some intrapersonal barriers include

interest, individual/psychological constraints, lack of motivation, stress and depression.

Interpersonal constraints are constraints that arise out of social interaction with friends,

family, and others (Hurd & Forrester, 2006). Structural constraints are aspects that

interfere between leisure preference and actual participation and might include lack of

time, lack of finances, and facility constraints (Crawford et al., 1991). Participant

responses related to intrapersonal constraints include:

 Females just don’t think about choosing to play intramurals – Ashley

 Most people perceive women as not as competitive. – Kayla

 Watching intramurals is stressful so I can’t imagine playing in it. – Sara

Responses related to interpersonal constraints include:

 Guys are overly competitive and are more into it. – Sara

 I don’t have many girlfriends in intramurals. – Ashley

 The fear of getting hurt or dominated by the guys are why I think a lot of girls

don’t play. – Micky

Responses related to structural constraints were the most prevalent and include:

 One negative is the timing because the games are so late at night. – Sara
 35

 More girls would participate if there was an all-female league or sport offered. –

Maddie

Motivators. A student's initial motivation, whether intrinsic, participating in sport

for enjoyment, or extrinsic, participating in sport to gain rewards, usually predicts the

individual's attendance and adherence to that particular sport (Fredrick, Lepes, Rubio,

Ryan, & Sheldon, 1997). Extrinsic motivation was not a much of a factor for any of the

study participants when it came to intramural participation. This backs up the claim from

Colly, Berman, & Van Milligen (2005) who suggest that women tend to be more

motivated to participate in sport by intrinsic motives rather than extrinsic motives. Some

responses related to intrinsic motivational factors include:

 Intramurals are a great place for girls who have played a sport before but do not

wish to continue playing at a real competitive level, more just for fun. – Violet

 The social aspect and fun environment are why I started playing. I grew up

playing sports and wanted to continue at a stress-free level when I got to college.

– Sara

Sub-themes

During my discussions with female intramural participants and non-participants,

there were a few things that came up that did not exactly fit into the predetermined

central themes. This inductive portion of the research is where I came up with sub-themes

that emerged during my research. Two topics that had an influence on several intramural

sports participants that I could not fit into the central themes included marketing and

advertising of intramural programs and the continuation of a sport that they love. Both

themes could be classified as a benefit, constraint, or motivator depending on who you

 36

ask. For the most part the advertising and awareness seem to be lacking at this research

site. A few responses related to awareness include:

 As a first-year student, I did not know the difference between club sports and

intramural sports. I signed up for one thinking it was the other. – Violet

 Many students, females in particular, are not actively looking for intramurals so

you need to find a way to reach them. – Maddie

 Awareness is lacking for a majority of the student body. – Sara

 The most consistent location I have seen advertising for intramural sports is on

the door in the women’s restroom. – Maddie

Responses related to love of the sport and continuation include:

 I high school you don’t have Co-ed but in college you do. I love playing volleyball

against the guys and girls. – Sara

 Anyone who played a sport in high school or youth is more likely to continue that

sport in college. Intramurals is a great way to do that. – Octavia

Conclusion

In this chapter I provided descriptive results from the interviews and focus groups

pertaining to the central themes of benefits constraints and motivators. I also included

two sub-themes that emerged from my discussions with the research participants. The

two sub-themes were advertising and awareness of intramural programs and love of the

game and continuation. This suggests that intramural sports programming professionals

should direct more advertising efforts to females specifically. Intramural sports program

coordinators should also diversify their sport offerings to include leagues and

tournaments that females are interested in. The next chapter, Chapter Five, will revisit the
 37

problem and the results as well as provide implications, limitations, and

recommendations for future research.

 38

Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusion

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to identify how the perceived benefits, constraints,

and motivators influence female participation in college intramural sports. The objective

was to determine why it is that so few females participate in intramural sports compared

to men and to determine what factors cause the low participation numbers. The results of

this study are important because they inform college administrators, faculty, staff, and

students on information regarding student participation in co-curricular activities on a

college campus. The results can also help campus recreation professionals when planning

intramural sport programs and give them more information on what factors affect female

participation.

Interpretation of Results

Overall, the results from my study back up and justify the body of research on the

topic of intramural and recreational sports participation. I did find two sub-themes aside

from the benefits, constraints, and motivators to female participation. These are:

1) Participants revealed that increased advertising and promotion targeted to

females would facilitate larger numbers of females participating.

2) Participants revealed that intramural sports provided the venue to continue in

the sports that they love and intramural coordinators need to provide a larger

variety of sport offerings.

I deemed these two findings not a perfect fit for the three predetermined central themes of

benefits constraints, and motivators.

 39

Implications

The results of this study will greatly benefit the research site, specifically the

RecSports department. Based on the feedback from females during interviews and focus

groups I have made the following recommendations.

Create female only leagues. It was suggested many times by the study

participants that if they were offered a female only league, like a male only basketball

league, that more females would participate in intramural sports. This sounds easy

enough but, as a current professional who plans intramural programs, it is not that easy.

My bias aside, I believe the research site professional staff will need to offer different

female only leagues each semester. Even if the league does not fill up one semester, this

is not a reason to give up on it the next.

Increase advertising and awareness. This is a topic of discussion on a regular

basis in our staff meetings. What do the student look at? Where should we advertise?

These questions were brought up during this study and of all the places there are to

advertise there was one location that almost all the study participants agreed upon, the

female restroom. Many said the restroom stall door was a place that they see ads for

RecSports programs, including intramural sports.

Another topic brought up was making first-year students more aware and familiar

with intramural sports. Many first-year females are interested in staying active in college

and need to be shown what intramural sports is all about. I would recommend targeting

these students as much as possible. A first-year student who learns the benefits of

intramurals is very likely to persist and bring their friends as well.

 40

Diversify sport offerings. Another common theme brought up throughout this

study was the variety of sport offerings. Many study participants stated that they liked the

variety and to keep adding new and different sports. My recommendation would be to

offer more weekend and single day tournaments in a variety of team and individual

sports. The more variety of sports, the more likely we are to appeal to the entire student

body.

Limitations

When considering the findings of this study, there are factors that should be noted

as limitations. First, this study was only conducted at one small four year, private

institution in the Midwest. The results are not generalizable and may not be the same at

other institutions. The study does, however, provide important information for other

institutions to consider when implementing and planning intramural programs.

Another limitation of this study may be the use of snowball sampling. When

soliciting students to participate in my study, I relied heavily on interested participants to

spread the word to their friends to also participate. This may have skewed the sampling

towards individuals who share similar beliefs and attitudes towards intramural

participation.

A third limitation may be researcher bias. As a RecSports professional at the

research site, I am very invested in the intramural planning and programming. I have my

own opinions and beliefs towards intramural participation. As the researcher, I did my

best to not let my bias interfere with the findings of my research.

 41

Recommendations for Future Study

This study could be repeated at other institutions to dig deeper into the topic of

female participation in intramural sports. The lack of diversity among study participants

is one reason to repeat this study. A study done in another part of the country or at a

larger institution could provide very different results.

Another idea for future study would be to break down the three factors; benefits,

constraints, and motivators and study each one individually. Digging deeper into

conversations about the three factors individually would be very beneficial to the body of

research. A mixed method approach with more quantitative data could also benefit this

study.

One final recommendation for future study on the topic of female intramural

sports participation would be to do a longitudinal study and follow certain individuals as

they progress through college. It would be very interesting to see exact moments where

intramural sports enter their life and how the proceed after learning about intramural

sports.

Conclusion

Female college students are not participating in intramural sports at near the rate

that males are. This is true not only at this research site but also across the country. This

is a trend that is a hot topic in the world of campus recreation. As this study points out,

there are many areas for improvement when it comes to programming intramural sports

and how to target female participants.

As a graduate student about to end my college career, I can honestly say that

intramural sports participation was one of the best experiences that I had during college.
 42

As I stated in Chapter One, intramural sports provided me exercise, enjoyment, and

friendly competition in sports that I love. Intramural sports also offered me a great on-

campus job that has turned into a profession, lifelong friendships, and an appreciation for

the co-curricular experience on a college campus.

The benefits, constraints, and motivators related to participation are only a small

piece of the large puzzle that is co-curricular involvement on a college campus. Once

students learn the benefits, overcome the constraints, and become motivated to participate

in intramural sports they will have a much better college experience and will create

memories that last a lifetime.

 43

References

Artinger, L., Clapham, L., Hunt, C., Meigs, M., Milord, N., Sampson, B., & Forrester, S.

A. D. (2006). The social benefits of intramural sports. Journal of Student Affairs

Research and Practice, 43(1), 5.

Berger, J.B., & Milem, J.F. (1999). The role of student involvement and perceptions of

integration in a casual model of student persistence. Research in Higher

Education, 40(6), 641-664.

Bryant, J., Banta, T., & Bradley, J. (1995). Assessment provides insight into the impact

and effectiveness of campus recreation programs. NASPA Journal, 32(2).

Carroll University RecSports. (2016). Member status statistics [Data file].

Colly, A., Berman, E., & Van Milligen, L. (2005). Age and gender differences in young

people’s perception of sport participants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,

23, 19.

Crandall, V. C. (1980). Sex differences in expectancy of intellectual and academic

reinforcement. C.P. Smith (Ed). Achievement- related motives in children New

York: Russell Sage, 11-45.

Crawford, D. W., Jackson, E. L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure

constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 309-320.

Crawford, D. W., & Godbey, G. (1987). Re-conceptualizing barriers to family leisure.

Leisure Sciences, 9, 119-127.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating

qualitative research. (4th Ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

 44

Godbey, G., Crawford, D.W., & Shen, X.S. (2010). Assessing hierarchical leisure

constraints theory after two decades. Journal of Leisure Research. 42(1) 111-134.

Intramural. (n.d.). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved May 04, 2016 from

Dictionary.com website http://www.dictionary.com/browse/intramural.

Light, R.J. (1990). The Harvard assessment seminars: Exploration with students and

faculty about teaching, learning, and student life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Graduate School of Education and Kennedy School of Government.

Lindsey, R., & Sessoms, E. (2006). Assessment of a campus recreation program on

student recruitment, retention and frequency of participation across certain

demographics. Recreational Sports Journal, 30(1), 30–39.

Lindsey, R., Sessoms, E., & Willis, G. (2009). Impact of campus recreational sports

facilities and programs on recruitment and retention among African American

students: A pilot study. Recreational Sports Journal, 33(1), 25–34.

Masmanidis, T., Gargalianos, D., & Kosta, G. (2009). Perceived constraints of Greek

university students’ participation in campus recreational sports programs.

Recreational Sports Journal, 33, 150-166

Moffitt, J. (2010). Recruiting retention. Recreational Sports Journal, 34, 24-33.

Miller, J.J. (2011). Impact of a university recreation center on social belonging and

student retention. Recreational Sports Journal, 35, 30-39.

Nam, J.W., Cho, M.H., & Goo, K.B. (2009). The perceived constraints, motivation, and

physical activity levels of South Korean youth. South African Journal for

Research in Sport, Physical Education, and Recreation, 31(1), 37-48.

 45

Rintaugu, E. G. & Ngetich, E. D. C. (2012). Motivational gender differences in sport and

exercise participation among university sport science students. Journal of

Physical Education and Sport, 12(2), 180-187.

Rothwell, E., & Theodore, P. (2006). Intramurals and college student development: The

role of intramurals on values clarification. Recreational Sports Journal, 30(1), 46-

52.

Ryan, R.M., Fredrick, C.M., Lepes, D., Rubio, N., & Sheldon, K. M. (1997). Intrinsic

motivation and exercise adherence. Intro. J. Sport Psychology, 28, 335 -354.

Sturts, J. R., & Ross, C. M. (2013). Collegiate intramural sports participation: Identified

social outcomes. International Journal of Sport Management Recreation &

Tourism, 11, 25-41.

Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent

research. Review of Educational Research, 45(1), 89-125.

Wade, B. (1991). A profile of the real world of undergraduate student and how they

spend discretionary time. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED333776.

 46

Appendix A: Participant Solicitation Email

 47

Appendix B: Interest Survey

 48

Appendix B: Interest Survey Continued

 49

Appendix B: Interest Survey Continued

 50

Appendix B: Interest Survey Continued

 51

Appendix C: Research Consent Form

 52

Appendix C: Research Consent Form Continued

 53

Appendix D: Focus Group and Interview Protocol