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Ashraf A. Zeid
Army High Performance Computing Research Center and Computer Sciences Corporation
R. R. Beck
U.S. Army Tank Automotive Research Development and Engineering Center
Translation
All points on a rigid body in pure translation will have the same velocity and the same acceleration
at any given instant. Figures 13.1 and 13.2 show examples of two different types of translational
motion and a possible choice of a fixed reference frame whose axes are denoted as x and y with
corresponding unit vectors i and j, respectively.
where fA; B; : : :g are arbitrary points on the body. In Fig. 13.2 the velocities of any two points A
and B on the body are identical and parallel at any instant of time; however, unlike in rectilinear
translation, the velocity and acceleration directions are not constant. For curvilinear translation the
velocity equation holds at any instant of time but not necessarily throughout the entire motion:
¯
vA = vB ¯¯
(13:2)
aA = aB ¯t
1 6=t2
Rotation
The angular position of a body in pure rotation is completely defined by the angle between an
arbitrary fixed reference line that passes through the center of rotation and any arbitrary line fixed
to the body and passing also through the center of rotation, as shown in Fig. 13.3. The rotation
angle µ may be measured in degrees or radians, where
The rotation angular velocity ! is defined as the rate of change of the angular position angle µ with
respect to time. It is expressed in radians per second (rps) or in revolutions per minute (rpm), as
follows:
dµ
!= (13:4)
dt
The rotational angular acceleration ® is the time rate of change of the angular velocity resulting in
the following relationship:
d! d2 µ d! dµ d!
®= = 2 = =! (13:5)
dt dt dµ dt dµ
In pure rotational motion, the relation between the rotational position, velocity, and
acceleration are similar to pure translation. The angular velocity is the integral of the angular
acceleration plus the initial velocity; the angular displacement is equal to the initial displacement
added to the integral of the velocity. That is,
! = !0 + ®t
(13:6)
µ = µ0 + !t = µ0 + !0 t + 12 ®t2
Therefore, the position of any point B on a body in pure planar rotation is determined by the
distance rB=A of that point from the center of rotation A times the magnitude of the angle of
rotation expressed in radians µ . Thus the distance s that a point fixed on a rigid body travels during
a rotation µ is given by:
s = rB=A µ (13:7)
Similarly, the linear velocity of that point will depend on the distance rB=A and on the angular
velocity ! and will have a direction that is perpendicular to the line between the center of rotation
and the point, as follows:
! £ ~rB=A
~v = ~ (13:8)
where £ indicates cross product. The angular acceleration of a point on a rigid body can be
decomposed into a tangential and a normal component. The tangential component is the time rate
of change of the linear velocity v and is in the direction of the linear velocity, namely, along the
line perpendicular to the radius of rotation rB=A .
d~v
~at = ~ £ ~rB=A
=® (13:9)
dt
The normal acceleration depends on the time rate of change of the velocity in the tangential
direction and on the angle of displacement, which gives the equation
Similarly, the velocity of a rigid body in general plane motion can be separated into a velocity due
to pure translation vA together with a velocity due to pure rotation vA=B .
where ~vB=A = ! £ ~rB=A and ~vA is the velocity vector of point A. The velocity vector ~vB=A is called
the relative velocity vector of point B with respect to point A.
! £ ~rB
~vB = ~
The direction of the velocity vector will be perpendicular to the vector ~rB .
(~aB=A )t = ® £ ~rB=A
The acceleration of a point located by variable vector ~rB=A on a moving rigid body is given by the
following relation:
d~rB=A d2 ~rB=A
~aB=A = ~aA + ! £ ! £ ~rB=A + ® £ ~rB=A + 2! £ + (13:14)
dt dt2
where the vector ~rB=A and its time derivative are measured in a fixed reference framenamely, its
components are [Xr ; Yr ] as shown in Fig. 13.5. If the vector ~rB=A is known by its components in a
body-fixed coordinate [xr ; yr ] , then they can be transformed to the inertial coordinates as follows:
Xr = xr cos µ ¡ yr sin µ
(13:15)
Yr = xr sin µ + yr sin µ
This is a coordinate transformation and is orthogonal, that is, its transpose is equal to its inverse. In
matrix form the transformation of coordinates in Eq. (13.15) can be written as follows:
· ¸ · ¸· ¸ · ¸ · ¸· ¸
Xr cos µ ¡ sin µ xr xr cos µ sin µ Xr
= and = (13:16)
Yr sin µ cos µ yr yr ¡ sin µ cos µ Yr
If we use the prime symbol to denote that the vector components are measured in a body-fixed
coordinate, then Eq. (13.16) can be written in a more compact form as follows:
0 0
rB=A = Tz rB=A and rB=A = TzT rB=A (13:17)
where TzT is the transpose of the rotation matrix around the z axis (which would point outward
from the page).
Space Motion
Three angles, called Euler angles, may be used to describe the orientation of a rigid body in space.
These angles describe three consecutive rotations around the three coordinates of the frame fixed
in a moving body with respect to an inertial fixed frame. Twelve combinations of rotation
sequences can be chosen; here we choose the rotation around the z axis, Ã , followed by a rotation
around the body-fixed y axis, µ , and finally a rotation around the body-fixed x axis, Á .
Figure 13.6(c) shows the final position of a body which has a fixed coordinate system [x; y; z] .
Originally, the body was oriented such that its fixed coordinate [x; y; z] corresponded to the inertial
fixed coordinate system [X; Y; Z] . The body was then rotated by an angle à around z, as shown in
Fig. 13.6(a), followed by a rotation of an angle µ around y, as shown in Fig. 13.6(b), and finally by
a rotation through an angle Á around z.
Fig. 13.6 Three consecutive rotations around the body-fixed axis (X;Y;Z).
Tz;y;x =
2 3
cos µ cos à cos µ sin à ¡ sin µ
4 ¡ cos Á sin à + sin Á sin µ cos à cos Á cos à + sin Á sin µ sin à sin à cos µ 5
sin Á sin à + cos Á sin µ cos à ¡ sin Á cos à + cos Á sin µ sin à cos Á cos µ
(13:18)
0
In order to transform any vector rB=A known by its components in a body-fixed coordinate system
into the corresponding vector whose components are given in inertial fixed coordinates, rB=A , and
vice versa, the vector would be multiplied by the transformation matrix as follows:
0 0 T
rB=A = Tz;y;x rB=A and rB=A = Tz;y;x rB=A (13:19)
where the superscript T denotes the transpose of the matrix. Because the transformation matrix is
orthogonal its transpose is equal to its inverse, as shown by Eq. (13.19).
The time derivatives of the Euler angles can be obtained from the components of the angular
rotation matrix ! expressed in body coordinates. For the sequence of rotations shown in Fig. 13.6,
the angular velocity vector can be expressed in terms of the rate of change of the Euler angles as
follows. In Fig. 13.6(a) we have
!x = 0
!y = 0
dÃ
!z =
dt
dÃ
!x = ¡ sin µ
dt
dµ
!y =
dt
dÃ
!z = cos µ
dt
dà dÁ
!x = ¡ sin µ +
dt dt
dà dµ
!y = cos µ sin Á + cos Á
dt dt
dà dµ
!z = cos µ cos Á ¡ sin Á
dt dt
(13:20)
dÃ
= (!y sin Á + !z cos Á)= cos µ
dt
dµ
= !y cos Á ¡ !z sin Á
dt
dÁ
= !x + (!y sin Á + !z cos Á) tan µ
dt
d§ d§
!=E or = E ¡1 ! (13:21)
dt dt
2 3 2 3
¡ sin µ 0 1 !x
4
E = cos µ sin Á cos Á 05; ~ = 4 !y 5 ;
!
cos µ cos Á ¡ sin Á 0 !z
2 sin Á cos Á 3
0
6 cos µ cos µ 7
¡1 6 7
and E =60 cos Á ¡ sin Á 7 (13:22)
4 5
sin Á sin µ cos Á sin µ
1
cos µ cos µ
Note that the matrix E is not orthogonal, so its transpose is not equal to its inverse.
T = 12 (m~v 2 + I !2 )
where ~v is the velocity of the mass center G of the body and I is the moment of inertia of the body
about an axis through its mass center. This energy is identical to the kinetic rotational energy of the
body if it is considered to be in pure rotation around its instantaneous center of rotation. In this
case I would be the moment of inertia of the body around an axis that passes through the
instantaneous center of rotation.
The principle of conservation of energy states that the sum of the potential and kinetic energy of
a body acted upon by conservative forcesthat is, nondissipative forces of friction or
dampingremains constant during the time when these forces are applied.
Power is the product of the projection of the force vector on the velocity that resulted from this
force. Power is measured in watt and horsepower units. The summation of power over a certain
time interval is equal to the total energy stored in the body during that time.
Kinetics of Rigid Bodies in Plane Motion: Impulse and Momentum for a Rigid
Body
The principle of impulse and momentum for a rigid body states that the momenta of all the
particles of a rigid body at time t1 , added to the impulses of external forces acting during the time
interval from time t1 to time t2 , are equal to the system momenta at time t2 .
dm~vx
= (F1 )x + (F2 )x + ¢ ¢ ¢
dt
dm~vy (13:23)
= (F1 )y + (F2 )y + ¢ ¢ ¢
dt
dI®
= M 1 + M 2 + ¢ ¢ ¢ + r 1 £ F1 + r 2 £ F2 + ¢ ¢ ¢
dt
For a system of rigid bodies the linear momentum vector does not change in the absence of a
resultant linear impulse. Similarly, the angular momentum vector does not change in the absence of
an angular impulse.
Space Motion. The momentum vector of a rigid body moving in space has a linear component G
and an angular component H. The linear component represents the D'Alembert principle as
described by the following equations:
dm~vx
= (F1 )x + (F2 )x + ¢ ¢ ¢
dt
dm~vy (13:24)
= (F1 )y + (F2 )y + ¢ ¢ ¢
dt
dm~vz
= (F1 )z + (F2 )z + ¢ ¢ ¢
dt
where the velocity and the force vectors are expressed in their inertial [X; Y; Z] components. If
these vectors are expressed in a body-fixed coordinate system, the time derivative should include
the effect of the rotation vector, as in the case of the angular momentum. The angular momentum
vector H is defined as follows:
~ = I~
H ! (13:25)
where H and ! are expressed by their components in the body coordinate [x; y; z] . When a vector
is expressed in a body coordinate its time derivative should include the effect of angular rotation.
For this reasonand because normally the position vector of the point of application of a force Fi
from a center of rotation A, denoted by ~rBi=A , is known by its components in a body coordinate
systemthe equation stating that the time rate of change of the angular momentum is equal to the
sum of the moments would be written as follows:
dI! T T 0 T 0 T
+ ! £ I! = Tz;y;x M1 + Tz;y;x M2 + ¢ ¢ ¢ + rB1=A £ Tz;y;x F1 + rB2=A £ Tz;y;x F2 + ¢ ¢ ¢ (13:26)
dt
In general, Eqs. (13.25) and (13.26) are solved by numerical integration, except for the cases
where they are simplified, for example in gyroscopic motion. The Euler angles used in the
transformation matrix T are obtained from the numerical integration of Eq. (13.20).
References
Meriam, J. L. and Kraige, L. G. 1992. Engineering Mechanics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R. 1987. Mechanics for Engineers-Dynamics, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Crandal, S. H., Karnopp, D. C., Kurtz., E. F, Jr., and Pridmore-Brown, D. C. 1968. Dynamics of
Mechanical and Electromechanical Systems. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Haug, E. J. 1989. Computer-Aided Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems. Volume I:
Basic Methods. Allyn & Bacon, Boston.
Nikravesh, P. 1988. Computer-Aided Analysis of Mechanical Systems. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
Shabana, A. A. 1994. Computational Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Further Information
Detailed treatment of the subject can be found in Meriam and Kraige [1992] and Beer and
Johnston [1987].
A classical presentation of the subject can be found in Crandal et al. [1968].
Computer-aided analysis of the kinematics and dynamics of constrained rigid bodies in space
motion can be found in Haug [1989] and Nikravesh [1988].