NOTE
Development of a Simple Method for Evaluation of Water Absorption Rate and
Capacity of Rice Flour Samples
Junko Matsuki,1,† Tomoya Okunishi,1 Hiroshi Okadome,1 Keitaro Suzuki,2 Koichi Yoza,1 and Ken Tokuyasu1
ABSTRACT
A simple method employing a commercially available canister was
developed for the determination of mode of water absorption of rice flour
samples. The samples prepared by four different grinding methods were
used to analyze water absorption. The total amount of water in a flour
sample was described by using an exponential model. Capacity and rate
of water absorption of the samples were determined, and the relationship
Interactions of water with the ingredients determine many of the
important functional properties in making of bread and other flour-
based products. Absorption of water causes rehydration, swelling,
and solubilization of the ingredients to impart functional properties
to the dough, which determine the baking performance (Bushuk and
Hlynka 1964; Pilosof et al. 1985). Water absorption affects the
rheological quality of the dough and the final product. The amount of
water absorption is well evaluated by commonly used official
methods such as solvent retention capacity (AACC International
Approved Method 56-11.02) and farinograph water absorption
(AACCI Approved Method 54-21.02), and the relationship of the
absorption to the baking performance has been the subject of many
studies (Finney and Yamazaki 1946; Bushuk 1966; Sollars 1973;
Xiao et al. 2006; de la Hera et al. 2013a). The rate of water uptake, in
addition to the amount of water uptake, is also an important factor
because it could influence the order of addition of dry ingredients
into the mixture and affect rheological quality of the dough (Pilosof
et al. 1985). Compared with the amount of absorption, few methods
are known for evaluating the rate of water absorption. The Baumann
capillary (Baumann 1966) has been used by some researchers for
evaluation of protein materials (Torgersen and Toledo 1977), fibers
(Chen et al. 1984), and starch (Elizalde et al. 1996), and the wetta-
bility measuring device (Kuno and Abe 1958) has been used for
evaluation of rice flour (Shishido and Eguchi 1992). However, in-
formation on the use of these methods is scarce, and the apparatus is
not readily available. Besides not being popular, assembling and
operating the apparatus may be rather delicate. Therefore, we fo-
cused on organizing a simple device for determining both the amount
and rate of water absorption of flour samples. We evaluated and
classified rice flour samples by water absorption rate and capacity in
relation to bread-baking quality of partially substituted rice bread.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The flour samples were prepared from two rice cultivars, Koshihikari
and Momiroman. The same lot of polished rice was sent to the
† Corresponding
author. Phone: +81-29-838-8053. E-mail: matsuki@affrc.go.jp
1 National Food Research Institute, National Agricultural and Food Research
Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan.
2 Institute of Crop Science, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8518, Japan.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-01-15-0004-N
© 2015 AACC International, Inc.
Cereal Chem. 92(5):487–490
to baking quality of partially substituted rice bread was investigated. The
water absorption was highly dependent on the method of grinding. Flours
produced by wet jet-milling of the grains, which absorbed a small amount
of water at high speed, were most suitable for rice bread. The method was
applicable to other food powders, provided that flour particles do not stick
together or swell immediately upon contact with water.
millers for preparation of flour samples by using jet mill (W1,
W2, and D), pin mill (P), or roller mill (R). For the preparation of
jet-milled flour samples in wet condition (flour samples W1 and
W2), rice was washed and soaked in water to absorb up to 30%
moisture content and then milled with the jet mill. W1 and W2 flour
samples were prepared essentially in the same manner, except the
manufacturers of the grinding machines were different, which may
have caused the difference observed in the two flour samples. For
the preparation of jet-milled flour samples in dry condition (D), the
rice was prepared in a similar manner as W1 and W2 without the
soaking step. W1, D, and P flours were prepared by Hinomoto
Cereal Flour Milling (Tokyo, Japan); W2 flours were prepared by
Katayama Seifun (Osaka, Japan); and R flours were prepared
by Yoshimura Kokufun (Nagoya, Japan). Wheat flour (Million,
Nisshin Flour Milling, Tokyo, Japan), dry yeast (Super Camellia,
Nisshin Foods, Tokyo, Japan), shortening (Canary Eight, NOF
Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), sugar, and salt were purchased from the
market.
Moisture content of each flour sample was determined according
to AACCI Approved Method 44-15.02. The particle size distribu-
tion was determined with a Beckman Coulter LS 13 320 laser-
diffraction particle-size analyzer (Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, CA,
U.S.A.). The apparent amylose content was determined by the
colorimetric procedure (Juliano 1971). The level of starch damage
was determined enzymatically with a starch damage assay kit
(Megazyme, Bray, Ireland). Solvent retention capacity with water as
the solvent (WSRC) was determined according to AACCI Ap-
proved Method 56-11.02.
Water absorption of the flour sample was determined by using an
aluminum canister (3.8 cm i.d. × 6.8 cm height, 0.4 mm thickness),
as shown in Figure 1. The canister was prepared by opening seven
holes of 1.5 mm diameter, 12 mm apart from each other. The burrs
around the holes inside and outside of the canister were removed to
make the bottom flat. One piece of glass fiber filter paper (GA-55,
3.7 cm diameter, Advantec Toyo Roshi, Tokyo, Japan) was laid
inside the canister. Flour sample (10 g) was weighed into the can-
ister, and the canister was tapped on a flat surface from a 1.5 cm
height 100 times by hand so that the flour sample inside the canister
was evenly packed to about 12 mm height. A weight (25 g) was put
onto the canister so that the canister would not float during the
experiment. The canister was placed in a tray filled with 1 cm deep
water to let water into the canister through the holes in the bottom.
A piece of paper towel (Kimtowel, Nippon Paper Crecia, Tokyo,
Japan) was laid under the canister in the tray to avoid tight contact
between the bottom of the canister and the tray. The canister was
taken out of the water at an interval for weighing and quickly placed
Vol. 92, No. 5, 2015 487
back in the water until no apparent gain in the weight was observed.
Before weighing the canister, any water on the outside of the can-
ister was quickly wiped off. Care was taken not to draw water out of
the canister. The amount of water in the flour sample (g of
water/100 g of dry flour sample) was calculated from water uptake
and moisture content of the flour. All experiments were carried out
at ambient temperature between 20 and 25°C. Deionized water was
used in all experiments.
The total amount of water in the flour Y(t) (g of water/100 g of dry
flour sample) could be described as a function of time by using an
exponential model, where t is the time (min), Span is the water
absorption capacity (g of water/100 g of dry flour sample), K is the
rate constant, and Bottom is the amount of water in the sample at the
beginning (equation 1). The rate of water absorption was expressed
as the time (min) necessary for the flour to absorb half of the water
absorption capacity, which can be calculated as in equation 2.
YðtÞ = Span½1 _ expð_KtÞ + Bottom (1)
Half = lnð2Þ=K (2)
An exponential fitting model of the nonlinear regression test was
performed to calculate the Span and Half values with GraphPad
Prism version 5.04 for Windows (GraphPad Software, San Diego,
CA, U.S.A.).
Partially substituted breads were prepared basically as previously
reported (Sasaki et al. 2014). The flour mixture was a blend of 30%
rice flour and 70% wheat flour. The baking formula on a flour basis
was as follows: flour mixture, 100%; sugar, 6%; salt, 2%; short-
ening, 5%; dry yeast, 1%; and water, 67%. The volume of each
bread loaf was determined with a laser volumeter (Selnac VM130,
Astex Research and Development, Tokyo, Japan).
All measurements were performed in triplicate or greater. SAS
add-in for Microsoft Office version 6.1 M1 (SAS Institute, Cary,
NC, U.S.A.) was used for statistical analysis. Multiple comparisons
(significance level of 5%) were performed with Tukey’s studentized
range test in the GLM procedure of SAS add-in for Microsoft
Office.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Powder characteristics of rice flour samples are shown in Table I.

Fig. 1. A, Schematic illustration of the setup for the determination of
water absorption: a = weight; b = canister; c = tray; d = paper towel; e =
height of flour in the canister, about 12 mm; and f = depth of water in the
tray, 10 mm. B, Bottom view of the canister. Each hole is 1.5 mm in
diameter and 12 mm apart from each other.
The amylose content of the flour samples ranged from 16.5 to
18.0% in Koshihikari and from 27.6 to 29.2% in Momiroman. Flour
samples obtained by jet milling, either in wet or dry condition, had
the smallest average particle size, ranging from 38 to 81 µm in
diameter, and a narrow distribution, with SD ranging from 24 to
50 µm. Flour samples obtained by pin milling and roller milling had
coarse particles and wide distribution, with average diameter
ranging from 144 to 180 µm and SD ranging from 78 to 112 µm.
Rice flour samples milled in wet condition, W1 and W2, had
a relatively lower level of starch damage, ranging from 2.4 to 5.1%,
whereas samples milled in dry condition, as in D, P, and R flours,
had a higher level of starch damage, from 6.5 to 15.3%. Relatively
lower WSRC values were observed with W1 and W2 flour samples,
ranging from 72.6 to 88.3%, and higher values with D, P, and R
flours, ranging from 94.3 to 131.2%.
Water absorption profiles of Koshihikari flour samples are shown
in Figure 2. The capacity (Span) and the rate (Half) of water ab-
sorption of the flour samples were calculated as shown in Table I.
The Span and Half values appeared to be dependent on the method
of grinding. Those of Koshihikari and Momiroman flour samples

TABLE I
Powder and Water Absorption Characteristics of Rice Flour Samples and Specific Loaf Volume (SLV) of Partially Substituted Rice Breadz
Water Absorption
Grinding Damaged
Cultivar Method Amylose (%) PSD (Average Diameter ± SD) (mm) Starch (%) Span (g/100 g) Half (min) SLV (mL/g) WSRC
Koshihikari W1 16.8e 81 ± 50 4.5ef 76de 2.3d 4.01a 88.3de
W2 18.0d 50 ± 29 5.1e 80d 11.3a 3.82cde 82.9e
D 16.5e 57 ± 39 15.3a 127a 6.7b 3.51f 131.2a
P 16.9e 161 ± 81 7.6c 95bc 3.3cd 3.86bcd 104.5b
R 16.8e 145 ± 78 8.0c 100b 2.6cd 3.76de 105.5b
Momiroman W1 27.7c 61 ± 35 2.4g 69f 2.8cd 3.99ab 74.4f
W2 28.6b 38 ± 24 4.1f 71ef 13.8a 3.80cde 72.6f
D 27.6c 50 ± 30 8.9b 89c 4.9bc 3.69e 99.5bc
P 27.7c 144 ± 81 6.5d 80d 3.0cd 3.90abc 94.3cd
R 29.2a 180 ± 112 6.8d 82d 3.5cd 3.88abcd 99.2bc
LSD 0.56 1.3 9 2.3 0.14 6.8
z Values with the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P < 0.05. PSD = particle size distribution; WSRC = solvent retention capacity using
water as the solvent; W1 and W2 = jet milled in wet condition; D = jet milled in dry condition; P = pin milled; and R = roller milled. Span represents capacity,
and Half represents rate.

488 CEREAL CHEMISTRY

showed a similar trend according to the grinding methods. W1 and
W2 flour samples had the smallest Span values, but the Half values
of W2 flour samples were much larger compared with W1 flour
samples. D flour sample had the largest Span value. The Span and
Half values of R and P flour samples were similar to each other and
fell in between W1 and D flours. The water absorption character-
istics of flour samples can be expressed by using Span and Half. In
our method, the water is likely to be absorbed in the flour samples
through capillary suction with concomitant swelling, similar to the
Baumann method (Elizalde et al. 1996). Chen et al. (1984) stated
that water distribution in a food material is present in two forms: 1)
water held in capillary structures and 2) water interacting with the
food component. The rate and amount of water absorption are de-
pendent on the physicochemical properties of the flour samples such
as the distribution of capillaries and crevices on the surface,
chemical characteristics such as hydroxyl groups and amino groups
that are capable of binding water, and swelling characteristics.
Bushuk (1966) reported that the water is distributed among the
wheat flour components in bread dough, depending on the capacity
of each component.
Table II shows the correlation between water absorption values
and rice flour characteristics. Water absorption was not affected by
the amylose content. The Span value highly correlated with the
damaged starch content of the flour sample. It is well known that
damaged starch absorbs a significant amount of water compared
with intact starch (Greer and Stewart 1959). It is reported that
damaged starch affects water retention capacity of the rice flour
determined by the centrifugation method (Nishita and Bean 1982)
and water hydration capacity of the wheat flour determined by three
different methods based on centrifugation and on capillary suction
(Berton et al. 2002). We also show here that, despite the difference
that WSRC was determined under centrifugal force, the WSRC
values were highly correlated with the Span values. The Half value
negatively correlated with the average diameter of the flour sam-
ples. Although W1 and W2 flours were both jet milled in wet
condition, the water absorption profile was quite different. The Span
values of W1 and W2 flours were similar within a cultivar. How-
ever, the Half value of W2 flour was extremely large, which meant
that the absorption was slow in W2 flour. Resulting flour samples
from grinders of different manufacturers, which was the case with
W1 and W2, are very likely to have different characteristics because
of factors such as speed of feeding, pressurization of the chamber,
and type of classifier. A major difference observed between W1 and
Fig. 2. Water absorption profiles of Koshihikari flours prepared by vari-
ous grinding methods. W1 = jet milled in wet condition by Hinomoto;
W2 = jet milled in wet condition by Katayama; D = jet milled in dry
condition; P = pin milled; and R = roller milled. Solid lines are calculated
best-fit curve with linear regression.
W2 flours was the particle size distribution, which was likely to
cause differences in the capillary network and suction force. Shoji
et al. (2012) reported that hydration was slow in samples with
smaller particle diameter.
The specific loaf volume (SLV) of the partially substituted rice
bread is shown in Table I. The SLV ranged from 3.51 to 4.01 mL/g.
The bread made with W1 flours had the highest SLV, and those with
D flours had the lowest SLV. The SLVs of bread made with P and R
flours were between those of W1 and D flours. Correlations be-
tween SLV and rice flour characteristics are shown in Table II. SLV
is highly correlated with the Span value. Many reports indicate that
particle size distribution of the flour affects the loaf volume of bread
(Nishita and Bean 1982; Araki et al. 2009; de la Hera et al. 2013b,
2014). Although the Span value of W2 flour was comparable to W1
flour, SLVof W2 flour was significantly lower than that of W1 flour.
Difference in the particle size of W1 and W2 flours also suggests
that the distribution is an important factor affecting the loaf volume.
However, average diameter alone cannot describe the distribution
that is suitable for high loaf volume. Flour samples with low Span
and low Half values gave the highest loaf volume. Water absorption
properties would be a good indicator for rice flour that can give
a high loaf volume.
Water absorption of other grain, pulse, and food powders such as
barley flour, corn flour, buckwheat flour, amaranth flour, soybean
flour, and freeze-dried yam powder was successfully determined
with this canister method. However, we failed to determine water
absorption of wheat flour or highly damaged rice flour that con-
tained over 60% damaged starch (data not shown). In these failed
cases, a thick, sticky membrane was formed just above the glass
fiber filter paper, preventing further water absorption. According to
Eliasson and Larsson (1993), wheat flour particles stick together
immediately upon addition of water. Tester and Morrison (1994)
reported that the swelling factor of a starch sample at 60% damaged
starch level is 3.6 times more than that of a sound starch sample,
even at room temperature. In our canister method, it is difficult to
measure water absorption of flour samples that swell and stick to-
gether. Reducing the size of the canister or the flour sample could
permit the measurement of such samples.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, we developed a simple method for evaluating both
water absorption capacity and rate for rice and other flours. Water
absorption capacity and rate would be indicators for determining the
rice bread-baking quality of the flour; desirable characteristics in
terms of loaf volume were flours that absorbed less water in a short
time. Such flour has a low damaged starch content and a certain
particle size distribution, and it was obtained by wet jet-milling of
grains. This method is also applicable to other food powders. Be-
cause the method requires only a canister and a weighing device, it
can be applied to various usages regardless of location, such as
quality management in milling factories. We expect that this simple
method would lead to clarification of water absorption and its re-
lation to food quality. Further analysis of the factors affecting the
absorption quality will allow this method to be used as an indicator
in many applications.
TABLE II
Correlation Between Water Absorption and Flour Characteristicsz
Parameter DS Diameter Amylose WSRC SLV
Span 0.940*** 0.134 –0.588 0.953*** –0.824***
Half –0.118 –0.645* 0.142 –0.378 –0.268
SLV –0.892*** 0.263 0.236 –0.714* …
z DS = damaged starch; WSRC = solvent retention capacity using water as the
solvent; and SLV = specific loaf volume. Span represents capacity, and Half
represents rate. *, **, and *** indicate significant at 5, 1, and 0.1% levels,
respectively.
Vol. 92, No. 5, 2015 489
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was partly supported by the grant for “Development of
technology for stable production and supply of agricultural products with
low cost and good qualities for food processing industries: 4. Rice,” from
MAFF, Japan. We are grateful to Nobuko Yoshii for her excellent technical
assistance.
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