The Commission on Higher Education

in collaboration with the Philippine Normal University

Teaching Guide for Senior High School

EARTH SCIENCE
CORE SUBJECT

This Teaching Guide was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from public and private schools,
colleges, and universities. We encourage teachers and
other education stakeholders to email their feedback,
comments, and recommendations to the Commission
on Higher Education, K to 12 Transition Program
Management Unit - Senior High School Support Team
at k12@ched.gov.ph. We value your feedback and
recommendations.
INITIAL RELEASE: 14 JUNE 2016
 Development Team
Team Leader: Leopoldo P. de Silva, Ph.D.
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Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEd’s implementation of Senior High School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that “every graduate of basic education be an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in
fruitful harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in creative and critical
thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others and oneself.”
To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine Normal University (PNU), the National
Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for Courses of SHS. Together with PNU, this
Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy experts, and was enhanced with
appropriate methodologies and strategies.
Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS for SHS Framework.

The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for “Saysay-Husay-Sarili for Senior High School,” is at the
core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content with flexible elements to
SHS for SHS accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these three fundamental concepts:
Framework
SAYSAY: MEANING HUSAY: MASTERY SARILI: OWNERSHIP
Why is this important? How will I deeply understand this? What can I do with this?
Through this Teaching Guide, Given that developing mastery When teachers empower
teachers will be able to facilitate goes beyond memorization, learners to take ownership of
an understanding of the value teachers should also aim for their learning, they develop
of the lessons, for each learner deep understanding of the independence and self-
to fully engage in the content subject matter where they lead direction, learning about both
on both the cognitive and learners to analyze and the subject matter and
affective levels. synthesize knowledge. themselves.
 Implementing this course at the senior high school level is subject to numerous challenges
About this
 with mastery of content among educators tapped to facilitate learning and a lack of
Teaching Guide resources to deliver the necessary content and develop skills and attitudes in the learners,
being foremost among these.

In support of the SHS for SHS framework developed by CHED, these teaching guides were
crafted and refined by biologists and biology educators in partnership with educators from
focus groups all over the Philippines to provide opportunities to develop the following:

1. Saysay through meaningful, updated, and context-specific content that highlights

important points and common misconceptions so that learners can connect to their real-
world experiences and future careers;

2. Husay through diverse learning experiences that can be implemented in a resource-

poor classroom or makeshift laboratory that tap cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains are accompanied by field-tested teaching tips that aid in facilitating discovery and
development of higher-order thinking skills; and

3. Sarili through flexible and relevant content and performance standards allow
learners the freedom to innovate, make their own decisions, and initiate activities to fully
develop their academic and personal potential.

These ready-to-use guides are helpful to educators new to either the content or biologists
new to the experience of teaching Senior High School due to their enriched content
presented as lesson plans or guides. Veteran educators may also add ideas from these
guides to their repertoire. The Biology Team hopes that this resource may aid in easing the
transition of the different stakeholders into the new curriculum as we move towards the
constant improvement of Philippine education.
 This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the DepEd SHS Curriculum, designed to be highly
Parts of the
 usable for teachers. It contains classroom activities and pedagogical notes, and is integrated with
Teaching Guide innovative pedagogies. All of these elements are presented in the following parts:
1. Introduction
• Highlight key concepts and identify the essential questions
• Show the big picture
• Connect and/or review prerequisite knowledge
• Clearly communicate learning competencies and objectives
• Motivate through applications and connections to real-life
2. Motivation
• Give local examples and applications
• Engage in a game or movement activity
• Provide a hands-on/laboratory activity
• Connect to a real-life problem
3. Instruction/Delivery
• Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation/hands-on activity
• Show step-by-step solutions to sample problems
• Give applications of the theory
• Connect to a real-life problem if applicable
4. Practice
• Discuss worked-out examples
• Provide easy-medium-hard questions
• Give time for hands-on unguided classroom work and discovery
• Use formative assessment to give feedback
5. Enrichment
• Provide additional examples and applications
• Introduce extensions or generalisations of concepts
• Engage in reflection questions
• Encourage analysis through higher order thinking prompts
6. Evaluation
• Supply a diverse question bank for written work and exercises
• Provide alternative formats for student work: written homework, journal, portfolio, group/individual
projects, student-directed research project
 On DepEd Functional Skills and CHED College Readiness Standards

As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of
the Senior High School program, it is of paramount importance to
align Functional Skills set by DepEd with the College Readiness
Standards stated by CHED.
The DepEd articulated a set of 21st century skills that should be
embedded in the SHS curriculum across various subjects and tracks.
These skills are desired outcomes that K to 12 graduates should
possess in order to proceed to either higher education,
employment, entrepreneurship, or middle-level skills development.
On the other hand, the Commission declared the College
Readiness Standards that consist of the combination of knowledge,
skills, and reflective thinking necessary to participate and succeed -
without remediation - in entry-level undergraduate courses in
college.
The alignment of both standards, shown below, is also presented in
this Teaching Guide - prepares Senior High School graduates to the
revised college curriculum which will initially be implemented by AY
2018-2019.

College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills DepEd Functional Skills

Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1. Solid grounding on Philippine experience and culture;
2. An understanding of the self, community, and nation; Visual and information literacies, media literacy, critical thinking
3. Application of critical and creative thinking and doing processes; and problem solving skills, creativity, initiative and self-direction
4. Competency in formulating ideas/arguments logically, scientifically, and creatively; and
5. Clear appreciation of one’s responsibility as a citizen of a multicultural Philippines and a
diverse world;

Global awareness, scientific and economic literacy, curiosity,

Systematically apply knowledge, understanding, theory, and skills for the development of
critical thinking and problem solving skills, risk taking, flexibility
the self, local, and global communities using prior learning, inquiry, and experimentation and adaptability, initiative and self-direction

Global awareness, media literacy, technological literacy,

Work comfortably with relevant technologies and develop adaptations and innovations for
creativity, flexibility and adaptability, productivity and
significant use in local and global communities accountability

Global awareness, multicultural literacy, collaboration and

Communicate with local and global communities with proficiency, orally, in writing, and
interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural skills, leadership
through new technologies of communication and responsibility

Interact meaningfully in a social setting and contribute to the fulfilment of individual and
shared goals, respecting the fundamental humanity of all persons and the diversity of
groups and communities
Media literacy, multicultural literacy, global awareness,
collaboration and interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural
skills, leadership and responsibility, ethical, moral, and spiritual
values
Earth Science 60 MINS

Lesson 1: The Universe

LESSON OUTLINE
and the Solar System Introduction Communicating learning objectives 10

Content Standard Motivation Question&Answer 10

The learners demonstrate an understanding of
Instruction Lecture 30
1. the formation of the universe
Enrichment Assignment
Performance Standard
Evaluation Report and Summary Questions 10
Learning Competency
Describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the Materials
Projector or print-out of figures
(S11ES-Ia-1).
Resources
Specific Learning Outcomes Lesson Plans/Materials/Teaching Guides
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
(1) http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/lesson_plans.html
• Describe the structure and composition of the Universe; (2) http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/materials.html
• State the different hypothesis that preceded the Big Bang Theory of the (3) http://www.astro.princeton.edu/~dns/teachersguide/website.pdf
Origin of the Universe. (4) http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/WMAP_Universe.pdf (accessed 3
October 2015)
• Explain the red-shift and how it used as proof of an expanding universe
(5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe (accessed 4 October 2015)
• Explain the Big Bang Theory and evidences supporting the theory.
(6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=RPVvgJoddO4&list=PLrhG2NtyHAZuPW5HP3cyenGGTUqUhumeQ
(accessed 25 October 2015)
(7) Steinhardt P and N Turok. Endless Universe, http://
www.physics.princeton.edu/~steinh/endlessuniverse/
askauthors.html(accessed 13 October 2015)
(8) http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/how-do-stars-form-
and-evolve/ (accessed: 12 october 2015)
(9) http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/solarsys.html
(accessed 12 October 2015)

Additional resources at the end of the lesson

1
INTRODUCTION (10 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives
1. Introduce the following learning objectives.
a. Describe the structure and composition of the Universe;
b. Explain the red-shift and how it used as proof of an expanding universe
c. State the different hypothesis that preceded the Big Bang Theory of the Origin of the Universe
d. Explain the Big Bang Theory

2. Introduce the following important terms Teacher tip

Alternatively, these terms can be defined
a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons that during the instruction/delivery.
comprises atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies
b. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not emit light.
c. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a force that counteracts gravity and causes the universe to
expand.
d. Protostar- an early stage in the formation of a star resulting from the gravitational collapse of
gases.
e. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction responsible for the energy produced by stars.
f. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their cores;
outward pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational forces
g. light years - the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of length used to measure astronomical
distance

MOTIVATION (10 MINS)

Connect the lesson to a real-life problem or question.
1. The teacher tells the students that the Universe is at least 13.8 billion of years old and the Earth/
Solar System at least 4.5-4.6 billions of years old. But how large exactly is a billion? Ask the
students how long will it take them to spend 1 billion pesos if they spend 1 peso per second.

2
 • 1 billion/(60 s/min*60 min/hr*24 hr/day*365days/year)
• ~32 years
• How long is 13.8 billion years?

2. Show students the series of photographs as follows:

Figure 1: Solar System (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/

Planets2013.svg/2000px-Planets2013.svg.png)

3
 Figure 2: Milky Way Galaxy
(Source: http://physics.highpoint.edu/~mdewitt/
phy1050/images/week6/milky-way-top-view.png)
Figure 3: View from Hubble. The Milky
Way is but part of billions of galaxies
in the universe.
(Source: http://astronomynow.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/03/
eso1507b_640x646.jpg)

INSTRUCTION (30 MINS)

Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation
Lecture proper (outline)

A. Introduction
• Any explanation of the origin of the Universe should be consistent with all information about its
composition, structure, accelerating expansion, cosmic microwave background radiation
among others.
B. Structure, Composition, and Age
• The universe as we currently know it comprises all space and time, and all matter & energy in it.

4
 Teacher tip
• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter consisting of protons, electrons, and Hydrogen and Helium as the most abundant
elements in the universe. Having the lowest
neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24% cold dark matter mass, these are the first elements to be
(matter that has gravity but does not emit light), and 71.4% dark energy (a source of anti- formed in the Big Bang Model of the Origin
gravity) of the Universe.
• A star's energy comes from
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies together for the reason that the low total combining light elements into
mass is insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy can explain the observed heavier elements by fusion, or
accelerating expansion of the universe. “nucler burning” (nucleosynthesis).
• In small stars like the sun, H
• Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements. burning is the fusion of 4 H nuclei
• Stars - the building block of galaxies born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies (fig. 4). (protons) into a He nucleus (2
Instabilities within the clouds eventually results into gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up, protons + 2 neutrons).
• Forming He from H gives off lots
and transformation to a protostar-the core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in. of energy(i.e. a natural hydrogen
• Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are synthesized or combined/fused together. bomb).
Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so-called “main sequence stars.” In the cores of such • Nucleosynthesis requires very high
T. The minimum T for H fusion is
stars, hydrogen atoms are fused through thermonuclear reactions to make helium atoms (fig. 5x106oC.
4). Massive main sequence stars burn up their hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our
Sun burnup hydrogen in about 10 billion years.

Figure 4: Birth, evolution, death, and rebirth

of stars
Image Source: http://
www.cyberphysics.co.uk/graphics/diagrams/
space/lifecycle_of_star.jpg

5
 • The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in Teacher tip
the accompanying planetary system. • Isotropic - having physical properties
that are the same when measured in
different directions
• A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In between • Two ways by which astronomers
the clusters is practicallyan empty space. This organization of matter in the universe suggests estimate the age of the universe :1) by
estimating the age of the looking
that it is indeed clumpy at a certain scale. But at a large scale, it appears homogeneous and
oldest stars; and 2) by measuring the
isotropic. rate of expansion of the universe and
extrapolating back to the Big Bang.

• Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old. The diameter of the universe is http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/
possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km). Its uni_age.html
density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.

C. Expanding Universe
• In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “redshift” (fig. 5) and its
interpretation that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for an
expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.
• He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are shifted toward the
red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of lower frequency; thus, the
inference that the star or galaxy must be moving away from us.

Figure 5. Red shift as evidence for an expanding universe. The positions of This is similar to the Doppler effect for
the absorptions lines for helium for light coming from the Sun (A) are sound waves: to a stationary observer, the
shifted towards the red end as compared with those for a distant star (B). frequency or pitch of a receding source
decreases as it moves away.
(Source: http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/Q&A/KS4/space/diagrams/
spectra.png)

• This evidence for expansion contradicted the previously held view of a static and unchanging
universe.

6
 • If there is internet access, teacher can
play these two movie clips directly from
D. Activity: Doppler Effect and Interactive (http://molebash.com/doppler/horn/horn1.ht) the website; (http://molebash.com/
Ask the students to watch two short video clips filmed inside a car. Try to determine where the horn is doppler/horn/horn1.htm)
coming from. Is it coming from inside the car or outside the car? If outside the car, where? • Alternatively, the movie clips can be
downloaded (also saved in the CD)
- Video 1 - horn is coming from the inside of the car. There is hardly any change in the volume
and pitch of the horn.
- Video 2 - horn is coming from outside of the car. Specifically, the horn is coming from another
car travelling in an opposite direction. Notice how the pitch and volume of the car varies with
distance from the other car. Pitch and volume increases as the other car approaches.

E. Cosmic Microwave Background

• There is a pervasive cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation in the universe. Its
accidental discovery in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson earned them the
physics Nobel Prize in 1978.
• It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band coming from all
directions-blackbody radiation with an average temperature of about 2.7 degrees above

7
 absolute zero (fig. 6).

Figure 6: Cosmic microwave background radiation map showing small variations

from WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe).
(Source: http://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/ContentMedia/map_model_2.gif)

A. Origin of the Universe

Teacher Tip
Non-scientific Thought
Unlike hypotheses in the sciences, religious
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from beliefs cannot be subjected to tests using
an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun. the scientific method. For this reason, they
cannot be considered valid topic of
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, scientific inquiry.
alone in a dark and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the
stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet,
eyes, and mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being
created the universe, including man and other living organisms.

8
Steady State Model
The uniform nature (even in all direction) of
• The now discredited steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by Bondi and the CMB precludes propagation from a
Gould and by Hoyle.It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands thereby point source (i.e. from ancient stars as
maintaining its density. explained by the steady state model).

• Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with the discovery of the cosmic
microwave background.

Misconception:
Big Bang Theory The “bang” should not be taken as an
• As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang explosion; it is better thought of a
simultaneous appearance of space
Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and everywhere. The theory does not identify
hot mass to its present size and much cooler state. the cause of the “bang.”
• The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. In Einstein’s
General Theory of Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-time and no longer
described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General
Relativity explains the peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury and the bending of light by the
Sun and has passed rigorous tests. The Cosmological Principle assumes that the universe is
homogeneous and isotropic when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with our
current large-scale image of the universe. But keep in mind that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
• The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion: 1) the redshift 2) abundance of
hydrogen, helium, and lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background
radiation-the remnant heat from the bang.

9
 Figure 7: Big Bang Timeline
(Source: http://futurism.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/big-bang-theory-timeline1.jpg)

6. Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory

• From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-43 second later, all matter and energy in the
universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state (fig. 7). It then underwent extremely rapid,
exponential inflation until 10-32 second later after which and until 10 seconds from time zero,
conditions allowed the existence of only quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and produced protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei, and
then hydrogen, helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after time zero when sufficient cooling did
not allow further nucleosynthesis.
• From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling universe entered a matter-dominated period
when photons decoupled from matter and light could travel freely as still observed today in the
form of cosmic microwave background radiation.

10
 • As the universe continued to cool down, matter collected into clouds giving rise to only stars
after 380,000 years and eventually galaxies would form after 100 million years from time zero
during which, through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon and elements heavier than carbon were
produced.
• From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe became dark-energy dominated and
underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after the big bang, the solar
system was formed.

ENRICHMENT
Teacher tip
Ask the students to submit a brief report on the following topic/questions. It was previously thought that the gravity
would eventually stop the expansion and
end the universe with a “Big Crunch” and
• What is the fate of the universe? Will the universe continue to expand or will it eventually perhaps to generate another “bang” . This
contract because of gravity? would occur if the density of the universe is
greater than the critical density. But if it is
lower, there would be not enough
gravitational force to stop or reverse the
expansion---the universe would expand
forever leading to the “Big Chill” or “Big
Freeze” since it cools during expansion. The
re c e n t o b s e r v a t i o n o f a c c e l e r a t i n g
expansion suggests that the universe will
expand exponentially forever.

Submitted work may be evaluated using the

following criteria:

• Logical discussion of scientific concepts

used for the argument (egeffects of
g r a v i t y, e x p a n s i o n ) , c o n s i s t e n t
discussions of pros and cons

• Logical build up of reasoning to

support the choice.

11
EVALUATION (20 MINS)

1. (NOT VISIBLE) 2. (NEEDS 3. (MEETS 4. (EXCEEDS

IMPROVEMENT) EXPECTATIONS) EXPECTATIONS)

Enrichment report

Summary questions

Explains the concept of

the Red Shift and how it
used as an evidence for an
expanding universe.

Applies understanding of
the Doppler effect to
differentiate between
source of sound in two
movie clips

Describes the cosmic

microwave background
radiation and its
significance.

States the different

hypotheses that preceded
the Big Bang Theory of the
origin of the universe

Explain the origin and

evolution of the Universe
according to the Big Bang
Theory.

12
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Lesson Plan/Materials/Teaching Guides
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Solar_System_formation_and_evolution_hypotheses#Classification_of_the_theories (accessed 13
October 2015)
2. ”The Origin of the Universe, Earth, and Life." National Academy of Sciences. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy
of Sciences, Second Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 1999. http://www.nap.edu/read/6024/chapter/3#8 (accessed
2 October 2015)
3. http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/ (accessed 5 October 2015)
Activities for teaching of the Universe


1. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/science-society/activities-universe
2. http://molebash.com/doppler/horn/horn1.htm
Short Article
1. http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/?origin-universe

13
Earth Science 60 MINS

Lesson 2: Universe and

LESSON OUTLINE
the Solar System Introduction Communicating learning objectives 10

Content Standard Motivation Prelection 5

The learners demonstrate an understanding of Instruction Lecture 35
1. the formation of the universe and the solar system.
Enrichment Short Research Assignment
Performance Standard
Evaluation Pen & Paper Assignment 10
Learning Competency
Compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar System. Materials
Projector or print-out of figures
(S11ES-Ia-2).
Resources
Specific Learning Outcomes (1) http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/solarsys.html
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: (accessed 12 October 2015)
• Identify the large scale and small scale properties of the solar system; and (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
History_of_Solar_System_formation_and_evolution_hypotheses#Classifi
• Discuss the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system; cation_of_the_theories (accessed 13 October 2015)
(3) "The Origin of the Universe, Earth, and Life." National Academy of
Sciences. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy
of Sciences, Second Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies
Press, 1999. http://www.nap.edu/read/6024/chapter/3#8 (accessed 2
October 2015)
(4) http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-
big-bang/ (accessed 5 October 2015)
(5) http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec24.html (accessed 27
March 2016)
(6) http://discovery.nasa.gov/education/pdfs/Active
%20Accretion_Discovery_508.pdf (accessed 27 March 2016)
(7) http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/
nsn11.sci.ess.eiu.solarorigins/origins-of-the-solar-system/ (accessed 27
March 2016)
(8) http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/pdfs/
ActiveAccretion_Dawn.pdf (accessed 27 March 2016

1
INTRODUCTION (10 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives
1. Introduce the following learning objectives and important terms
a. Identify the large scale and small scale properties of the solar system;
b. Discuss the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system;
Teacher tip
• The Solar System and its components
2. Help students recall what they have learned about the solar system by drawing a model on the have been discussed in Grade 6 and
Grade 8 (astronomy)
board. Ask the students for the correct sequence (from the inner planets to the outer planet).
• The solar system comprises the Sun,
eight planets, dwarf planets such as
Pluto, satellites, asteroids, comets,
other minor bodies such as those in the
Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust.

• The asteroid belt lies between Mars

and Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller
asteroids. They are thought of as
remnants of a “failed planet”—one that
did not form due to disturbance from
Jupiter’s gravity.

• The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune

(30 to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth
distance = 150 million km) and
comprise numerous rocky or icy bodies
a few meters to hundreds of kilometers
in size.

• The Oort cloud marks the outer

boundary of the solar system and is
composed mostly of icy objects
Figure 1. Layout of the solar system comprising mainly the Sun, planets and their
satellites, asteroids, and icy bodies such as dwarf planets and comets.
(http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/oort-cloud-nasa.jpg)

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MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
The Earth, the planet we live on, is part of the Solar System. If we want to know how the Earth formed,
we need to understand the origin and evolution of the Solar System.

INSTRUCTION (30 MINS)

Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation
Lecture proper (outline)

Show to the class the photos of the Milky Way galaxy and discuss the highlights.

Solar System

A. Overview Teacher tip

• The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy a huge disc- and spiral-shaped Age of Solar System is at 4.6 billion years
aggregation of about at least 100 billion stars and other bodies (fig. 2); old based on radioactive dating of
meteorites (Solar System is much younger
• Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at the center of than the Universe);
which lies a supermassive blackhole;
• This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km;
• The solar system revolves around the galactic center once in about 240 million years;
• The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo
supercluster of galaxies;
• Based on on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were
formed, radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the Earth and solar system are 4.6
billion years old.on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were
formed..

3
 Figure 2: The Solar System position with respect to the Milky Way Galaxy.
http://www.basicknowledge101.com/photos/earthinmilkyway.jpg
Teacher tip
B. Large Scale Features of the Solar System • Any hypothesis regarding the origin
• Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center (Sun) while angular of the solar system should conform
momentum is held by the outer planets. to or explain both large scale and
small scale properties of the solar
• Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same plane. system. Natural forces created and
• All planets revolve around the sun. shaped the solar system. The same
processes (condensation, accretion,
• The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the collision and differentiation) are
innermost planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest; ongoing processes .

• All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun.

4
C. Small scale features of the Solar System • The orderly structure of the Solar
• Most planets rotate prograde System (planets located at regular
intervals) and the uniform age of the
• Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron ,
point to single formation event.
and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents
of volatiles - hydrogen, helium, and noble gases. • It would help if there is a table to show
these features..comparing and
• The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called "gas giants" because of
contrasting the different planets.
the dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower
densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia, methane). • Review the learners on of rotation vs
revolution.
D. Element Abundance on Earth, Meteorites, and Universe
Table 1 shows the abundance of elements across bodies in the solar system as compared to • Prograde - counterclockwise when
abundance in the universe. viewed from above the Earth's North
Pole.
• Except for hydrogen, helium, inert gases, and volatiles, the universe and Earth have similar
abundance especially for rock and metal elements. • Mercury's orbit around the sun does
not conform with the rest of the planets
in the solar system. It does not behave
according to Newton's Laws.

- The precession or rotation of the

orbit is predicted by Newton's
theory as being caused by the pull
of the planets on one another. The
precession of the orbits of all
planets except for Mercury's can,
in fact, be understood using
Newton;s equations. But Mercury
seemed to be an exception.

- As it orbits the Sun, this planet

follows an ellipse, but only
approximately: it is found that the
point of closest approach of
Mercury to the sun does not always
occur at the same place as in other
planets but that it slowly moves
around the sun

5
 Teacher can choose to skip this part
(abundance of elements) if pressed for time.

Teacher tip
If teacher decides to discuss this part, he/
she can show th table and solicit
observations from the students as to the
differences/similarities in terms of element
composition (Not necessarily absolute
amounts). Students may also provide
explanations/implications for their
observations.

Expected responses may include:

• a difference between the composition

of the Earth's continental crust and the
Whole Earth (average composition of
the Earth) Þ The Earth differentiated
into compositional layers - crust,
mantle, and the core
• Very similar rock and metal elements
for Universe and Earth Þ easy to make
Earth if most H and He are removed;
sun and large planets have enough
mass and gravity to retain H and He
• Inert gases rare on Earth Þ too light for
Earth’s gravity to hold
• Some volatile elements remain Þ
ingredients from which Earth formed
were “cold” and solid particles; if hot,
would have been lost
• Recall that meteorites are believed to
be remnants of materials from which
the solar system was derived

Table 1: Abundance of Elements.

6
 • The sun and the large planets have enough gravity to retain hydrogen and helium. Rare inert Teacher can ask students for what theories/
gases are too light for the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low abundance. explanations they know about the origin of
the solar system.
• The sun and the large planets have enough gravity to retain hydrogen and helium. Rare inert
gases are too light for the Earth’s gravity to retain, thus the low abundance.
• Retention of volatile elements by the Earth is consistent with the idea that some materials that
formed the Earth and the solar system were “cold” and solid; otherwise, the volatiles would
have been lost. These suggest that the Earth and the solar system could be derived from
materials with composition similar to that of the universe.
• The presence of heavy elements such as lead, silver, and uranium on Earth suggests that it was
derived from remnants of a supernova and that the Sun is a second-generation star made by
recycling materials.
Teacher Tips:
• This is the nature of scientific inquiry. As
E. Origin of the System new data is generated from
observations/experimentation, a
• Any acceptable scientific thought on the origin of the solar system has to be consistent with and
hypothesis can be revised or even
supported by information about it (e.g. large and small scale features, composition). There will replaced by a new one.
be a need to revise currently accepted ideas should data no longer support them. • Present the different hypotheses on the
origin of the Solar System in table form.
The first column is a summary of the
F. Rival Theories hypothesis. Second column - flaws/
drawbacks of the hypothesis.
• Many theories have been proposed since about four centuries ago. Each has weaknesses in
• Teacher can draw this simple diagram on
explaining all characteristics of the solar system. A few are discussed below. the board to explain the Nebular
Hypothesis.

1. Nebular Hypothesis
• In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace
independently thought of a rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the middle
to form the sun and the rest into a disc that become the planets.
• This nebular theory failed to account for the distribution of angular momentum in the solar
system.

7
 • The common theme of these
hypotheses involves an unlikely
encounter between the Sun and
another celestial body (e.g. comet, star,
protoplanet, interstellar cloud);
• The two major flaws of this type of
hypothesis include: 1) fails to explain
how planets are formed (hot gas from
the sun/star expands and will not form
planets); 2) this type of encounters are
extremely rare

Figure 3. Nebular Hypothesis.

(Source: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/images/nebular_hypothesis.gif)

2. Encounter Hypotheses:
• Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to form planet;
• James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that would have drawn from the sun matter that
would condense to planets,
• T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s (1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving a star much
bigger than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments from both out which
planetisimals were formed;

8
• Ray Lyttleton’s (1940) sun’s companion star colliding with another to form a proto-planet
that breaks up to form Jupiter and Saturn.

Image Source: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/

Figure 4: Sun - Star Interaction
~js/images/encounter_hypothesis.gif
9
• Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the Sun passed through a dense interstellar Teacher Tip
cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous envelope that eventually became the planets. • importance of meteorites in
However, it cannot explain how the planets and satellites were formed. The time required to determining the age and the origin of
the solar system.
form the planets exceeds the age of the solar system.
• M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory (Figure 4) is a variation of James Jeans’ near-collision • An improvement of the nebular
hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a filament of material which hypothesis based on current
knowledge of fluids and states of
becomes the planets. Collisions between proto-planets close to the Sun produced the
matter.
terrestrial planets; condensations in the filament produced the giant planets and their
satellites. Different ages for the Sun and planets is predicted by this theory. • remind the learner of the comparison
of the elemental abundance among the
• Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s compositional studies on meteorites in the 1950s and
Universe, Meteorites, and the whole
other scientists’ work on these objects led to the conclusion that meteorite constituents Earth
have changed very little since the solar system’s early history and can give clues about
their formation. The currently accepted theory on the origin of the solar system relies much • accretion and bombardment generate
heat (kinetic energy is transformed to
on information from meteorites.
heat)which was partly retained by the
Earth as internal heat;

3. Protoplanet Hypotheses - Current Hypothesis

• About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas
and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due to gravity (fig. 5).
• As most of the mass move to the center to eventually become a proto-Sun, the remaining
materials form a disc that will eventually become the planets and momentum is transferred
outwards.
• Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking to each other to form
larger and larger bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-planets are accretions
of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock and
mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and helium.
• High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus
in retrograde rotation.
• Collision of the Earth with large object produces the moon. This is supported by the
composition of the moon very similar to the Earth's Mantle
• When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and
volatiles from the inner planets to beyond Mars to form the gas giants leaving behind a
system we know today.
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 Figure 5: . Cartoon showing the origin of the solar system
(Source: https://puserscontentstorage.blob.core.windows.net/userimages/52dd5b0a-2db6-4a81-
bca7-5ee3a4c3c05c/aa8d4f1a-b99d-42ed-8c70-a104ca40ec3eimage6.jpeg)

G. Activity (Optional)
Teacher Tip
The activity/game can be very brief but it
Let’s Volt In.
would entail preparation and a lot of space
Activity/game based on Active Accretion NASA's Discovery and New Frontiers Program: http:// (ideally and outdoor activity)
dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/pdfs/ActiveAccretion_Dawn.pdf
Download or print from CD.

11
ENRICHMENT Teacher tip
Is the Solar System unique or rare? What is the possibility of finding a similar system within the Milky • Recent works are reporting presence of
a solar system in the other part of the
Way Galaxy? What about an Earth like planet?
galaxy. Ask students to think about the
questions and do some research. This
can also be used to transition to the
next topic - Earth as habitable planet.
• Criteria for assessment of this task may
include:
- Logical discussion on answering
the questions with supporting
EVALUATION (10 MINS) statements based on scientific
concepts.

EVALUATION (PEN AND PAPER ASSIGNMENT)

1. (NOT VISIBLE) 2. (NEEDS 3. (MEETS 4. (EXCEEDS

IMPROVEMENT) EXPECTATIONS) EXPECTATIONS)

Name the different

components of the solar
system.

Name the large scale and

small scale features of the
solar system.

Discuss the different

hypotheses regarding the
origin of the solar system
and recognizing their
weaknesses.

Discuss the origin and

evolution of the solar
system based on the most
current hypothesis (Proto
Planet Hypothesis)

12
Earth and Life Science 90 MINS

Lesson 3: Earth Systems LESSON OUTLINE

Content Standard Introduction Communicating learning objectives 35
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the subsystems (geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere) that make up the Earth. Motivation Recall the concept of El Niño 5
Performance Standard
Instruction Lecture 30
The learners shall be able to make a concept map and use it to explain how
the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are interconnected. Practice Diagram Analysis 20

Learning Competency Enrichment Essay

The learners explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose
boundaries matter and energy flow (S11ES-Ib-4). Evaluation Essay

Specific Learning Outcomes Materials

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• define the concept of a system; and
• recognize the Earth as a system composed of subsystems.
Pencil or any drawing material; A4 or letter size paper; clip board or any
flat surface that can be used for drawing
Resources
(1) Carleton College. (n.d.). Earth System Science. Retrieved from http://
serc.carleton.edu/Earthlabs/climate/index.html
(2) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). Teaching
Activity: The Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved from http://
www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/outreach/lesson_plans/The%20Hydrologic
%20Cycle.pdf
(3) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). The Major
Earth Spheres. Retrieved from http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/outreach/
lesson_plans/Teacher%20Background%20Information-%20The
%20Major%20Earth%20Spheres.pdf
(4) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). El Niño, La
Niña, and ENSO. Retrieved from http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/obop/
mlo/educationcenter/students/brochures%20and%20diagrams/noaa
%20publications/El%20Nino%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf

1
INTRODUCTION (35 MINS) Teacher tip
• Check your immediate surrounding for
Communicating learning objectives an appropriate field area, preferably
1. Perform either one of the following pre-class activities (30 minutes). with trees or vegetation, and pond,
lake, or stream.
• Option 1 (This option is recommended for schools in a non-urban setting.)
• Before bringing the learners to the field
o Using a pencil and a piece of paper, have the learners draw or illustrate the field area, check for potential hazards. If
area. Take note of the presence of vegetation, soil cover, wildlife, rockout-crops, applicable, the learners should be
properly warned about safety
and bodies of water. Ask the learners to think how energy and mass are
precautionary measures.
transferred in the different components of the area. • For schools in urban areas without
• Option 2 (This option is recommended for schools in an urban setting.) open spaces, choose option 2.

o Together with the learners, label the different processes and phases of water
involved in the water cycle.

Teacher tip
• The concept of ecosystems has been
d i s c u s s e d i n p r e - S H S b i o l o g y.
Emphasize the definition of the word
interaction.
• Most of the terms in this lesson have
been introduced in previous science
subjects.
• Help the learners integrate the
concepts that will be introduced.

Figure 1: Hydrologic Cycle (w/o labels)

Image Source:
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_YTb6ZblJu0o/
TPMzp32R5aI/AAAAAAAAALg/
vnul9ZgWt0M/s1600/WaterCycleArt.jpg

2
 o Use the following terms to complete the cycle: Teacher tip
- condensation • Most of the answers will describe the
- precipitation atmospheric conditions during El Niño
(e.g. hot and dry, no rain, water crisis,
- evaporation
etc.)
- transpiration • Emphasize that El Nino is not limited to
- infiltration atmospheric conditions. It is the result
- surface run-off of hydrosphere (ocean)-atmosphere
interaction.
• The subsystems of the Earth
2. Introduce the following specific learning objectives: (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
• Define the concept of a system. and lithosphere) interact with each
other.
• Recognize the Earth as a system composed of subsystems.
3. Ask the learners what they remember about the concept of ecosystems.

MOTIVATION (5 MINS)
1. Ask the learners what they know about or have experienced regarding El Niño.
2. Use the Figure 2, briefly explain the El Niño phenomenon. Emphasize that it starts with the unusual
warming of the central Pacific Ocean accompanied by the weakening of the trade winds. The
warming of the central Pacific Ocean results to an eastward shift of the low pressure area (away from
the Indo Pacific).

3
 Teacher tip
• Most of the answers will describe the
atmospheric conditions during El Niño
(e.g. hot and dry, no rain, water crisis,
etc.)
• Emphasize that El Nino is not limited to
atmospheric conditions. It is the result
of hydrosphere (ocean)-atmosphere
interaction.
• The subsystems of the Earth
(atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
and lithosphere) interact with each
other.

Figure 2. El Niño phenomenon

Source: http://images.listlandcom.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/The-El-
Nino-Phenomenon-explained-in-a-nice-little-graphic.jpg

4
3. Explain the origin of the term ‘El Niño’ as a decrease in fish catch off the coast of Peru near Teacher tip
Christmas time. Emphasize that this is a biologic response. • Give the government as an example.
Inquire about the three branches of the
government (executive, judiciary, and
INSTRUCTION (30 MINS) legislative). Explain that these three
1. Define the term system as a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a branches are independent and have
unified whole. their respective mandates or functions.
A government can only succeed if all
2. Present this diagram that enumerates the subsystems of the Earth. three branches are able to perform their
respective functions.

• The arrows in the diagram indicate the

interaction among the components.

• A closed system is a system in which

there is only an exchange of heat or
energy and no exchange of matter.

Figure 3: The Earth system.

(Source: https://www.earthonlinemedia.com)

5
3. Explain that the Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from the sun and
• Describe each subsystem of the Earth.
returns some of this energy to space.
4. Introduce the term atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
• The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% • Warm air converges and rises to form low-
argon, and trace amount of other gases. pressure zones. Low-pressure areas are
associated with increased precipitation. By
• One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is contrast, cold air descends to form high-
redistributed is through atmospheric circulation. pressure regions (dry regions).
• There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
5. Introduce the term lithosphere.
• The concept of Plate Tectonics will be
• The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, discussed in detail in the succeeding
and the solid metallic inner core. lessons (Internal Structure of the Earth)
• The carbon cycle is the process by which
• Briefly discuss the Plate Tectonics as an important process shaping the surface of the Earth.
carbon is transferred among the
The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that in mantle convection. atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living
6. Introduce the term biosphere. organisms.

• The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. • Isolated and complex ecosystems thrive in
• It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, the deep sea floor at depths beyond the
reach of sunlight. The base of the food
and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
chain for such ecosystems is called
• For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic chemosynthetic organisms. Instead of
organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while sunlight, these organisms use energy from
hydrothermal vents or methane seeps
oxygen is released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an
(methane seeping through rocks and
important part of the carbon cycle. sediments) to produce simple sugars.
• Sunlight is not necessary for life.
7. Introduce the term hydrosphere.
• About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the
form of ocean water (Figure 3).
• Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining
one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
• The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and
6
 indirectly through the weathering of rocks.
• Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.

• The hypsographic curve is a graphical

representation of the proportion of land at
various elevations (meters above or below
sea level)

• Ensure that the learners understand what

the X and Y axes represent. To test their
comprehension, ask the leaners what
proportion of the Earth's surface is about
4000 m below sea level (Answer Key: ~
60%).

• The hydrologic cycle (water cycle) has

been partly discussed in Grade 4 (water in
the environment) and Grade 8
(Ecosystems).

• Through the process of weathering and

erosion, the hydrologic cycle is another
important process contributing to the
shaping and reshaping of the surface of
the Earth. This is an important link among
the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
lithosphere that the learners should be
able to identify themselves.

Figure 3: Hypsographic curve

(Source: http://images.slideplayer.com/10/2857469/slides/slide_11.jpg)

7
PRACTICE (20 MINS)
1. Using either the illustration on Figures 1 or 4, identify how energy and mass is exchanged Teacher tip
• Use the pre-lecture drawing
among the subsystems. Use different types of lines and boxes to differentiate between matter exercise for schools with open
or materials and energy. spaces (option 1); else, use the
2. Use arrows to indicate the interaction among components. hydrologic cycle diagram

Figure 4: Exchange of energy and mass among subsystem (without labels).

ENRICHMENT
1. The impact of man to the environment has become so massive that scientists are proposing the
addition of man or the ‘anthroposphere’ to the Earth system.

8
2. Write an essay not exceeding 200 words on how man has altered the atmosphere, biosphere, Teacher tip
hydrosphere, lithosphere, and as a consequence, the Earth System as whole. Possible responses may include but
are not limited to:
• Changes in land use
• Deforestations lead to erosion,
flooding, decrease in CO 2
sequestration (hence increase
in greenhouse gases), and loss
of habitat (extinction).
• Industrialization and
development of technology
may lead to pollution and over
hunting (extinction).
• The use of renewable energy
sources reduces pollution and
greenhouse gases.

EVALUATION

NEEDS MEETS EXCEEDS

NOT VISIBLE
IMPROVEMENT EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS

Understands the concept

of a system.

Can describe the different

components or
subsystems of the Earth
System.

Can identify and explain

how mass and energy is
exchanged among the
components of a system.

Essay is relevant to the

assigned topic and written
logically and clearly.

9
Earth and Life Science 60 MINS

Lesson 4: The Universe

and Solar System Introduction
LESSON OUTLINE
Communicating learning objectives 10
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the formation of the universe Motivation Puzzle 5
and the Solar System.
Instruction/ Lecture and Data Interpretation 45
Performance Standard Practice
The learners shall be able to make a concept map and use it to explain how Enrichment Terraforming Mars (Assignment)
the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are interconnected.

Learning Competency Evaluation Data Interpretation

The learners describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support
life (S11ES-Ia-b-3).
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• recognize the difference in the physical and chemical properties between the
Earth and its neighboring planes; and
• identify the factors that allow a planet to support life.
Materials
Projector; hard copy of figures
Resources
(1) Montana State University. (n.d.). Interstellar Real Estate - Defining the
Habitable Zone. Retrieved from https://btc.montana.edu/ceres/html/
Habitat/habitablezone.htm
(2) National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2015). Planetary Fact
Sheet. Retrieved from http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
(3) National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Crash Landing! Student Activity
Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/
sample/lesson5/pdf/5_3_1sas_crashland.pdf
(4) National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Goldilocks and the Three Planets.
Retrieved from http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/sample/
lesson5/pdf/goldilocks.pdf
(5) National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Lesson 5: Activity 3: Habitable
Worlds. Retrieved from http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/
sample/lesson5/z_act3.htm
(6) https://btc.montana.edu/ceres/html/Habitat/habitablezone.htm
(7) http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/

1
INTRODUCTION (10 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives
1. Introduce the following specific learning objectives:
• Recognize the difference in the physical and chemical properties between the Earth and its
neighboring planets
• Identify the factors that allow a planet to support life.
2. Review the previous lessons on the Solar System.
• Origin
• Components
• Terrestrial vs Gas Planets

MOTIVATION (5 MINS) Teacher tip

1. Using the letters provided in Figure 1, ask the learners the four-letter word that describes the Teacher can create his or her own 4 Picture
following images. 1 Word puzzle. Use images that the learners
can easily relate to.

Answer Key: LIFE

Image source: whats-theword.com

Figure 1. Finding the four-letter word that describes the image above
2
 Teacher tip
2. The humanity’s failure to protect the environment and life here on Earth is likely due to the The concept of the Earth as a system and
the interconnectivity of its components will
following:
be discussed in the succeeding lesson.
• Inability to recognize the full consequence of his/her actions
• Lack of appreciation of how truly unique the Earth is

INSTRUCTION/PRACTICE (40 MINS)

Activity 1: Compare and Contrast the Planets Teacher tip

1. Print and cut-out photographs of three terrestrial planets, namely Venus, Earth, and Mars. Place the • To save time, prepare the materials
photographs side by side. before the class starts.
• Try to print colored photographs in hard
paper so it can be reused several times.
Print the photographs in the correct
Venus Earth Mars scale.
• Alternatively, the teacher may opt to
post on the blackboard the contents of
Table 2, instead of giving out copies to
the learners.

• Possible responses may include:

- The blue coloration of the Earth is
very apparent due to the presence
of water. The size of the planets is
also important to note.

- The size and mass of Venus and

Earth are very similar. Mars is about
half the Earth's size.

Figure 2: Venus, Earth, and Mars. Images from NASA - The three planets have a
spheroidal shape.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Terrestrial_planet_sizes.jpg -

3
2. Divide the class into groups of three to five. Give each group a copy of Table 1 for reference. Ask Teacher tip
each group to write down on a piece of paper the similarities and differences among the planets. • The rows are color coded according to
Give the learners 15 minutes to complete the task. their relationship with respect to each
other.
• Escape velocity is the minimum speed
3. Ask the learners to provide possible explanations for their observations using the information in an object needs to escape a planet's
pull of gravity.
Table 2 and their prior knowledge on the planets.
• Surface pressure is the atmospheric
pressure at a location on the surface of
the planet. It is proportional to the
Table 1: Comparison of the features of Venus, Earth, and Mars
mass of air above the location.
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2015) • ‘Temperature if no greenhouse gases
are present’ indicates the temperature
of the planet without the warming
effect of greenhouse gases. Note that
the temperature of the Earth would be
around 18 oC lower without
greenhouse warming.
• Emphasize that the greenhouse effect
is not necessarily undesirable. It is run-
away greenhouse effect which we
would like to avoid (e.g. Venus).

Ask the students what is the

consequence if greenhouse gases are
not present

• Length of day is a function of

rotational speed.
• The ability of a planet to retain its
internal heat is proportional to its size.
Mars may have lost much of its internal
heat very early in its evolution.
• A planet's temperature is a function of
its distance from the Sun. However, this
factor can be modified by the intensity
of greenhouse warming.
• Water in liquid form is one of the most
important prerequisites for life. There is
recent evidence that liquid water, in the
form of brine (salty water) flows
. intermittently on the surface of Mars.
4
 • Water - in the liquid form, turns out to
4. After the task, ask a representative from each group to present their observations.
be one of the most important
• Venus, Earth, and Mars are part of the inner terrestrial or "rocky" planets. Their composition prerequisites for life as we know it.
and densities are not too different from each other.
• There is recent evidence that liquid
• Venus is considered to be the Earth's twin planet. It has a very similar size and mass with the water, in the form of brine (salty water)
Earth. Mars is about half the Earth's size. flows intermittently on the surface of
Mars.
• Orbital period and velocity are related to the planet's distance from the sun. Among the three
planet, Venus is the nearest and Mars is the farthest from the Sun. • thermophiles - bacteria that can
• Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are very similar. Rotational speed of Venus is extremely tolerate extreme temperatures (41 to
122 0C) commonly associated with hot
slow.
springs and deep-sea hydrothermal
• Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue color. The Earth is a habitable planet. vents. Life, in general can tolerate a
wide range of temperature conditions.
The temperature range that allows
water to exist in the liquid state is the
over-riding factor.
• planets should have sufficient size to
hold a significant atmosphere. The
composition of the atmosphere,
specifically the amount of green house
gases, influences the planet surface
temperature.
• the amount of solar radiation that a
planet receives is primarily a function of
Activity 2: Interstellar Crash Landing (National Science Foundation, n.d.,) distance from the sun. Sunlight is
(http://www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/sample/lesson5/pdf/5_3_1sas_crashland.pdf) essential for photosynthesis but some
organism are able to extract energy
from other sources (chemosynthetic
1. Ask students what factors would a planet habitable. Learners should try to elaborate on their organisms).
• a system that will be able to constantly
responses. supply nutrients to organisms is
important to sustain life. On Earth,
nutrients are cycled through the
2. Provide a copy of Table 2 - "Factors that Make a Planet Habitable" to each of the group (can be the hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics
same grouping as Activity 1). Ask students to read the document carefully and compare their (volcanism)
answers they have given at the start of the activity • Internal heat drives plate tectonics. The
ability of a planet to maintain internal
heat is related to size.
Table 2: Factors that make a planet habitable (National Science Foundation, n.d.,)
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/our_place/hab_ref_table.pdf
5
 Factors that Not Enough of Just Right Too Much of the Situation in the Solar The document/table can be downloaded
from
make a the Factor Factor System
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/
Planet explore/our_place/hab_ref_table.pdf or
Habitable from the accompanying CD.

Temperature Low Life seems to be At about 125oC, Surface: only the

influences how temperatures limited to a protein and Earth’s surface is in
quickly atoms cause chemicals temperature carbohydrate this temperature
and molecules to react slowly, range of -15oC molecules, and the range. Sub-surface:
move. which interferes to 115oC. In genetic material the interior of the
with the reactions this range, (e.g., DNA and solid planets and
necessary for life. liquid water can RNA) start to break moons may be in this
It can also cause still exist under apart. Also, high temperature range.
the freezing of certain temperatures
water, making conditions. cause the quick
liquid water evaporation of
unavailable. water.

Atmosphere Small planets and Earth & Venus

Traps heat,
Venus’s
shields the surfaceOf
from
theharmful
solid planets
radiation,
& and provides chemicals needed for life, such a
moons have are the right atmosphere is 100 moons, only Earth,
insufficient size to hold a times thicker than Venus, & Titan have
gravity to hold an sufficient-sized Earth’s. It is made significant
atmosphere. The atmosphere. almost entirely of atmospheres. Mars’
gas molecules Earth’s greenhouse atmosphere is about
escape to space, atmosphere is gasses, making the 1/100th that of
leaving the about 100 miles surface too hot for Earth’s, too small for
planet or moon thick. It keeps life. The four giant significant insulation
without an the surface planets are or shielding.
insulating blanket warm & protects completely made
or a protective it from radiation of gas.
shield. & small- to
medium-sized
meteorites.

6
Energy When there is WithOrganisms
a steady useLight
light energy
or chemical
is a energy
Surface:
to run
The
their
inner
life processes.
too little sunlight input of either problem if it makes planets get too much
or too few of the light or a planet too hot or sunlight for life. The
chemicals that chemical if there are too outer planets get too
provide energy energy, cells can many harmful rays, little.
to cells, such as run the such as ultraviolet. Sub-surface: Most
iron or sulfur, chemical Too many energy- solid planets & moons
organisms die. reactions rich chemicals is have energy-rich
necessary for not a problem chemicals.
life.

Nutrients Without All solid planets Too many nutrients Surface: Earth has a
Used to build chemicals to & moons have are not a problem. water cycle, an
and maintain an makeproteins & the same However, too atmosphere, and
organism’s body. carbohydrates, general active a circulation volcanoes to circulate
organisms cannot chemical system, such as the nutrients. Venus,
grow. Planets makeup, so constant volcanism Titan, Io, and Mars
without systems nutrients are on Jupiter’s moon, have nutrients and
to deliver present. Those Io, or the churning ways to circulate
nutrients to its with a water atmospheres of the them to organisms.
organisms (e.g., a cycle or volcanic gas planets, Sub-surface: Any
water cycle or activity can interferes with an planet or moon with
volcanic activity) transport and organism’s ability sub-surface water or
cannot support replenish the to get enough molten rock can
life. Also, when chemicals nutrients. circulate and
nutrients are required by replenish nutrients for
spread so thin living organisms
that they are hard organisms.
to obtain, such as
on a gas planet,
life cannot exist.

7
3. Ask the students to imagine themselves in an interstellar voyage. Their spaceship suffers mechanical Teacher Tip
problems and will be forced to land. Fortunately they are passing through the Yanib System , which is You may also require the learners to
composed of a sun-like star surrounded by seven planets, some of which have moons . The profiles of include a sketch/diagram of how they
think their habitable planet/moon
planets and moons of the Yanib System are listed on Table 3 (Provide each group a copy of Table 3).
would look like based on the factors for
Students are to decide the best place to land their ship. habitable planet/moon.
4. Ask students to write down on a piece of paper their choice of planet or moon . Reasons for their
choice should also be written down. Reasons why they did not choose the other planets should also
be included.

Table 3 Profiles of Planets and Moons of Yanib System. Modified from: http://
www.voyagesthroughtime.org/planetary/sample/lesson5/pdf/5_3_1sas_crashland.pdf

Planet 1 (closet to the star) Planet 4

Mass: 1.5 (Earth = 1)
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and
seismic activity detected
Atmosphere: CO2, N, and H20
Ave. Temperature: 651oC
Description: Thick clouds surround
the planet. No surface is visible
through the clouds.
Mass: 1.5
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and
seismic activity detected
Atmosphere: N, O2, and ozone
layer
Average Temperature: 2oC
Description: Cold oceans, covered
with ice along much of the globe,
some open water around equator

Planet 2 Planet 5
Mass: 0.5
 Gas Giant with one large moon.
Tectonics: No activity detected
 Moon: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Atmosphere: Thin CO2 atmosphere. Many volcanoes and
atmosphere
 hot springs on surface.
detected
 Temperatures in hot spots can be
Average Temperature: 10oC
 up to 600oC. Other spots away
Description: Polar ice caps, dry from volcanic heat can get as low
riverbeds in temperature as 145oC.

8
 Planet 3
Mass: 1
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and
seismic activity detected.
Atmosphere: CO2, H2O
Temperature: 30 OC
Description: Liquid water oceans
cover much of the surface.
Volcanic island chains make up
most of the dry land.
Planet 6
Gas giant with four large, rocky
satellites (moons).
Moons have no appreciable
atmosphere. Ice detectable on
one.

Planet 7 (furthest from the star)

Gas giant with two large moons.
Moon 1: Thick methane
atmosphere with pressure high
enough to keep a potential
methane ocean liquid underneath.
Temperature: -200 oC
Moon 2: Covered in water ice. Ice
appears cracked and re-frozen in
parts, indicating a potential liquid
ocean underneath.
Surface temperature -100 oC.
Teacher tip

ENRICHMENT • To terraform means to transform

another planet to resemble the Earth
Terraforming Mars in several aspects, specifically the
Have the learners write a 200 word report/essay on the following topic: ‘Can man alter Mars environment ability to support life.
to make it more suitable for human habitation? How?’ • Use the following criteria in
assessing this assignment:
- Logic and consistency in the
arguments
- Valid and consistent scientific
concepts to support the answer

9
EVALUATION

NEEDS MEETS EXCEEDS

NOT VISIBLE
IMPROVEMENT EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS

Identify similarities
and differences
among the three
planets, namely
Venus, Earth, and
Mars.

Explain the impact

of planet size to
gravity, internal
heat, and
atmosphere of the
planet.

Identify factors
that influence a
planet's
temperature.

Explain factors that

make a planet
habitable.

Explain why the

presence of liquid
water is important
to life

10
Earth Science 60 MINS

Lesson 5: Minerals and Rocks

Content Standard
LESSON OUTLINE
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the three main categories of
rocks. Introduction Communicating learning objectives 3

Performance Standard Motivation Mineral Identification Video 10

The learners shall be able to make a plan that the community may use to
conserve and protect its resources for future generations. Instruction Lecture 27
Learning Competency Practice Mineral Identification 20
The learners will be able to identify common rock-forming minerals using their
physical and chemical properties (S11ES-Ib-5). Enrichment Assignment

Specific Learning Outcomes Evaluation Summary Questions

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• demonstrate understanding about physical and chemical properties of
minerals and will be able to identify certain minerals using specific tests;
• identify some common rock-forming minerals; and
• classify minerals based on chemical affinity.
Materials
Mineral Decision Tree; Mineral Identification Charts; manila paper;
markers; media player; internet connection (optional)
Resources
(1) Identifying Minerals by Michael Sammartano https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=32NG9aeZ7_c (8/29/2015).
(2) Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology – Mineral Identification https://
gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.pdf
(8/29/2015).
(3) The Mineral Identification Key http://www.minsocam.org/msa/
collectors_corner/id/mineral_id_keyq1.htm (8/29/2015).
(4) Calcite Cleavage by Steven Newton https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bYiT2qgD8zQ&feature=youtu.be (8/30/2015).

1
INTRODUCTION (3 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives Teacher tip
• Cite examples of mineral use in our
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own Words, daily lives:
Read-aloud) 1. halite (salt) for cooking
2. graphite (pencil) for writing
a. I can describe how much minerals are part of our daily lives
3. diamond and gold as jewelry
b. I can describe minerals as a life-long hobby (gemstone collectors)
c. I can describe the importance and use of minerals to human development • Mineral - naturally occurring, inorganic
solid with orderly crystalline structure
d. I can develop a systematic way of identifying minerals and a definite chemical composition.
These are the basic building blocks of
rocks.
Understanding key concepts
2. Define what a mineral is. Give emphasis to the five requirements for a material to be considered a • Water is not a mineral since it is not
solid and crystalline. Tube ice is not
mineral (i.e. naturally occurring is not man-made or machine-generated, inorganic is not a by-
because it is not naturally occurring.
product of living things, etc.). Snow flake meets all requirements in
defining a mineral.

Review
3. Ask the learners: Do you consider water a mineral? How about snowflake or tube ice?

MOTIVATION (10 MINS)

Options: video (for lectures), power point slides (pictures), specimens (if available) Teacher tip
• Make sure that the learners are ready
Show a video on minerals (general) with discussions on the different chemical and physical properties of
to watch before playing the video.
minerals. This will guide the students on how to identify minerals. Tell the students that the video will
only be played once and that they need to take notes for discussion. (8:33 minutes) • With no available specimen or tangible
sample to describe, the teacher can use
a video.

2
INSTRUCTION (27 MINS) Teacher tip
• Give the government as an example.
A. Mineral Properties Inquire about the three branches of the
Ask the students to identify the different mineral properties described in the video. Encourage class government (executive, judiciary, and
participation by specifically using table salt or halite in demonstrating these properties. Tabulate the legislative). Explain that these three
branches are independent and have
answers on the board.
their respective mandates or functions.
A government can only succeed if all
Mineral Name HALITE (TABLE SALT) three branches are able to perform their
respective functions.
Chemical Composition NaCl

Luster non-metallic – vitreous; transparent to translucent • The arrows in the diagram indicate the
interaction among the components.
Hardness soft (2-2.5)

Color white

Streak white

Crystal Form / Habit cubic

Cleavage perfect cubic

Specific Gravity light (2.2)

Other Properties salty taste; very soluble; produces reddish spark in flame

Teacher to discuss the different mineral properties.

1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral Teacher tip
• Explore with the students a
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
systematic way of identifying
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull minerals.
(earthy), greasy, etc.

2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically surface) to abrasion.

3
a. Introduce students to the use of a hardness scale designed by German geologist/mineralogist • Explore with the students a
Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness). The test compares the resistance of a mineral systematic way of identifying
relative to the 10 reference minerals with known hardness. It is simply determining the hardness of a minerals.

mineral by scratching them with common objects of known hardness (e.g. copper coin -3.0-3.5). It is recommended that the
•
mineral properties be discussed
in the correct sequence :
Moh’s scale of Hardness 1 and 2 (in any order): Luster,
Hardness
3: Color and Streak
4. Crystal Form/ Habit
5. Cleavage
6. Fracture
7. Specific Gravity
8. Other Properties

• Common everyday objects that

can be used for hardness test

Object Hardness

Fingernail 2 – 2.5

Copper 3-3.5
coin/wire

Nail 5-5.5

Glass 5.5

Steel knife 6.5 - 7

Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-Mineral/step3/Hardness/ (8/30/2015)

4
b. What are the pros and cons in using the Mohs scale of hardness?

PROS CONS

Easy to do the test The scale is qualitative and not quantitative

Can be done anywhere, anytime as long as the Cannot be used to test accurate hardness of
place is not dark industrial materials

Mohs scale is highly relevant for field geologists

to roughly identify minerals using scratch kits

Can be done without or few kits – handy

3. Color and streak – Color maybe a unique identifying property of certain minerals (e.g. malachite – • The different colors and varieties
green, azurite – blue). There are also lots of minerals that share similar or the same color/s. In o f Q u a r t z i s t h e re s u l t o f
impurities within the crystal
addition, some minerals can exhibit a range of colors. The mineral quartz for example, can be pink
structure. The color of some
(rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz) etc. Streak on the other minerals can also be modified by
hand is the color of a mineral in powdered form. Note that the color of a mineral could be different weathering.
from the streak. For example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color (hence the other term of pyrite
which is Fool’s Gold) but has a black or dark gray streak. Streak is a better diagnostic property as
compared to color. Streak is inherent to almost every mineral. Color maybe unreliable for
identification as impurities within the minerals may give the minerals a different color.

Color vs streak of a hematite (Fe2O3). Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-

Mineral/step6/Streak/ (8/30/2015)

5
4. Crystal Form/Habit –The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed / observed as Teacher tip
these crystals grow in open spaces. The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of atoms Use Figure 4 for schools with open
spaces. Otherwise, use Figure 1.
and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of
any cleavage or fracture. Examples include prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and equant. A
mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as amorphous.

The crystal form also define the relative growth of the crystal in 3 dimension which are its length,
width and height

Activity: Show the pictures to the learners and try to identify the crystal forms / habits. Provide
more pictures if needed.

Crystal form / habit. Source: http://www.slideshare.net/davidprestidge/earth-lecture-slide-chapter-

five page 46 of 74 (8/30/2015)

Answer: Left picture: blocky/cubic or equant (it has equal growth rate in three dimensions). Middle
picture: bladed habit (it resembles a blade, with varied growth rates in 3 dimensions). Right picture:
needle-like habit (rapid growth of crystals in one dimension while slow in other dimensions).

6
 "
5. Cleavage – It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness
to form smooth, flat surfaces. These planes of weakness are inherent in the bonding of atoms that
makes up the mineral. These planes of weakness are parallel to the atomic planes and appear to
be repeating within the mineral. When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage
is described by the number of cleavage directions and the angle(s) between planes (e.g. cleavage
in 2 directions at 90 degrees to each other).

Mineral cleavage. Left photo shows one cleavage direction (biotite). Middle photo has cleavage in 2
directions at 90° (orthoclase). Right photo has 3 cleavage directions at 74° (calcite). Source: https://
commons.wikimedia.org License: Creative commons (attribution: Rob Lavinsky, iRocks.com – CC-
BY-SA-3.0)

Show a video of a calcite crystal being hit with a hammer (https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=bYiT2qgD8zQ&feature=youtu.be).
Note how the crystal breaks into smaller pieces and still manifest the same rhombic shape. Where
the crystal breaks (the flat surfaces) are called cleavage planes. For the calcite crystal, there are
three cleavage planes at 120 and 60 degrees.

It is important to clearly differentiate a crystal habit from cleavage. Although both are dictated by
crystal structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, therefore relies on how the individual
atoms in the crystal come together. Cleavage on the other hand is the weak plane that developed
after the crystal is formed.

7
6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular
and non-planar. Quartz for example has an inherent weakness in the crystal structure that is not
planar. Examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among others.

7. Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of
water. A bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water (SG 1). It is a
measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The specific gravity of a
mineral is numerically equal to density.

8. Others – There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in their identification
(e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.). Magnetite is strongly magnetic;
sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered
form.

B. Mineral Groups Teacher tip

In a manner of exploring and discovering systematic ways of identifying minerals, the teacher can ask The most likely response would be on the
grouping basis of physical properties.
the students if they can think of a way to group minerals together.
Although physical properties are useful for
mineral identification, some minerals
however may exhibit wider range of
The teacher can now proceed synthesizing the suggested “systematic ways” by the students.
properties to include chemical
compositions.

A more stable and less ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is by chemical composition.

Element Element Element Element Element Element Element

+ + + + + +
SiO4 O2 SO4 S2 CO3 Halogens

Native Silicate Oxide Sulfate Sulfide Carbonate Halide

Gold Quartz Hematite Gypsum Pyrite Calcite Chlorine

Bismuth Olivine Magnetite Barite Galena Dolomite Fluorine

Diamond Talc Chromite Anhydrite Bornite Malachite Halite

8
1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, silicon Teacher tip
and oxygen. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the • Compounds formed with the silicate
fundamental building block of silicate minerals. Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to ions and the other common elements
are called silicates which are associated
this group. Aside from Si (46.6 % by wt.) and O (27.7%), the other most common elements that
to be common rock forming minerals
make the earth’s crust are Al (8.1), Fe (5.0), Ca (3.6), Mg (3.1), Na (2.8) and K 2.6).
2. Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal ions
3. Sulfates – minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other ions
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2)- combined with one or more ions. Some sulfides are
sources of economically important metals such as copper, lead and zinc.
5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with other elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elementsa.
a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity, typically with
metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)b.
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower conductivity (arsenic,
bismuth)c.
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more elements • The other mineral properties are not to
be provided because these will be used
in the Practice portion.
The teacher to provide a list of the common rock-forming minerals containing NAME and CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION ONLY.

PRACTICE (20 MINS) • The first activity can only be done with
Activity 1. For the whole class, try to identify 5 minerals by testing their properties using the mineral an internet connection. If time permits
and if the learners enjoy the activity, the
identification charts provided by Mineralogical Society of America (http://www.minsocam.org/msa/ teacher can continue with the activity
collectors_corner/id/mineral_id_keyq1.htm). Click on “Yes” or “No” to questions regarding Luster, using some other minerals. Otherwise,
Hardness and Streak (The “program” narrows down the options by the process of elimination). The proceed to the next activity. If there is
program will direct you to the correct part of the mineral chart if the correct answers are supplied. no internet connection, then only the
second activity can be done

9
Activity 2. Group the students into 3-4 teams. The teacher to print and provide each team a copy of
the Mineral Decision Tree and Mineral Identification Charts (https://gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/
content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.pdf). Based on the discussed topics and examples, select ten (10)
different rock-forming minerals (known or unknown to students) and determine the different
properties that can be used to identify them. Write the data in a Manila paper using markers. Include
which chemical family group these minerals belong. The team will then select a leader to present
their output to the class.

ENRICHMENT

Homework to be submitted on next meeting. Think of 5 minerals and their common uses and identify
the specific property/properties that made them for that purpose (e.g. graphite, having a black streak
and hardness of 1-2, is used in pencils due to its ability to leave marks on paper and other objects).

EVALUATION

A. Summary questions related to the lesson (Questions in bold font are difficult questions):

1. What are the characteristics that define a mineral?

Answer: inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline, solid and must have a consistent chemical
composition

2. Which among the following mineral groups, if any, contain silicon: halides, carbonates or sulfides?
Explain.
Answer: None. The identified mineral groups are non-silicates

10
3. Which is more abundant in the Earth’s crust: silicates or all the other mineral groups combined? Explain.
Answer: Silicates. Silicon and oxygen are the main components of silicates and these are the two
most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.

4. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density of 18g/cm3. Is the mineral
metallic or non-metallic?
Answer: The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is opaque and metallic minerals are
usually heavy and with dark streaks

5. What is the difference between a mineral's streak and color? Why is streak more reliable for
rock identification?
Answer: Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. It is more reliable because it is inherent
to most minerals. Color is not reliable because mineral can be formed with varieties of color, an
effect of impurities and weathering.

6. Differentiate habit and a cleavage plane.

Answer: Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is developed during the formation of the
mineral. Cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that maybe formed in a crystal after the crystal
formation.

7. Is it possible for a mineral to have a prismatic habit without having any cleavage? Why or
why not? If yes, give an example.
Answer: Yes, the prismatic habit is simultaneously developed while the mineral is growing. During
the process, there is no repetitive plane of weakness being created which makes the mineral break
only by fracturing. An example of this scenario is quartz.

11
B. Practice identifying minerals if samples are available (optional).

MEETS EXCEEDS
NOT VISIBLE NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS

A. Summary Correctly answered ≤2 Correctly answered all Correctly answered all Correctly answered all
Questions easy questions easy questions easy questions and one questions
difficult question

B. Mineral Cannot identify any Can identify 1 or 2 Can identify 3-5 minerals Can identify more than 5
Identification mineral minerals minerals
(optional)

12
Earth Science 120 MINS

Lesson 6: Minerals and Rocks

Content Standards
LESSON OUTLINE
The learners demonstrate an understanding of
1. the three main categories of rocks, and Introduction Communicating learning objectives 5

2. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks Motivation 15
Mineral Identification Video
Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to make a plan that the community may use to Instruction Lecture 60
conserve and protect its resources for future generations. Practice Mineral Identification 40
Learning Competency Enrichment Assignment
The learners will be able to classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic (S11ES-Ic-6). Evaluation Summary Questions
Specific Learning Outcomes
Materials
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
Manila paper; marker pen; media player; laptop/computer; projector;
• identify and describe the three basic rock types; Internet connection

• establish relationships between rock types and their mode of origin and
environments of deposition/formation; and
• understand the different geologic processes involved in rock formation.
Resources
(1) 3 Types of Rocks by Smart Learning for All (Accessed 09/20/2015)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17l2LrjZi9o
(2) The Rock Cycle by Kelly Dunham (Accessed 09/20/2015) https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lyCYXXIHT0
(3) The Rock Cycle by Annennberg Learner (Accessed 09/18/2015) http://
www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram.html, http://
www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram2.html, http://
www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/testskills.html
(4) Mr. Mulroy’s Earth Science: How do We Idendity Sedimentary Rocks?
(Accessed 09/22/2015) http://peter-mulroy.squarespace.com/how-do-
we-idendity-sedimentary-rocks/
(5) Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology
11thed, 2014

Additional Resources at the end of the lesson.

1
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives Teacher tip
• Igneous rocks –rocks that are formed
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own Words, from the solidification of molten rock
Read-aloud) material. The process of solidification
a. I can identify and describe the three basic rock types; involves the formation of crystalline
solids called minerals. Molten rock
b. I can describe how and define what type of environment each of these rock types are formed; material can solidify below the surface
c. I can describe how rocks are transformed from one rock type to another through the rock cycle; of the earth (plutonic igneous rocks) or
solidify at the surface of the Earth
d. I can identify and describe the different geologic processes that operate within the rock cycle. (volcanic igneous rocks)

Understanding key concepts • Sedimentary rocks – rocks that form

The Rock Cycle provides us a comprehensive understanding how the 3 dominant rock types are through the accumulation, compaction,
formed. Based on their physical and chemical properties, what could be the possible conditions of and cementation of sediments.
formation for each rock type? Sedimentary rocks form at surface or
near surface conditions.
Review
• Metamorphic rocks – are rocks that
• The teacher discusses in review of minerals the 8 elements comprising almost 99% of the minerals
form through the transformation of pre-
making up the Earth’s crust. existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or
% by wt. of the metamorphic rocks) through the
Element Symbol % atoms process of metamorphism.
Earth’s crust
Metamorphism can involve changes in
Oxygen O 46.6 62.6 the physical and chemical properties of
rocks in response to heat, pressure,
Silicon Si 27.7 21.2 and/or chemically active fluids.

Aluminum Al 8.1 6.5

Iron Fe 5.0 1.9

Calcium Ca 3.6 1.9

Teacher tip
Sodium Na 2.8 2.6 • Make sure that the learners are ready
to watch before playing the video.
Potassium K 2.6 1.4
• With no available specimen or tangible
Magnesium Mg 2.1 1.8 sample to describe, the teacher can use
a video.
All other elements 1.4 <0.1

2
(The total abundances do not add up to exactly 100% because of round-off errors)

• Approximately 85% of the Earth's crust is composed of oxygen and silicon. Together they form the
silicon oxygen tetrahedron, which is the basic building block of silicate minerals. Silicates are also
termed as (common) rock forming minerals.

• As a review the teacher can ask the students to recall the definition of a mineral.

- Rocks are an aggregate of minerals. A rock can be composed of a single mineral (e.g.
Quartzite is a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of Quartz) or more commonly
composed of an aggregate of two or more minerals.

• Yes, a rock composed predominantly of

- Teacher can ask the students: Can a name of a mineral be also used as a rock name. the mineral Gypsum (CaSO4) is called
Gypsum Rock.

MOTIVATION (15 MINS) Teacher tip

1. Show a video of the different rock types. Tell the students that the video will only be played once • Make sure that the learners are ready
to watch before playing the video.
and that they need to be attentive for the upcoming discussion (8:05 minutes).

2. After the discussion of the different types of rocks and their properties, show a short video about
the rock cycle, in preparation for the discussions on the rock cycle (2:15 minutes).

INSTRUCTION (60 MINS)

A. Rock Classifications
• Show video #1 (under motivation).
• Review: Defining minerals: inorganic, naturally occurring solid with definite internal structure and
chemical composition. These are the building blocks of rocks.

3
!
Teacher tip
Ask the students: How can we classify rocks? Would it be by color, hardness, texture, density or other
physical properties? Is it by chemical composition?
• Generally rocks are classified on the
basis of the mode of formation and that
• Enumerate and discuss the three rock types. some of these physical and chemical
properties are inherent on how the
rocks are formed.
1. Discuss Igneous Rocks.
- these are rocks that are derived from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
- from solidified molten rock materials, usually hard and crystalline
- rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that control crystal size
- solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of the earth

• Differentiating magma and lava. Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the
earth. Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through a central vent
(volcano) or as fissure eruption.

• Teacher should be able to describe plutonic or intrusive rocks and be able to discuss the
processes of their formation and observable textures. Give examples.
- from solidified magma underneath the earth
- gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of magma from depth to surface • Slow cooling forms large interlocking
causing slow cooling /crystallization crystals, a texture called phaneritic.

- Phaneritic textures
- Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro

• Fast cooling does not promote the

• Teacher should be able to describe volcanic or extrusive rocks and be able to discuss their
formation of large crystals.
processes of formation and their observable textures. Give examples.
- from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
- fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth’s
surface and underneath

4
- common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic (define groundmass vs phenocrysts), vesicular • Porphyritic texture: formed through two
stages of crystallization where in magma
- examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt partly cooled below the surface of the
- pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of eruption. earth providing time for the large
crystals to grow (phenocrysts) before it is
Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite)
extruded to the surface forming the fine-
grained matrix (groundmass).

• Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe,
• Aphanitic texture: fine-grained texture;
Mg and Ca. They can be classified as felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, practically minerals not visible to the naked eye;
based on presence of light and dark colored minerals. The relatively dark minerals are olivine, relatively fast rates of cooling/
pyroxene, hornblende and biotite. The relatively light colored minerals are plagioclases, K- solidification prevent the formation of
large crystals.
feldspars, quartz and muscovite.
- felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally light-colored • Special textures would include:
- intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica, generally medium colored (medium gray) vesicular, glassy and porphyry

- mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually dark colored • Vesicular texture: voids created by rapid
- ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very dark colored cooling which causes air bubbles to be
trapped inside.

Table from Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology 11thed, 2014, p 122

5
!

• Show photos of common intrusive rocks with their extrusive counterparts (TO BE REPLACED
WITH OUR OWN SAMPLES): • Granite and Rhyolite have the same
chemical composition however Granite
on le exhibits phaneritic texture and
rhyolite on the right has aphanitic and
porphyritic textures.

• Diorite and Andesite have the same

chemical composition but different
textures. Diorite (left) is coarse grained
(phaneritic) and andesite (right) is fine
grained (aphanitic and porphyritic).

• Gabbro and Basalt are of the same

chemical composition but differ in
texture. Gabbro (left) has larger
crystals than basalt (right) which has
finer crystals.

2. Discuss sedimentary rocks

these are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the Earth • Temperature and pressure at the Earth’s
-
surface are low, allowing for the
- sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment transport and sedimentary processes to happen
deposition (compaction and cementation)
• Sediments: solid fragments of organic
- common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages and stratification
or inorganic materials from weathered
- fossil assemblages: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks and eroded pre-existing rocks and
living matters
- stratification or layering (strata which is >1cm is called bedding and < 1cm is called lamination):
layering is the result of a change in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct
period of deposition

6
Photo of the Kapurpurawan Formation located at the coastal town of Burgos, Ilocos Norte, courtesy of riderako.com. shows
series of sedimentary strata
Photo from http://riderako.com/2013/07/16/kapurpurawan-rocks-the-most-famous-sedimentary-rock-in-the-philippines/.
• Grains: greater than sand-sized
minerals and/or rock fragments.
• Clastic sedimentary rocks
- grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks • Matrix: fine-grained (clay to silt sized)
minerals.
- clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particle size
- clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastics) and may have undergone some stages in • Cement: minerals precipitated from
the sedimentary processes could be classified as sedimentary rock (e.g. volcanoclastic solution that binds the grains and
matrix together
rocks).
- the presence of variable grain sizes (including matrix and cement) is indicative of
sedimentary differentiation which is actually a function of processes happening in different
sedimentary environments.

7
 - Table below shows the different clastic rocks

• Rudaceous Rocks: (rudites) >50% clasts

diameter >2mm made up of primarily
rock fragments

• Arenaceous Rocks: (arenites) >50%

sediments diameter between
0.063-2mm can contain high quartz %.

• Argillaceous Rocks: (argillites) >50%

sediments diameter <0.063mm and
made up mainly of clay minerals and
quartz grains to a much lesser extent

• Evaporites: rocks formed from the

evaporation of water leaving the
• Non-clastic sedimentary rocks dissolved minerals to crystallize
- evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic matter
• Precipitates: rocks formed when
- classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and dolostone), precipitates (limestone) and minerals from a mineral supersaturated
bioclastics (coal, coquina) waters start to crystallize at the bottom
of the solution
- chart below summarizes the features of the non-clastic rocks
• Bioclastic: rock formed from
compacted organic matter

http://peter-mulroy.squarespace.com/how-do-we-idendity-sedimentary-rocks/; accessed 09/25/2015

8
 • Several!photos!of!sedimentary!rocks:!
• Conglomerate (left) relatively large and
rounded clasts as compared to the
angular clasts of the breccia on the
right

• Sandstone (left) with visible grains and

prominent layering or; claystone (right)
with several embedded fossils

• Non-clastic sedimentary rocks

limestone (left) and coquina (right)

3. Discuss metamorphic rocks

- formed below the surface of the earth through the process of metamorphism with the
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature conditions
- contact and regional metamorphism
• Imagine magma forcing its way up
through rock layers under the crust.
• Contact metamorphism
The magma will bake the surrounding
- heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in contact with rocks due to the differences in
magma which is the source of heat and magmatic fluids where metamorphic alterations and temperature (rock layers are cooler
than the magma) causing them to
transformations occur around the contact / metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and
metamorphose.
the rock layers. The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of the intruding
magma and the amount of water in the intruded rocks and the reactive fluids coming from the • Deformed rocks exhibit foliation/
magma. lineation/ banding of mineral grains,
brought about by pressure and
- creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks recrystallization of minerals while
- example: hornfels undergoing regional metamorphism

9
• Regional metamorphism
- pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone considerable amount of
mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallization during orogenic event which are
commonly associated with mountain belts
- occurs in a regional/large scale
- creates foliated metamorphic rocks
- examples: schist, gneiss
- non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional metamorphism, where pressure is not
intense, far from the main geologic event

• Below is a table of the different common metamorphic rocks.

10
 !
• Some photos of common metamorphic rocks:

• Non-foliated rocks: Hornfels (left), a

fine-grained rock that forms through
contact metamorphism of non-
carbonate rocks. Marble (right), a
recrystallized rock that forms from the
metamorphism of limestone or
dolostone

• Foliated rocks: Slate, phyllite, schist and

gneiss from shale as precursor rock.
The stages of transformation are
manifestations of increasing
metamorphic grade with increasing
pressure

B. The Rock Cycle

• The teacher to show the quick video on rock cycle
• rock cycle diagram:
- constant recycling of minerals
- illustrates how geologic processes occurring both underneath and on the Earth’s surface can
change a rock from one type to another..

Source: http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/diagram.html

11
PRACTICE (40 MINS)
1. Concept Mapping – Types of Rocks (20 minutes: 10 minutes filling up the table, 3 minutes Teacher tip
• The teacher will go around checking on
presentation per team, 1 minute wrap up) the different teams and check on the
works done and how the learners are
doing.
Group the class into three teams, each electing their leader. Provide each team a blank chart similar to
the one below, written in a Manila paper. Each team will fill up portions of the chart which correspond
to the list of words provided to choose from. Group 1 to fill up the left side of the chart (igneous rocks),
Group 2 the middle portion (sedimentary rocks) and Group 3 to fill up the right side of the chart
(metamorphic rocks). When done, the team leaders will present their work to class.

12
Words/phrases to choose from:
pressure biological matter lava cools quickly

clastic maybe vesicular compacted sediments

extrusive classified by size contains air bubbles

rocks large crystals form small or no crystals forms

heat evaporites magma cools slowly

contact metamorphic classified on how they are

formed

intrusive building blocks of precipitates

mineral non-clastic sedimentary

igneous regional generally forms from the

compaction and cementation of
forms from cooling and rocks change due to sediments
solidification of lava or temperature and/or
magma pressure change

Answer: The completed chart should look like this:

13
2. Interactive quiz for the whole class – Rock Cycle (20 minutes)

Answer the interactive quiz provided by Annenberg Learner in their website http://www.learner.org/
interactives/rockcycle/diagram2.html. The first set, to be completed in five minutes, utilizes the
learners’ knowledge about rock types and geologic processes to map out the rock cycle. When done,
the site will be automatically direct you to the second part of the quiz (http://www.learner.org/
interactives/rockcycle/testskills.html) for 15 additional questions. There is no time limit for the second
part but set a maximum of 1 minute to answer each question to include some class discussions. Correct
answers are automatically provided by the site once the quiz is completed.

ENRICHMENT

Homework to be submitted on next meeting. Each student to research on 3 rocks (one for each rock
type). Include in the discussion the following:
1. history of formation
2. common environment of formation
3. common textures
4. common use of the rock

EVALUATION

A. Summary questions related to the lessons (Questions in regular font are easy questions while the
ones in bold are hard):

1. How does a vesicular texture in a volcanic rock develop?

Answer: As magma rises up to the surface, it is subjected to decreasing pressure, allowing dissolved
gases to come out of the solution forming gas bubbles. When the magma reaches the surface (as
lava) and cools, the rock solidifies around the gas bubbles. The bubbles are then preserved as holes
or vesicles. Also, the texture can also be formed thru the rapid escape of gases.

14
2. Explain why vesicular texture is not associated with peridotites.
Answer: Peridotites are intrusive rocks formed beneath the earth’s surface and the high pressure
conditions prevent gases from forming and escaping.

3. How do clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in terms of process of formation?
Answer: Clastic rocks form from rock fragments transported away from their source by wind, water,
gravity or ice rather than by chemical processes such as precipitation or evaporation.

4. Explain how the physical features of sediments change during transport.

Answer: The farther the sediment is transported, the longer the transport takes, and the smaller,
more rounded and smoother the sediment becomes.

5. Differentiate between a foliated and non-foliated rock.

Answer: Foliated rocks has a texture in which the mineral grains are arranged in bands or grains,
which is absent in a non-foliated rock.

6. What do butterflies and metamorphic rocks have in common?

Answer: Butterflies and metamorphic rocks both undergo change from an earlier form (caterpillar
for butterfly, parent rock for metamorphic rock) to a new one.

7. Heat is a major agent in metamorphism and igneous rock formation, but not in sedimentary rocks.
Why?
Answer: Sedimentary processes occur in surface conditions - low temperature and pressure
conditions.

8. Does every rock go through the complete rock cycle, i.e. changing from igneous to
sedimentary rock to metamorphic then back to igneous rocks? Explain.
Answer: No. Rocks can change into any type of rock or even reform as the same kind of rock for
several cycles.
15
 NEEDS MEETS EXCEEDS
NOT VISIBLE
IMPROVEMENT EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS

A. Summary Correctly answered ≤2 Correctly answered all Correctly answered all Correctly answered all
Questions easy questions easy questions easy questions and one questions
difficult question

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
(1) Rock flowchart by Michael Sammartano (Accessed 09/18/2015) blank template: http://www.hmxearthscience.com/Sammartano/Rocks%20Flow%20Chart.pdf
filled up template by combining data from the following videos:
a. Introduction to Igneous Rocks https://ww.youtube.com/watch?v=aCnAF1Opt8M
b. Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Etu9BWbuDlY
c. Metamorphic Rocks Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oQ1J0w3x0o

16
Earth Science 60 MINS

Lesson 7: Mineral Resources

Content Standard
LESSON OUTLINE
The learners demonstrate an understanding of
1. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks. Introduction Communicating learning objectives 5

Performance Standard Motivation Video 5

The learners shall be able to make a plan that the community may use to Instruction Lecture 50
conserve and protect its resources for future generations.
Practice Activity
Learning Competency
The learners will be able to identify the minerals important to society Enrichment Assignment
(S11ES-Ic-7). Materials
Mineral cards (to be prepared by the teacher), masking tape, Ground Rules
Specific Learning Outcomes film, reference books and/or internet access
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
Resources
1. understand the importance of the different minerals to the society; and (1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xmXT1YgfoTA. Accessed 11 Nov
2015
2. understand the different ways on how the mineral deposits are formed.
(2) https://mining.cat.com/cda/files/2786351/7/GroundRules-
MineralsEverydayLife-15-18.pdf Accessed 10 Nov 2015
(3) http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/minresources.htm.
Accessed 01 Nov 2015
(4) http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/hydrothermal+solution.
Accessed 31 Oct 2015
(5) http://www.britannica.com/science/hydrothermal-solution. Accessed 31
Oct 2015
(6) http://earthsci.org/mineral/mindep/depfile/vei_dep.htm. Accessed 31
Oct 2015
(7) http://geology.com/rocks/pegmatite.shtml. Accessed 01 Nov 2015
(8) Frank, D., Galloway, J., Assmus, K., The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit
– A Teacher’s Guide for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities, USGS
General Information Product 17, 2005

Additional resources at the end of the lesson.

1
INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own Words,
Read-aloud)
a. I can identify the importance of minerals to the society
b. I can describe how ore minerals are formed.

MOTIVATION (5 MINS) Teacher tip

a. Show the students the short video “Mining and the Modern World” of the Ground Rules film (2 • Make sure that the learners are ready
minutes) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xmXT1YgfoTA). to watch before playing the video.

b. The teacher can bring out items from his or her bag such as cell phone, keys, coins, pencil/pen, • An alternative in case the video cannot
make-up, powder, glasses, etc. and identify the minerals involved in the manufacture of each item. be shown in class.

INSTRUCTION (50 MINS)

A. Minerals in Everyday Life

The video clip in the Motivation section shows that even the simplest household items are made up of
different minerals. Enumerate a few examples of household items mentioned in the video and discuss Teacher tip
• List few household items mentioned in
with the class the minerals (and their properties) that make up each of the selected household items.
the video except for the ones that will
be in the activity in the Practice section
Perform the Activity “Minerals In My House” (See Practice Section)

B. Mineral Deposits
• Define some significant terms listed in the “Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit – A Teacher’s Guide
for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities”.
Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest
Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable
extraction under the most favorable conditions
Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to
mine.

2
 Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally
used to describe nonmetallic deposits
Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be
extracted.

• Most rocks of the Earth's crust contain metals and other elements but at very low • ppm: a dimensionless value that
concentrations. For example, the average concentration of Gold in rocks of the Earth's crust is represents a part of a whole number in
about 0.005 ppm (parts per million) which is roughly 5 grams of gold for every 1000 tons of units of 1/1000000; 1ppm is one part
by weight (or volume) of a solute that is
rock. Although valuable, extracting Gold at this concentration is not economic (the cost of
in a 1 million parts by weight (or
mining will be too high for the expected profit). Fortunately, there are naturally occurring volume) solution
processes (geologic processes) that can concentrate minerals and elements in rocks of a
particular area.

• Differentiate the types of mineral resources. Discuss with students and give examples.
Types of mineral resources: metallic and nonmetallic
Metallic mineral deposits: gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron
Non-metallic resources: talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel

• Discuss the occurrence of a mineral resource. Relate it to the rock cycle and plate tectonics
- The geologic processes involved in the rock cycle play major role in the accumulation and
concentration of valuable elements/ minerals.
- Plate tectonics: the Earth’s crust is broken into a dozen or more plates of different sizes that
move relative to one another (lithosphere). These plates are moving slowly on top of a hot
and more mobile material called the asthenosphere. The diagram below shows the different
mineral deposits that usually occur in different tectonic environments.

3
• Enumerate the different mineral resources and discuss their origins. Give examples for each.
- Mineral resources can be classified according to the mechanism responsible for concentrating
the valuable substance.
!
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits
- valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such
as crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling.
- magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable substances after
accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the
magma.

4
Examples: • Magma chamber – a reservoir or pool
of magma within the upper mantle or
• Crystal settling: as magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to crystallize early and settle at lower crust
the lower portion of the magma chamber • Pegmatite – an igneous rock formed
during the latter stages of magma’s
• From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4), magnetite (Fe3O4) and platinum (Pt) can be
crystallization that has exceptionally
concentrated through crystal settling large crystals (several centimeters or
• Fractional crystallization: the residual melt contains high percentage of water and volatile even a few meters in length). Most
pegmatites are granitic.
substances that are favorable for the formation of pegmatites. Pegmatites are enriched in
Lithium, Gold, Boron, rare elements and some other heavy metals • Feldspar - used in production of
• Fractional crystallization of granitic magmas can concentrate rare earth elements (such as cesium ceramics

and uranium) and heavy metals. This can also form pegmatites (large crystals of quartz, feldspars
• Muscovite - used for electrical
and muscovite)which may contain semi-precious gems such as beryl, topaz, and tourmaline insulation and glitter

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

- concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures
and pore spaces in rocks
- hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma
crystallization and may contain large amount of dissolved metals. These can also originate from
the ground water circulating at depth that is being heated up by a cooling and solidifying
igneous body or along depths with known geothermal gradient.
- Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low concentrations) from rocks. As the
metal enriched hot waters move into cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may
start to precipitate
- There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits as compared to the different types of
deposits

Examples:
• Discordant - cuts across existing
• Vein type deposits - A fairly well defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and discordant structures.
and typically narrow. Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones
within the country rock. Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the
most productive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury occur as hydrothermal
5
 vein deposits
• Porphyritic texture: formed through two
• Disseminated deposits - Deposits in which the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses
stages of crystallization where in magma
(very low concentration) through large volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for partly cooled below the surface of the
porphyry copper deposits earth providing time for the large
crystals to grow (phenocrysts) before it is
• Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading centers) - Precipitation of metals as sulfide
extruded to the surface forming the fine-
minerals such as sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occurs when hot fluids that grained matrix (groundmass).
circulated above magma chambers at oceanic ridges that may contain sulfur, copper and zinc
come in contact with cold groundwater or seawater as it migrate towards the seafloor. • Aphanitic texture: fine-grained texture;
minerals not visible to the naked eye;
• Stratabound ore deposits (in lake or oceanic sediment) – This deposit is formed when the relatively fast rates of cooling/
dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated solidification prevent the formation of
sediments on the bottom of a lake or ocean. Such minerals may contain economic large crystals.

concentrations of lead, zinc and copper, usually in sulfide form like galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS)
• Special textures would include:
and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). vesicular, glassy and porphyry
!
• Vesicular texture: voids created by rapid
cooling which causes air bubbles to be
trapped inside.

Various processes that form ore deposits. Photos taken from Essentials of Geology by Stephen Marshak, 4th ed., 2013, p377

6
!

Massive sulfide deposit along mid-oceanic ridge. Photo taken from Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck et al,
11th ed., 2014, p. 804

3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

- Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or
seawater (http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/minresources.htm)

Examples:
• Evaporite Deposits: This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where
evaporation is greater than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved
substances become more concentrated in the residual water and would eventually precipitate.
Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20), borax (used in soap) and sylvite (KCl, from which K is
extracted for fertilizers) are examples of minerals deposited through this process.
• Iron Formation: These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and
several other iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite. Iron formations appear to
be of evaporite type deposits and are mostly formed in basins within continental crust during
the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older).

7
 4. Placer Ore Deposits
- Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation during
sedimentary processes.
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein the heavy
minerals are mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain
suspended and are carried further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering.
- Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum, diamonds and tin;
- The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body if located.

5. Residual Ore Deposits

• Leaching – the removal of soluble
- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical materials in rocks or ore body through
weathering processes. the percolation of water
- During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching.
• Relief – the configuration of an area
- Important factors for the formation of residual deposit include parent rock composition, climate that pertains to the elevation and slope
(tropical and sub-tropical: must be favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to variations and the irregularities of the
land surface
allow accumulation)
- Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites. • Laterization – conditions of weathering
which leads to the removal of alkalis
- Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich source rocks undergo
and silica, resulting in a soil or rock with
intense chemical weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common high concentrations of iron and
elements that include silicon, sodium and calcium through leaching. aluminum oxides.
- Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of
olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the
leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel,
magnesium and iron oxide mixed in the soil.
- Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain mineral deposit becomes enriched
due to weathering.

8
PRACTICE (40 MINS)
“Minerals In My House” (adapted from the activity “Minerals in My House”) 20 minutes https://
mining.cat.com/cda/files/2786351/7/GroundRules-MineralsEverydayLife-15-18.pdf pp 12-14)
The objective of the activity is to determine the mineral content of common household items.
Teacher tip
Pre-activity (to be accomplished by the teacher): • Add a joker mineral card (one that is not
used in any of the 5 household items) to
1. List 5 common household items on the board. encourage class participation.
1. Prepare a set of cards containing the minerals used to make those 5 items. One mineral should be
written on each card.

Activity:
1. Show one mineral card at a time and ask the students to identify which household item they think
contains that mineral. Attach the card with a masking tape beside the household item. Remind the
class that several minerals may be associated in one household item.
2. Repeat the procedure until all the mineral cards are used (except for the joker mineral card).
3. Together with the class, go through and review all the answers. Invite students to explain if they think
the mineral placed beside the household item is incorrect. Also ask the possible use of the joker • The table on the left is for the use of the
mineral. teacher only.

9
Discussion:
Discuss the importance of minerals in our daily lives. Different minerals are important for different
purposes: from household items, construction, energy sources, communication, travels, recreation, food
processing and even in multivitamins.

With the reference books and/or internet access on hand, group the class into two. Each group has to
select one particular mineral from the activity and prepare answers for the following questions, to be
presented in the class:
1. What properties of that mineral make it important in creating the item?
2. How is this specific mineral formed?
3. Is this a renewable or non-renewable resource?

ENRICHMENT
The following activity for Enrichment is adapted from “What Parts of a Computer are Mined?” of
Ground Rules (https://mining.cat.com/cda/files/2786351/7/GroundRules-
MineralsEverydayLife-15-18.pdf).
1. Divide the class into 5 groups.
2. Assign the following computer parts for each group to work on:
Group 1: computer monitor
Group 2: computer chip
Group 3: computer circuitry
Group 4: computer case
Group 5: electrical cords
3. Have each group prepare a short report about the designated component of the computer. Report
should answer the following:
- Identify the minerals and metals used to build the computer component
- Identify the properties of each mineral/metal that makes it useful to the function of that
computer part.
- Select one specific mineral/metal from the computer part. Discuss how the mineral is
10
 formed (what are the ore minerals and the most realistic origin of the ore resource)
- Based on the list, hypothesize what minerals would be useful for another electronic item
(television, media player, mobile phone, etc.)
- Discuss environmental implications of disposing outdated computer equipment. Should it be
landfilled? Why is computer waste one of the biggest waste issues facing the world? Discuss the
global implications of computer waste.
4. Reports to be submitted on the next class meeting.

EVALUATION
Summary questions (Questions in regular font are easy questions while the ones in bold are hard):

1. Differentiate metallic and non-metallic resources. Give examples.

Answer: Metallic resources are those minerals that contain metals in their chemical composition (a
product obtained when the mineral was melted). These usually have bright and metallic luster.
Examples include iron ore, chromite and bauxite. Non-metallic resources such as sand, gravel,
gypsum, halite, talc, are those resources that do not yield new products when melted. These do not
have metallic luster.

11
2. Can a mineral be formed in more than one process? If yes, give example. If no, explain why.
Answer: Yes. (Examples may vary) Gypsum can form as a precipitate from evaporating water, but
also associated with volcanic regions where limestone and sulfur gases from the volcano have
interacted. Copper may commonly be deposited as a disseminated hydrothermal deposit but can
also be formed as a stratabound ore.

3. Other than as a jewelry, why is gold important to society?

Answer: Statistically worldwide, approximately 50% of produced gold is used in jewelry. The
remaining 40% is used for financial investments and the remaining 10% in industry. Due to its
limited supply and high value, gold has been long used as a medium of exchange or money. Many
governments use gold bars or bullion as a financial backing for currencies. A country’s gold bullion
reserve is equated to the wealth of the country.
Several properties of gold including its malleability, good conductivity and general resistance to
corrosion and oxidation made it very important in the electronics industry, primarily as connectors,
switch and relay contacts, soldered joints and connecting strips. These can be found in almost every
sophisticated electronic device such as GPS, cellphones, MP3 players, calculators, laptop
computers and televisions.

4. Discuss the most common origin of chromite ore. How is this ore important to society?
Answer: Chromite ore is formed from a magmatic process called crystal settling. Its relatively high
density makes it settle at the lower portion of the magma chamber and solidifies ahead than most
of the basaltic magma. Chromium is the ore mineral for the element chromite, which is used in
chrome plating and also for alloying stainless steel. Chromium is also used as pigment in many
types of paint inks, dyes and even cosmetics.

5. Discuss the difference between a magmatic ore deposit and a hydrothermal deposit.
Answer: Magmatic ore deposits are formed from different magmatic processes such as crystal
settling or crystal fractionation.

12
6. Explain how mineral veins form.
Answer: Mineral veins form when the hydrothermal solution containing dissolved substances flows
through cracks in rocks. The solutions deposit solid mineral particles and fill in the cracks.

MEETS EXCEEDS
NOT VISIBLE NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS

Enrichment report Report not submitted on Report submitted on time;
time identified minerals is less
than 50% and only
managed to answer half of
the questions
Report is submitted on Report is submitted on
time; completely answered time and complete with
all question asked illustrations; very elaborate
explanation/discussion of
answers especially the last
question of the discussion
part

Summary Only ≤ 2 easy questions Only easy questions were All easy questions and 1 All easy and difficult
questions were correctly answered correctly answered difficult question were questions were correctly
correctly answered answered

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
1. Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth Revealed 9thed, 2011, pp 560-563
2. Marshak, S., Essentials of Geology, 4th ed., 2013, pp 375-379
3. Tarbuck, E. J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D., Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology, 11thed, 2014, pp 802-806

13
Earth Science 90 MINS

Lesson 8: Mineral Resources

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of LESSON OUTLINE
1. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks. Introduction Communicating learning objectives 5

Performance Standard Motivation Participation/Photo/Video 5

The learners shall be able to make a plan that the community may use to
conserve and protect its resources for future generations. Instruction Lecture/Demonstration 50
Learning Competencies Practice Activity 30
The learners will be able to
Enrichment Assessment
1. describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use
(S11ES-Ic-d-8). Materials
2. cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the For Demonstration#1 (Core Sampling)
• Yellow clay representing gold-rich vein, Blue clay representing copper-
exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral resources (S11ES-Id-9).
rich vein; Blue clay representing copper-rich vein; Brown clay
Specific Learning Outcomes representing country / host rock, ruler; 1 opaque, wide bowl, colored
chalks (brown, yellow and blue); 3 transparent (colorless), sturdy
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
drinking straw (i.e. the ones used in milk teas)
• understand the life cycle of mineral resources; and For Demonstration#2 (Flotation)
• Dry roasted peanuts; Raisins; Clear soda water; Drinking water; 2 clear
• understand the impact of mining.
drinking glasses
For Practice (Operating a Mine)
• Sand representing country rock; iron filings representing metallic ore;
salt representing other valuable material; macaroni for other valuable
material; saw dust representing the surface top soil; 1 page old
newspaper; ice bag/plastic; filter paper; magnet, spoon; beakers/
containers; 500ml bowl, water; tweezers

Resources
(1) Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth
Revealed 9thed, 2011, pp564-566
(2) Frank, D., Galloway, J., Assmus, K., The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit
– A Teacher’s Guide for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities, USGS
General Information Product 17, 2005
(3) Marshak, S., Essentials of Geology, 4th ed., 2013, pp 379-383

Additional resources at the end of the lesson.

INTRODUCTION (5 MINS)
Communicating learning objectives
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocols (Verbatim, Own Words,
Read-aloud)
a. I can describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use.
b. I can cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation,
extraction, and use of mineral resources

Review
• Remind the students how minerals are incorporated to our daily lives by citing one or two
examples.
• Review some processes how mineral resources are formed.

MOTIVATION (5 MINS) Teacher tip

Encourage class discussion by asking the questions like: “We already know how mineral resources are • The teacher may present (if available) a
video on mining and utilization.
formed, but are we aware of how they end up in the things we use?”
Answers may vary but expected answers must include ideas or concepts about mineral exploration,
mining and metallurgy or milling process

INSTRUCTION (50 MINS)

A. Mineral Exploration
- Discuss major stages involved in mineral exploration (https://www.cde.int/sites/default/files/
documents/mineral_exploration_part_1.pdf and part2.pdf)
- The steps enumerated below are used or considered based on how they are needed during
exploration. These steps are written within the context of a general exploration project where some
activities may vary depending on the type of commodity being explored.
1. Project Design: This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves review of all • This is a Stop-Go process that controls
available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in risk for the investor and of which is
done by providing geological and
acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political and economic acceptability of
economic considerations in producing a
the project, and budget and organization proposals. mine. Each stage has to be evaluated
2. Field Exploration: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can before the investor can proceed to the
next stage.If not feasible,the project
be subdivided into three phases:
has to be reviewedagain using other
A. Regional Reconnaissance:The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized assessment techniques.
zones covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional
surface investigation and interpretation.
B. Detailed Exploration: This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the
objective of finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones.
C. Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is to assess market profitability by (1) extensive
resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3)
environmental and societal cost assessment.
3. Pre-production Feasibility Study: The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy
of all data and information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for independent
assessors to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into production.

• Demonstration 1 (core sampling)

- The teacher will demonstrate how geologists delineate mineral deposits beneath the Earth’s
surface (modified from the activity “Cupcake Core Sampling”; source:The Life Cycle of a
Mineral Deposit – A Teacher’s Guide for Hands-On Mineral Education Activities)

Instruction
A. Pre-class preparation (teacher):
Mold the clay into several layers from bottom to top: thick brown, thin blue, thick brown, thin
yellow, thick brown. Differences in thickness with irregularities in the layers are encouraged. Put
the molded clay in abowl so that the students will not be able to see the thicknesses of each
layer (in the same way that a geologist cannot see the interior of the Earth).
 A sample illustration of how the clay is molded in the bowl
B. During Class:
Draw a scaled representation of the bowl on the board.
Bring the student closely to the model.

The teacher can ask the students how they might get information about what is inside the bowl
by just using the straw without removing the clay from the bowl. (Some students may suggest
using the straw to take a core sample).

Demonstrate to students how to rotate and push (in one direction only) a sturdy straw into the
clay and pull it out. The clay accumulated in the straw represents a core sample. The process
represents core drilling, a method done to investigate how the rocks underneath the Earth’s
surface look like.

Get one straw, position it in the middle of the bowl and drill (push in rotating manner)
vertically down the bottom. Pull the straw out. Ask the students to measure the thickness of
each clay layer collected from the straw. In reality, the sample collected in the straw is
comparable to a core sample.Ask another student to include the observations in the drawings
on the board. Make sure to have the drawing representation on scale of each layer similar to the
bowl.

Drill the second and third holes in the left side and right side of the bowl, respectively. Include
the findings in the drawing.

Sample illustration of the location of the three straws drilled into the molded clay.

Ask the students to make correlation of the different layers they discovered from the drill holes
by connecting the layers of the same color.
Sample illustration on how the correlation of the 3 drill holes would look like. Observe how the
layers (or veins) differ from the actual set-up. This would imply that with more drill holes the
correlation would appear more accurate.

Discussion:
Students should be able to answer the following questions after the demonstration:
• The questions under the activity can be
given orally or in a short quiz. If given
1. Are the mineral deposits (represented by the yellow clay for gold and blue clay for copper) as a quiz, it is recommended that the
evenly distributed in the bowl? Explain its relevance. discussions of the answers be done
after the submission of papers.
Answer: No.This is a representation of the actual mineral deposition -they are not deposited in
an even thickness and concentration.

2.Can the drill cores indicate how deep the mineral deposits are?
Answer: Yes. Cores are representatives of what is in the drilling area. With proper
measurements, the different layers underneath the surface can be identified.
 3.How can additional drillholes affect geological interpretations?
Answer: More drillholes could provide a clearer picture of what is underneath the surface and
makes the interpretation more accurate.

B. Mining Methods
• Identify and explain some of the vital considerations needed to know on the different methods to
mine a mineral deposit.
- For example, upon knowing the geometry of the ore body, there are appropriate safety ways
to mine the minerals and proper assessment of maximizing profit.

• Teacher should be able to identify the 2 main methods of mining.

- Surface and underground mining

Types of mines: (A) Underground, (B) Surface (Open pit), (C) Strip, (D) Placer (being mined by a
floating dredge) (Source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011, p 564)
1. Surface Mining
- Utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth’s surface
- Different types include open pit mining, quarrying, placer mining and strip mining.

600m deep open pit diamond mine (Source: CK12 Earth Science)

Limestone Quarry in northern Illinois(source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011)
 2. Underground Mining
- Utilized to extract ore minerals from the orebody is that is deep under the Earth’s surface

A 3-D view of an underground mine showing the ore body at subsurface(source: Physical
Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011 p565)
C. The Milling Process
- Explain to the students that the materials extracted or “mined" are rocks composed of both ore
and waste material (part of the rock which contain very little or no element or mineral of
economic value). The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation
and recovery.
- Recovering the minerals from the oreand waste materials can involve one or more processes
where in the separation is usually done in a mill.
- Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grinding
where the rocks are pulverized

• Discuss some examples of milling or recovery methods or processes

1. Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser
minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate
 chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting copper.

2. Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the
waste materials using a powerful magnet.

3. Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurrywhere some minerals
and metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick
to the bubbles and rise to the topthus separating the minerals and metals from the waste.

4. Cyanide heap leaching: This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is
placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the
leach solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution. The
solution is processed further to extract the gold.

The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings pond, while the
metals are sent for further processing

• Demonstration 2 (Flotation)
Teacher to demonstrate the concept of flotation process (copied from https:// • Bring the students closer to the
d e m o n s t r a t i o n a re a . M a k e s u re
www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/uploads/molybdenum.pdf, page 7). everybody is attentive before starting
the activity.
Instruction:
Mix ½ cup of dry roasted peanuts with ½ cup raisins. Add ½ of the mixture to each of the 2
drinking glasses. Fill the first drinking glass to 2/3 full with plain water. Observe what happens.
Fill the second drinking glass to 2/3 full with soda water. Observe and compare results to the
first drinking glass.

Discussion:
1. Explain what happens to glass 1.
Answer: Both the raisins and peanuts sink to the bottom of the drinking glass containing
 plainwater. This is because the densities of these objects are both heavier than water.

2. Explain what happens to glass 2.

Answer: Bubbles from the soda water were notably attached with raisins and peanuts, altering
the densities of the 2 objects.The raisinsthat sink indicated that its density is heavier than the
soda water. On the other hand, the peanuts float implying a lighter density as compared to the
soda water.

Conclusion: Flotation is one method used in the industry for mineral extraction. Frothers are
added to the solution to lower the surface tension of the water. The froth must be strong
enough to support the mineral but weak enough to break down in launders. Common frothers
are alcohols and glycols.

D. Environmental Impacts
• Enumerate the possible environmental impacts of irresponsible mining:
- Improper mining can cause flooding, erosion, subsidence, water and air pollution, damage to
wildlife and habitat.
• Discuss measures to prevent or mitigate the harmful effects of irresponsible mining:
- Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil; reintroduction of flora and fauna; neutralizing
acidic waters; backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines; stabilizing the slope
of impacted area to reduce erosion, etc.
• Highlight the role of the government (environmental laws) and other organizations in the
implementation of environmental programs:
- Identify the functions and programs of the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB),
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), Philippine Mine Safety and Environment
Association (PMSEA), other environmental, non-government organizations that promote
environmental awareness and protection in relation to mining.
PRACTICE (40 MINS)
Operating a Mine (modified combination of two activities, namely, Operating a Mine and Physical
Separation of Minerals. Source: Bringing Earth Science to Life – Using Natural Resources pp15-19 and
31-33 http://www.edgeo.org/images/pdf/bringing-earth-science-to-life/natural-resources.pdf)
Groupings: 5 members per group

Instruction:
1. Each group will prepare their own surface mine model following the procedure below:
a. In the 500ml bowl/container, thoroughly mix 350ml of sand, 50ml salt, 50ml iron filings, 50ml
elbow macaroni.
b. Put a thin layer of sawdust (about 10ml) all over the top of the bowl.

2. Ask the students to draw a picture of their model to have a record of how it looks like before
mining.

3. Have the students mine the model by using a spoon as the mining equipment. In the newspaper,
make 5 mounds of mined materials, placed side by side. Each mound must contain four scoops of
mined material. (Explain to students that in reality, these mounds are called stock piles, which are
collected eventually by trucks and delivered to the mill for processing).

4. Draw a picture of the model after mining.

5. Get one stockpile and extract the minerals in it. In case the extractable materials are not enough,
add another stockpile.

6. Bring out the things to be used in separating the different materials from each other (e.g. magnet,
ice bag/plastic, beaker/container, filter paper, tweezers and water). Promote discussions among
groups on the methods to extract the different materials in the most productive way. Write the
 steps in the activity report.

Sample Separation Method:

1. Use tweezers to pick up the elbow macaroni.
2. Wrap a magnet in a plastic bag and pass it through the mixture. When all iron filings have
been collected, turn the bag inside out to contain iron filings.
3. Add water to the mixture. Mix thoroughly to dissolve the salt. Filter the solution to
separate the salt (in liquid form) from the sand and sawdust. Allow the liquid to evaporate
to collect the salt crystal (Note: Due to time constraint, evaporation may not be done. It
can be assumed that salt can be collected as residue after evaporation).
4. Add new water to the sand and sawdust mixture. The sawdust will float and the sand will
sink. Decant off the top part of the liquid containing the sawdust. Filter to collect the
sawdust.
5. Filter the remaining liquid to collect the sand.

7. Have students rehabilitate the surface of the mine by returning all of the country rock materials
minus the valuable minerals (make assumptions that the other stockpiles are already processed
and do not contain minerals anymore) into the pit.

Discussion:
1. From personal experiences
and observations Density Solubility Magnetism Other Properties i n the
activity, describe t h e
Sand
properties of the different
materials used in Iron filings the mixture.

Macaroni

Salt

Sawdust
 Step Substance Separated

1.

2.

2. Based on the 3. above properties, design the steps that will

separate the mixture.
4.

5.

3. What factors did you consider in selecting where to start mining the rocks?
Possible answers include slope stability, closeness to facility (the place for stockpiling, etc.)
4. How has mining change the land?
Possible answers include, change in elevation and slope, removal of topsoil and vegetation, etc.
5. What have you done to rehabilitate the land after mining?

ENRICHMENT

Special Report to be submitted in 2 weeks (group report, 5 members per group):

Research on a local mine (location, mining history in the area, ore type, mineral product, separation process, annual production, etc.); include
the company’s existing social, environmental and rehabilitation projects.
EVALUATION
Summary questions (Questions in regular font are easy questions while the ones in bold are hard):

1. What is the importance of the different stages of exploration?

Answer: The different stages of mineral exploration allow the investor to systematically evaluate the
potential and marketability of having a mineral project. Knowledge about the project is increased at
every stage, and this knowledge serves as the basis whether to proceed with the project or not.

2. In a newly acquired mineral project for exploration, is it possible to immediately drill in the
area even without any subsurface investigation (e.g. geophysics and trenching)?
Answer: Yes, especially if the property has a good mineralized outcrops or exposure of
mineralization on the surface. However, this is a bit risky for projects without surface manifestations
of mineralization.

3. Describe some methods used in surface mining.

Answer: Open pit creates big hole in the ground from which the ore is mined. Quarry is a type of
open pit mine usually associated with the mining of non-metallic resources such as limestone, sand
and gravel. Ore is removed in strips in a strip mining method. Ore can be extracted in strips as in
strip mining.

4. An open-pit mine may in the future be converted into an underground mine. Why would this
happen?
Answer: When all the minerals at or near the surface have been extracted, and when the lateral
extent of the project area cannot hold the stability of slopes as mining gets deeper, the only way to
mine the deeper extent of the orebody is to go underground.

5. Enumerate several ways to rehabilitate a mined-out area.

Answer: Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil; reintroduction of flora and fauna;
neutralizing acidic waters; backfilling and sealing underground mines; changing the slope of
impacted area to reduce erosion; etc.
6. How is it possible for materials presently considered as waste become economically mineable in the future?
Answer: Economics play a great role in mining and mineral/metal prices are usually dictated by supply and demand. When supply is high
and demand is low, metal prices drop, hence the need to mine only high grade ores. But when demand is high, even the low grade ores are
being mined or are mixed to high grade ores to achieve economically profitable product.

MEETS EXCEEDS
NOT VISIBLE NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS

Practice Activity Did not complete the Activity completed on time Activity completed on time Activity completed on
activity and did not and only correctly and correctly answered 3-4 time; correctly answered
answer any of the answered 1- 2 questions questions all questions
questions

Enrichment Project
Did not submit report on
time; report is not
complete
Report is submitted on Report is submitted on
time but is lacking of time; report is well-
substance; report not well presented (organized flow
presented of discussion with few
instances straying from the
topic) authors demonstrate
acceptable understanding
of topic (few corrections
and misconceptions)
Report submitted on time;
report is excellently
presented (highly
organized flow of
discussion); authors
demonstrate excellent
level of understanding of
the topic

Summary questions Only 2 of the easy Correctly answered the Correctly answered the Correctly answered all
questions are correctly easy questions easy questions and 2 hard questions
answered questions

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
1. Freudenrich C., Benner, J., Bethel, D. et al, Earth Science CK-12, 2009, p 77-80
2. https://www.cde.int/sites/default/files/documents/mineral_exploration_part_1.pdf (Accessed 25 Nov 2015)
3. https://www.cde.int/sites/default/files/documents/mineral_exploration_part_2.pdf(Accessed 25 Nov 2015)
4. http://www.edgeo.org/images/pdf/bringing-earth-science-to-life/natural-resources.pdf (Accessed 24 Nov 2015)
5. https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/uploads/molybdenum.pdf (Accessed 23 Nov 2015)
6. https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/sites/default/files/uploads/copper_more_than_a_metal.pdf (Accessed 23 Nov 2015)