)

Soil Compaction

l n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o no f h i g h w a ye m b a n k m c n t se, a r t h d a m s ,a n d m a n y o t h e r e n g i n e e r -
ing structurcs,loose soils must be compacted to increasethcir unit weights. Com-
paction incrcasesthe strength charactcristicsol'soils.which increasethe bearing ca-
pacity of [oundationsconstructedovcr them. Compaction also dccreasesthe amount
o f u n d e s i r a b l cs e t t l e m c n to f s t r u c t u r c sa n d i n c r c a s c st h e s t a b i l i t yo f s l o p e so f e m -
bankments. Smootl.r-wl'rccl rollers. shccpsfoot rollcrs, rubber-tired rollers, and vi-
bratory rollers arc generally used in thc ficld for soil compaction. Vibratory rollers
arc uscclmostly for the densificationol'granular sclils.Vibroflot devicesare also used
frtr compacting granular soil depositsto a considerzrblcdepth. Compaction of soil in
this manner is known as vihntflotutioz. This chapter discusscsin some dctail the
p r i n c i p l e so f ' s o i l c o m p a c t i o ni n t h e l a b o r a t o r ya n d i n t h e f i c l d .

5.1 Compaction- General Principles

Compaction, in gencral, is the dcnsificationol'soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanicalenergy.Thc degreeo1compactionof a soil is measuredin terms of its dry
unit weight. When water is addcd to the soil during compaction, it acts as a soften-
ing agent on the soil particles.The soil particlcs slip over each other and move into
a denselypacked position.The dry unit weight after compaction first increasesas the
m o i s t u r ec o n t e n ti n c r e a s e s(.S e eF i g u r e5 . 1 . )N o t e t h a t a t a m o i s t u r ec o n t e n tw : 0 ,
the moist unit weight (7) is equal to the dry unit weight (7,,),ot
:
7 |t(r-.tt: 7l

When the moisturc content is gradually increasedand the same compactiveeffort is

usedfor compaction,the weight of the soil solidsin a unit volume graduallyincreases.
F o r e x a m p l e .a t w : t ' 1 ,

f :7:
However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is given by
tr 17,1
f ,tr,,,, 1: 1 a 1 , ,' , ,

100
 5.2 Standard Proctor Test 101

"{z
J

,:!

.:
'5
> .: 7l
. l
= l
F I
l t l
- l
> l
l t l
>-l

Moisturc
content-
r,
Figure 5. I principles of compaction

B e y o n da c e r t a i nm o i s t u r cc o n t c n t w : w t ( F i g u r e- 5 . 1 )a, n y i n c r c a s c
in thc moisture
c o n t c n t t e n d s t o r c d u c e t h e d r y u n i t w e i g h t .T h i s p h e n o m e n o n
o c c u r sb c c a u s ct h c
w a t e r t a k e su p t h c s p a c e st h a t w o u l d h a v c b c e n o c c u p i e db y
t h c s o l i c lp a r t i c l c s .. l - h c
m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t a t w h i c h t h e m a x i m u m d r y u n i t w e i g h t i s
a t t a i n e di s g e n c r a l l yr e -
ferred to as the opfimum moisturc content.
T h e l a b o r a t o r yt e s t g e n e r a l l yu s c c lt o o b t a i n t h e m a x i m u r r
dry unit weightof
compaction and thc optimum moisturc content is called the Proctor
t'ctntput'tipntest
(Proctor, 1933).The procedurefor concluctingthis typc of test
is describeclin the lbl-
lowingsection.

5.2 Standard Proctor Test

In the Proctor test,the soil is compactedin a mold that hasa volune
o1'944cmr (.1ift.).
T h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e m o l d i s 1 0 1. 6 m m ( a i n . ) . D u r i n g t h e l a b o r a t o r y
t e s t ,t h e m o l d
is attached to a baseplateat the bottom and to an extensionat
the tqp (Figure 5.2a).
The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted
in three equal
layers by a hammer (Figure 5.2b) that delivers2,5blows to each
layer.The hammer
has a massof 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and has a drop of 30.5mm ( r2 in.).
Figure -5.2cis a pho_
tograph of the laboratory equipment required for conducting
a standardproctor test.
For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction! can be
7, calculatedas
*
,' : (-5.1
V,,,, )
where 14/: weight of the compactedsoil in the mold
(,,y : volume of the mold 1944cm3 (rafC)]
 t

102 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

I 1 4 . 3m m
I diameter
(4.5 in.) --*l
I

bxtensron

;€=::==:::::-:
t'.'
l. I r r .r j

DroP=
304.8nm
(l2in.)

(a) W e i g h to f
harnmer= 2.5 kg
( r n a s s- 5 . 5 l b )

l.-l
5 0 . 1m
1m
(2 in.)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5.2 StandardProctortest equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer (c) photograph of labo-
ratory equipmentusedfor test
 5.2 Standard Proctor Test

\25
Zero-
air-void
curve
(G' = 2.69,
19.0
120

E
l 8 . sz
a
Maximum 1.,
J
il | l-)

l a i . lI d

.E

o 1 7 . . 50

Optimum
n.lolsture
contcnt t
r0-5
5 t0 l-5 tu
Moisturecontent,w (%)

Figure 5.3 Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay

For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the labo-
ratory. With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated as

r u -_ $ 6 ( s.2)
t-
1oo

where w ("/") : percentageof moisture content.

The values of 7,1determined from Eq. (5.2) can be plotted againstthe corre-
spondingmoisture contentsto obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil. Figure 5.3 showssuch a plot for a silty-claysoil.
The procedure for the standardProctor test is elaboratedin ASTM Test Desig-
nation D-698 (ASTM, 1999)and AASHTo resr DesignationT-99 (AASHTO, 1982).
For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation $ the dry unit weight
of compaction can be calculatedas follows: From chapter 3 [Eq. (3.16)],for any soil,
G'f''
,., :
l + e
where G" : specific gravity of soil solids
7,, : unit weight of water
e : void ratio
104 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

a n d ,f r o m E q . ( 3 . 1 8 ) ,
Se : G,rl

or
G,trr
- . s
Thus.

Grlr,
i /
Id
: - (s.3) |I
Glo
t* I
s I

Fgr a given moisture content, the theclreticalmaximum dry unit weight is ob-
t a i n e dw h c n n o a i r i s i n t h c v o i c ls p a c es - t h a t i s ,w h c n t h e d c g r e eo f s a t u r a t i o ne q u a l s
l 0 g % . H c n c e , t h c m a x i m u m d r y u n i t w c i g h t a t a g i v e n m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t w i t h z e r o
a i r v o i d sc a n b e o b t a i n e db y s u b s t i t u t i n gS - I i n t o E q . ( - 5 . 3 )o. r

rzu,,: -rT (s.4)

#*: ' w + -
G..

where y-,^.: 7.ero-air-voidunit weight.

To obtain thc variertion of 7.,,,.with moisturc content, use the following
proccdure:

1. Determine the specificgravity of soil solids.

2. Know the unit weight of water (7,,,).
3. Assume severatlvaluesof w, such as 57o, 10"/",15"/",and so on.
4. I-JseEq. (-5.a)to calculatey r,,,,f or various valucs of w.

Figure 5.3 also showsthe variation of 7.u"with moisture content and its relative
location with respectto thc compaction curve. Under no circumstancesshould any
part of the compaction curve lie to the right of the zero-air-voidcurve.

5.3 Factors Affecting ComPaction

The preceding section showed that moisture content has a strong influence on the
degree of compaction achievedby a given soil. Besidesmoisture content, other im-
portant factors that affect compaction are soil type and compaction effort (energy
per unit volume). The importance of each of these two factors is describedin more
detail in the followins two sections.
 5.3 FactorsAffecting Compaction

Iu.u6

t8.-50
S a n d ys i l t

Iu.(x)
,P
!
E
Siltyclay z
l7 <rt
s ._. J
.zr I il) s
H i g h l y p l a s t i cc l a y 'a
E 'E
'| 7' 't r' t'r =
Poorly gradcdsand

r05 I6.-50

r6.(x)
l (X) 15 . 7 a
5 t0 l-5 20
M o i s t u r cc o n t c n t , r . ( ? )
'I'ypical
Figure 5.4 conrpaction curves li)r lirur soils (AS.l.M D_69u)

Effect of Soil Type

'l'he
soil type - that is, grain-sizedistribution, shapeof the soil grains,specilicgrav_
ity of soil solids,and amount ancl type of clay minerals p."r.ni- has a grcat
inllu_
c n c e o n t h e m a x i m u m d r y u n i t w e i g h t a n d o p t i m u m m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t .F i e u r e
5.4
showstypical compaction curvesobtained lrom lirur soils.The laboratory teits
were
conducted in accordancewith ASTM Test Designation D-691t.
Note also that the bell-shapedcornpactioncurvc shown in Figure ,5.3is typical
of most clayey soils. Figure -5.4sh'ws that for sands,the dry unit ,i,eighthas
a gen-
eral tendencylirst to decreaseas moisture content increases,and then to increase
to
a maxinlum value with further increaseof moisture. The initial decreaseo1
dry unit
weight with increaseof moisture content can be attributed to the capillary
tension
effect.At lower moisture contents,the capillary tensionin the pore water inhibits
the
tendency of the soil particles to move around and be denselvc'mnacted.
Lee and Suedkamp (1912)studieclcompactioncurvesfbr 35 soil samples.They
observed that four types of compaction curves can be found. These curves are
shown
in Figure 5.5.Type A compaction curvesare those that have a singlepeak.
This type
of curve is generally found tbr soils that have a liquid limit betweJn 30 and 70.
Curve
type B is a one-and-one-half-peakcurve, and curve type c is a double-peak
curve.
 F

106 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

@
o

M0isture content,t|'

Figure 5.5 Typcsof compaclion curvc

Compaction curves of types B and C can be found for soils that have a liquid limit
lessthan about 30. Compaction curves of type D do not have a definite peak. They
are termed odd shuped.Soils with a liquid limit greater than about 70 may exhibit
compaction curvesof type C or D. Such soils are uncommon.

Effect of Compaction Effort

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standardProctor test described
i n S c c l i o n 5 . 2 c a n b e g i v e na s

..(,*"In")
(,)T*:) , (,*:i''),
(iTJ:?)
\p", tny"r/ \ tuy.r,,/ \t.,o*,n"r/ \ nut,n"r 7
E : (s.s)
Volume of mold

or, in SI units,

(2s)(3)
(%p -)
r.N)to.:os
E : : 594kN-m/m3: 600kN-m/m3
944> l0"mj

In Englishunits,
\/ L7Js) \\J1- t1: J) :5
/J5t)*r l)t
E - : D375 ft-lb/ft3 : l 2 . 4 t J 0f t - l b / f t r
i r \
\30i
If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture-unit weight
curve also changes.This fact can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 5.6, which
shows four compaction curves for a sandy clay.The standard Proctor mold and ham-
mer were used to obtain these compaction curves. The number of layers of soil used
for compaction was three for all cases.However, the number of hammer blows per
each layer varied from 20 to 50, which varied the energy per unit volume.
 5.4 Modified Proctor Test 107

ttJ 19.85

Sandyclay
L i q u i dl i n i t = 3 1
Line of P l a s t i cl i m i t = 2 6
optlmum 19.00

E
i

.E
rr<

in k ')
z
3
Ir,i.00
E

;
.s!
.=
: ll0 q
=
\,2-5 blows/ layer
17.(x)

2 0 b l o w s /l a y e r

t0 12 t1 16 It { 2(\ 22 24
Moisturecontent,11,
(.2,)

Figure 5.6 Effect of compaction cnergy on the compaction of a sancryclay

From the preccding observation and Figure 5.6, we can see that

l. As the compaction effort is increascd,the maximum drv unit weight of com-

paction is also increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased,the optimum moisture content is de-
creasedto some cxtent.
The preceding statementsare true for all soils. Note, however, that the degree of
compaction is not directly proportional to the compaction eftbrt.

Modified Proctor Test

With the developmentof heavyrollers and their usein field compaction,the standard
Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This revised version is
sometimesreferred to as the modified Proctor /esl(ASTM Test Designation D-1557
and AASHTO Test Designation T-180). For conducting the modified proctor test,
the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3) as in the caseof the stan-
dard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has
a massof 4.54 kg (10 lb). The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (1s in.). The number of
hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the caseof the standard proctor test.
 7

108 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as
2700 kN-m/m3 (56.000ft-lb/lbr).
Becauseit increasesthe compactivceffort, the modifieclProctor test resultsin
an increasein the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increasein the maximum
dry unit weight is accompaniedby a decreasein the optimum moisture content.
In the precedingdiscussions,the specificationsgiven for Proctor testsadopted
by ASTM and AASHTO regardingthe volume of the mold and the number of blows
are gcnerally those adopted for fine-grainedsoils that pass through the U.S. No. 4
sicve.However, under each test designation,there are three suggestedmethods that
reflectthe mold size,the number of blows per layer, and the maximum particle sizein
a soil aggregateusedfor testing.A summary of thc test methods is givenin Table 5.1.

ol StandardanclModificdProctorCompaction
Table5.7 Sunrn.rary
(ASTM D-69,S
TcstSpecifications and D-1557)

Description Method A Method B Method C

PhvsicalData Matcrial PassingNo. 4 sicvc Passing9.,5mnl Passing19 mm

lor rhc'l'ests ( I in.) sicvc ( ] in.) sieve

Lisc Ljsed if 207u or lcss
by wcight ol rnatcrial
i s r c l a i n c do n N o . , l
( 4 . 7 5r n m ) s i c v c
Ljscd il'more than 207"
by wcight ol'material is
r c t a i n c do n N o . 4
(4.7-5 r n m ) s i c v ca n d 2 0 % ,
or lcssby wcight o[
nratcrial is rclaincd on
9 . - 5r n r n( i i n . ) s i e v e
Ljscd if morc tl.ran20'l"
by wcight of matcrial
i s r e t a i n c do n 9 . 5 m m
( l i n . ) s i c v ea n d l e s s
than 30% by wcight of
material is rctaincd
o n 1 9m m ( I i n . ) s i e v e

Mold volurnc 944 crnr ( ..1,ltt) 944 crnr ( + ftt) 944 crnr ( ; l1t)

Mold diamctcr 1 0 1 . 6m m ( 4 i n . ) 1 0 1 . 6m m ( 4 i n . ) 1 0 1 . 6m m ( 4 i n . )

Mold hcight 1 1 6 . 4m m ( 4 . - 5 t ti4n . ) 1 1 6 . 4m r n ( 4 . . 5 1 i3n4. ) I 1 6 . 4m m ( 4 . - 5 1itn, 1. )

Standard Wcight ol' 24.4 N (-5.5lb) 24.4 N (5.5 tb) 24.4 N (-5-5lb)
Proctor Test hammer

Heightol drop 3 0 5m m ( 1 2 i n . ) 3 0 5 m n r ( 1 2i n . ) 3 0 5m m ( 1 2i n . )

Numberof 3 3 3
soil laycrs

Number of 25 25 56
blows/laycr

Modified W e i g h to f 4 4 . 5N ( l 0 l b ) N (l0lb)
44.-5 4 4 ' 5N ( 1 0 l b )
Proctor Test hammer

Height of drop 457 mm (18 in.) 457 mm (18 in.) '157mm (1t3in.)

Numberof 5 5 ,5
soil layers

Numbcr of 25 25 56
blows/layer
 5-4 Modified Proctor Test 109

Example5.1
For a compacted soil,G" : 2.72,w = 187o,andya : 0.97rn. Determinethe dry
unit weightof thecompacted soil.
Solution
FromEq.(5.4),
--JU- 9.81
Tzo'': ;=*:17.9 kN/mr
I 16 1
,-"
,,+
G, 100 2.72
Hence,for the compactedsoil,
t,r = 0.91,u,: (0.9)(17.9)
- 16.tkN/m3

Example5.2
The laboratorytestresultsof a standardProctortestaregivenin thefollowingtable:
Volume Moisture
of mold Weight of moist content, u/
(fr3l soil in mold 0b) (V"l

ih 3.63 10
,l 3.86 t2
$ 4.oz 14
+ 3.e8 16
* 3.tts 18

Determine the maximumdry unit weightof compactionand the optimum mois-

t.urecontent.
Solution
The following table can be prepared:
Volume of Weight of Moist unit Moisture Dry unit
mold,V sgi!W weight,y conrent,w weight,76
(ft3l ilb) [bltfy' to/"I truTrtdl;
I
3.63 108.9 10 r 99.0
I
l0 3.86 115.8 IL fuo:.+
,L
30
4r)) 120.6 I4 ,105.8
I
30 3.98 119.4 16 142.9
I
30 3.88 116.4 18 98.6
1
l0 3.73 111.9 20 93.3
"y=WV
oto = ylll +
[w (%)i100]]
110 Chapter5 Soil ComPaction

.E lt,l
=
;
t
.1D loo

o 9 5

90
."n 20
l0 t2 14 16 llt
'r'({./.')
contcnt.
Moisture

Figure 5.7 Moisture content, w (%)

is shownin Figure5,.7.From the plot, we seethat the max-

The plot of 74versusr.r,'
imum dry unit weight (7ar-""1): 106lb/ft3 and that the optimum moisturecon-
tent is 14.4"/". I

5.5 Structure of Compacted ClaY Soil

Lambe ( l95u) studied the cfTecto1 compaction on thc structure of cliry soils,and the
resultsol his study arc illustrateclin Figure 5.11. If clay is compactcd with zrmoisture
contcnl on the dry sidc o f t h c o p t i m u m , a s r e p r c s e n t c db y p o i n t A , i t w i l l p o s s c s su r
flocculent structure.This type o[ structure results because,at low moisture content.
the dilTuscclouble layers of ions surrounding the clay particles cannot be fully de-
velopecl;hence,the interparticle rcpulsion is rcduced. This reduccd repulsion rcsults
in a more random particle orientation and a lower dry unit weight. Whcn the mois-
turc content of compaction is increascd, as shtlwn by point B, the diffuse double
layers arounclthc particles cxpand, which increases the repulsion between thc clay
particlesand givesa lowcr degree of flocculation and a higher dry unit weight. A con-
tinued increasein moisture content from B to C expands the double laycrs more.
This expansionresultsin a continued increase of repulsion between the particlesand
thus a still greater degrce of particlc orientation and a more or less dispersedstruc-
ture. However, the clry unit weight decrcases bccause the added water dilutes the
concentration of soil solids per unit volume.
At a given moisture content, higher compactive effort yields a more parallel
orientation to the clay particles, which gives a more dispersedstructure. The par-
licles are closer and the soil has a higher unit weight of compaction.This phenome-
non can be seenby comparing point,4 with point E in Figure -5.8
Figure 5.9 showsthe variation in the degree of particle orientation with mold-
ing water content for compacted Boston blue clay.Works of Seed and Chan (1959)
have shown similar results for compacted kaolin clay.
 !
E High
compactive
effort
E
U Low
compactive
effort

M o l d i n g w a t e rc o n t e n t

Figure 5'8 Effect of compaction on structurc of clay soils (re<Jrawnafter Lambc, l95tj)

t00
Parallel

c
a

o -50

r
25

o
l0 t2 t4 l8 24

ll4

ll0

1 7 . 0 0^
E' t06 z
J

.d t{)2 l/. On ;
, il6
.:tr
= 9 8

Higher compactionenergy
15.005
94
Lower compactionenergy

t4.14
l0 t2 14 16 l8 20 22 24
Molding moisturecontent(7c)

Figure 5.9 Orientationagainstmoisturecontentfor Bostonblue clay (after Lambe,1958)

111
112 Chapter 5

I
t-

Figure 5.70 Srnooth-whcclrollcr (coultesy ol'Davicl A. C'arroll.Austin. Texas)

,*x"\

rubber-tircdnrller (courtesyof DavidA. Carroll.Austin,Texas)

Figure 5. 11 Pneumatic

112
 5.6 Field Compaction 113

5.6 Field Compaction

Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in thc field is done with rollers.The four
most common types
of rollers are

l. S m o o t h - w h e e rl o l l e r s( o r s m < t o t h - d r u m
rollers)
2. P n e u m a t i cr u b b e r - t i r c dr o l l c r s
3. Sheepsfootrollers
4. Vibratory rollers

S m o o t h - w h e crl o l l e r s( F i g u r e. 5 . 1 0a) r e s u i t a b l cf o r p r o o f r o l l i n g
s u b g r a d e sa n d
f o r l i n i s h i n go p e r a t i o no f f i l l sw i t h s a n d ya n c lc l a y e ys o i l s .T h e s e
r o l l e r sp r o v i d e 1 g 0 %
c o v e r a s eu n d c r t h e w h e c l s .w i t h g r o u n dc o n t a c tp r e s s u r e a s s h i g h a s3 1 0t g 3 u 0k N / m 2
(4-5to -5-5 lb/inr). They.arc_norsuirablc lirr producing high un'it weights
of compac_
t i o n w h e n u s e c cl t nt h i c k e r l a v e r s .
P n c u m t r t i cr u b b c r - t i r e c rl t r l l er s ( F i g u r c - 5 . 1 1a) r e b c t t c r i n m a n y
r e s p e c t st h a n
t h c s r n o o t h - w h c crl t l l l c r s .l ' h c l i r r m c r a r e h e a v i l yk r a d c dw i t h
'fhcse s e v e r a lr o w s o f t i r e s .
lircs are closcly spacecl- I'our to six in a row. T'hc contact pressure
undcr the
t i r c s c a n r i t n s |er o n t 6 ( X ) t o 7 ( X ) k N / m r ( t l - 5l ltxo) l b / i r r 2 ) , a n c l
theyproduceaboutT0
to lJ0'Z'covcrage.Pncunralic rollers can be used lirr sanclyancl
.t,iy"y soil compac-
tion. c-'ompaction i s a c h i c v e cbr y a c o r n b i n a t i c l n o | p r . r r u r " a n c lk n e a d i n ga c t i o n .
Shcepsli*rt r.llcrs (F-igurc.5.l2) arc drunrs with a large number
.f projections.
The arca .l'c.ch pro.icctionmay rilnsc ll-.rn 2-5t. g5 cm2( j + to
l3 i'2). Theserollers

.,..,,:l:,..,, ..,,:- .,. .

Figure 5' 72 Sheepstootroiler (courtesyof David A. Carrolr,Austin,

Texas)
114 Chapter 5 Soil ComPaction

Ofl'-center
rotating
weight

-Vibratof * - -
(hr
*H'**
OfI'-center
rotating
weight

Figure 5. 13 Principlesof vibratory rollers

are most effective in compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure under the pro-
jections can range from 1400to 7000kN/m2 (200 to 1000Ib/in2).During compaction
in the field, the initial passescompact the lower portion of a lift. Compaction at the
top and middle of a lift is done at a later stage.
Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibra-
tors can be attacheclto smooth-wheel,pneumatic rubber-tired, or sheepsfootrollers
to provide vibratory effectsto the soil. Figure 5.13demonstratesthe principles of vi-
bratory rollers. The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights.
Handheld vibrating plates can be used for effective compaction of granular
soils over a limited area.Vibrating platesare also gang-mountedon machines.These
plates can be used in lessrestricted areas.

Factors Affecting Field Compaction

ln addition to soil type and moisture content, other factors must be consideredto
achievethe desiredunit weight of compaction in the lield. These factors include the
thickness of lift, the intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment, and
the area over which the pressure is applied. These factors are important becausethe
pressure applied at the surface decreaseswith depth, which results in a decreasein
the degree of soil compaction. During compaction, the dry unit weight of soil is also
affected by the number of roller passes.Figure 5.14 shows the growth curves for a
silty clay soil. The dry unit weight of a soil at a given moisture content increasesto a
certain point with the number of roller passes.Beyond this point, it remains approxi-
mately constant. In most cases,about 10 to 15 roller passesyield the maximum dry
unit weight economically attainable.
Figure 5.15a shows the variation in the unit weight of compaction with depth
for a poorly graded dune sand for which compaction was achieved by a vibratory
drum roller. Vibration was produced by mounting an eccentric weight on a single ro-
tating shaft within the drum cylinder. The weight of the roller used for this compac-
tion was 55.6kN (12.5kip), and the drum diameter was 1.19m (a7 in). The lifts were
kept at 2.44 m (8 ft). Note that, at any given depth, the dry unit weight of compac-
tion increaseswith the number of roller passes.However, the rate of increase in unit
 5.6 Field Compactian 115

t8
Moisture content= l7

l7
M o i s t u r ec o n t e n t= I 1 . 6 7 c

16e
g z
15 .-t
ti
j
{
'0
'4o
)
t4>
c

t
l l n
Figure 5.14
Silty clay Growth curves for a silty clay * relationship
l2 between dry unit weight and number ofpassesof
L i q u i dl i m i t = . 1 3
P l a s t i c i t yi n d e x= l 9 U4.5kN (19 kip) three-wheelroller when the soil
r l l is compactedin229 mm (9 in) toose layersat dif-
rJ t6 24 1a
ferent moisture contents(redrawn after Johnson
Number of roller passes
and Sallberg, 1960)

Dry unit weight,y,1(lb/fi:.y

^ t00 t04 lt'8,
t,- ,r.ttt,

Relative density, D,. (%) Relative density, D,. (o/o)

^,, 5o 60 70 |1{) 9Q, 60 10 80 90..
"ut_r, 0.0P -E--U

0.50
I
I

0.5
Curnpaetitrn lticr
5 roller passes 0.5 +
I
2 I 2
0.46
E E € e (l8 in.)
'l '{ - X l A o r r r
- ; : _ . 3 €
a o r.v E ;: t.u
Nurnberof o
rollerpasses

t.5 l.)

1.83 l .83

r.83
r6.00 16.50 17.00
Dry unitweighr,
17(kN/m:.t
(a)

Figure 5.15 (a) Vibratory compactionof a sand-variation of dry unit weightwith number
thicknessof lift : 2.45m (8 ft); (b) estimationof compactionlift thickness
of roller passes;
for minimum requiredrelativedensityof 75"/"with five roller passes(ifter D,Appolonia,
Whitman,and D'Appolonia, 1969)
116 Chapter5 Soil ComPaction

weight gradually decreasesafter about 15 passes.Another fact to note from Fig-

ure 5.15ais the variation of dry unit weight with depth for any given number of roller
passes.The dry unit weight and hence the relative density,D,, reach maximum values
at a depth of about 0.5 m (1.5 ft) and gradually decreaseat lesserdepths. This de-
crease occurs becauseof the lack of confining pressure toward the surface. Once the
relationship between depth and relative density (or dry unit weight) for a given soil
with a given number of roller passesis determincd, estimating the approximate
thickncssof each lift is easy.This procedure is shown in Figure -5.15b(D'Appolonia,
W h i t m a n , a n d D ' A P P o l o n i a .1 9 6 9 ) '

5.7 Specifications for Field Compaction

In most specificationsfor earthwork, the contractor is instructed to zrchievea com-
pacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 9-5%of the maximum dry unit weight deter-
mined in the laboratory by eithcr the standard or modificd Proctor test. This is a
specificationfor relativc compaction,which cernbc expressedas

7'1(Ii"r'r)
fi(%)= x100 (-s6)
7d(rnax * lab)

For the compaction of granular soils, spccificationsare sclmetimeswritten in

terms of the required relativc density D, or thc required relativc compaction. Rela-
tive density should not be confused with relative compaction. From Chapter 3, we
canwrite

a:l (-57)

C o m p a r i n gE q s . ( - 5 . 6a) n d ( . 5 . 7 )w
. c s e et h a t

Ro
R * (s.8)
1-D,(1-Ro)

where

711(nin)
Ro: 1 5q \
7rl(max)

on the basisof observationof 47 soil samples,Lee and Singh (1971) deviseda

correlation between R and D, for granular soils:

R:80+0.2D, (s.10)
 5.7 Specifications for Field Compaction 117

.3t
i
E

4r r'l
t,,,rt,,."
.,,,,,i11.
,,
Figure 5.76 Mostcconornical
contpaction
condition

The specificatior for field compacticlnbasedon relativc compaction

or on rel-
ative density is an cnd-product specificaticln. 'l'hc
contractor is expectedto achievea
rninimurn dry unit wcight regardlesso1'thc field procedure
ad'pied. The most eco_
n o m i c a l c o m p a c t i o nc o n c l i t i o nc a n b c e x p l a i n c dw i t h t h c
a i d o f F i g u r e 5 . 1 6 .T h e
conrperctioncurvcs A,B, and C arc for thc same soil with verrying
compactiveeffort.
Let curve ,4 rcprcsent the conditions of ntaximum compactive
eifort that can be ob-
t a i n c d f r o n l t h e e x i s t i n ge q u i p m e n t .L e t t h e c o n t r a c t o rb e r e q u i r e d
t o a c h i e v ca m i n -
imum clry unit weight of 7,r(ri"ru) - R7,r1n,"*,. To achievcthis, the conrracror must en-
sure that the moisture content r.r,falls between w, and w2.
As can be seen from
cornp.ction curve c, the requirccl can be achieveclwith a lower compactiveef-
7,r1ri"ra1
fort at a moisture c()nten1|| : wt. Howcver, for most practical
conditions, a com_
pacted field unit weight o[ 7,i16"ray : Ry,r1n,u,, cannot be achievedby the minimum
compactive effbrt. Hcnce, equipment ivith slightly more than
the minimum com-
petctiveeflbrt should bc used. The compaction curve B represents
this condition.
Now we can see from Figure 5.16 that the most economicalmoisture
content is be-
tween w3 and wr. Note that || : wt is the optimum moisture
content for curve ,4,
which is for the maximum compactiveeftbrt.
The concept described in the prece<lingparagraph, along
with Figure 5.16,
is historically attributed to Seed (1964), who was a giant in
modern geotechnical
engineering. This concept is elaborated on in more detail in
Hortz and Kovacs
(re81).
Table 5.2 givessome of the requirementsto achieve95-to-100%
relative com_
paction (basedon standardproctor maximum dry unit weight)
by various field com_
paction equipment (U.S. Department of Navy, 1971).
 = - c
EFe!^ , 4,
' ! - :
- C ) . - a c
z!s
6 6 - t : : o
a
( J D h

E= E#i g = r ;E
ii
i : t r 0 l q ' a a

6
O P
9!€ir;$o:i:E4-n - 0 - 6 . l - , a U ' 4 L r '
iEq,
F F
F = : E : ? i E R e EzE5 * Z E a !) 717' i =- 5 z: 6 E. { =e l Z
q, 1
>.= ;::i+iie::E:=E: ) i , ?
. r 9 * E -

!F!E*?? :Tt ?
F d = * - ^
Pa,
o
o.
tQc i l i t =
:i:;;i:;A,E
: F , i EFg::ETE=8b;g
-t oFv T
' =l -sOp- i; U
: . =
- . ;. d
9 1. lt r! i=
,zz4=il22*:7i
& E g s : € ! ; r L : Ei e g < : . e 9 ,a E ; - q 5 I € F
'i, '6
' ' e' - ' 3 ' - ? + =e - ! ' = i iP tlE
- €8 €8 €3 EA1 !:S 2
t r! r- -; g. ?; .
6' * i . z n : - . 2 1 . , 2 | ; .1 : >i>- !27=.
o ct =
+ .i 5-s\ i-t rr +
- -x -. i+' r; F- j, -=-A- Y 2 E o ^ VtV6e;Ei^
o)
bo
o-
o 'i.? '=.:- "='l
zEi := != *2 <2 azZ;Ft
(!
'36? 2i ' 4+';=
B Z.i E.= F.= Zfig.;?,9r^
o
o
o)
3 c ?: 8<. ;: iPg r!E=izzL
\ o P
:is3: ?? == =+Z' | g E ' =7 2 l l ;
eissi sL €= iS{. pq f: E A
a €I E
Z ==ta Fs fFl r; B.
o,=' G
e (1, th
- o 3 o

X
6
lO'--

o >
o
o
! _ E E _ =
E E 9€FF E I E E E i S
= = _ . =
o - o 5F T I : VE y , ! : 2 =. =7o_ -a1= V= . 7= =l r i _' E
a
!
H =
g.E
F X
; ; ; o ; ; i E * zE ; E EE s r E g E E Z
t e E

E o
;g 2 6
ii. c-i a
2 V i '
6
O
bo
q
O
ho

f,i
o ^ ^ ^ ( J
v . - w - , c t r ) E \ o t s
C ^ D ^ U
o
o-E
9 > e
- >^
Q)
+"Y &t 'c& 5o f , o T o

o
.=
E
o
G E
o o
g
E a o E *
FEE r) \o ; u x x ^
S f d _ * N J

, 6 : ' 0 - A O
. eg 6 in.= * F . , L

0
6 o F z t A H i S ! ' eA ' 26 o : 9
a A o
a a * - : F = o - o . , =
E 9 a " i 6 - " E ; : r t- ' .;- oi Ea 6> -.g E -_ 3
3 " P o . e : ' Fa i Z d
; ; : I E ^ IF F E - ! i o -" :Y F : - ! o
' ) E j
I ]
. =
I F , , E = * : !I a E r . J -
6
= : . 0 ,
a / ' . .- =- -
_._
q- J> l a
-"
E 9 : ; \ E 9 . 9 = - r_ O
o o r 9 : J l 9 6 t . : 9 c , q c - i ? . o b ^ a
6 . - i U G q \ - O
E 3 t y Z V1 1 a ; z = 2 =+ i : F
a .E=t . =:" iA so o 3:
L ' o
E :"
G O ! . =
o ' = :
ti;= s
o I
3
i : . u
6o=2

N
o
ro t r o
o 2 - Q a
!+ >. a ) o ;'o .)
a
.G
: - - ! ^

|lJ a i

118
 .-:
r j a

> y!=

g$iiigglg
gg
fi*iiig;giir
^

^ ! t r

-;i-
' U X o
>6to
- F

t r ^
z d
-
O
E i. C
r Y ^ - Y ' v
: , ^ ^ u ca
o : l x = 9 a d s i ' -
, F r - a >
: ^.a Y i - Y v

6 E 4J >'.9 Z u ; 7
; o t
!
C,^ 7, a
7^2
- - : v : -" '
= v o
.9 v|E i: 'pjjU - c
Y Z E ' : -, e ^
o :
@ O -
c B _
hoi
Ylz - I -
9 1 , ^ c d€ or) k b.l)
a a ^ .
> Y

= I ": crtr
i ^ = i 9 P ^ L L
: b o

qo -; : cX i u E . , - - * u
L , ! : ,
'i: tr o-
p d * ^ * q q - 2
O > . ! " . : ; 1 'E
6 : Z c co
h E ? h d € d 6 Z
7* z^ a >,
9.Y co H - !\ . o
:Eco ai L l z l L
^ p
^
-
. !
- 9
a ^
- >
f Fcn s o E r d - - p ^ -
.LAr)ar - A J ^ 6 N - ' , o ,
0 -
5 - - a b0_
E U r o . o._ !
u Z . E d i
c Y . 3 a
U v a
o a
^
- - ^ t r : l
C ' 6 c , z*E
. l i i 9 -
l E
.Eq e g i
F b 0 5 n F &'c3 ac t aD:!

U U
oo oo bo
6 6 (d
! !
O
bo
(! -
^ O
bo
0 9 >
t c.)o N

c .-: ; ; c a

trN l',
t
t rh I :
v S i d
;
-O : E^ . _
t r ' t a
o E € o E \ o = L i ^ q d
! E ^ ' F , , . ; y ' E
n a i ^ ^ :
- - - x x ^ C r ) r , H H ' : ! a ' : : X F
N - 3 : - j X Y N N = 6 1 6 v = ; J . Y Z Y U 5 0 r|1
I a
o ) F . ) C :
E , Fe Ir E- a w
-S ! 'o t
Eor u.!i: E
o 9
tr_
i
* : a , i E a € 8:'a H oo'o Y3 -c * aoJ gc
+ = - o - . = : i Fo
d E E . 5 i = : t r e : t € F 3 X : ' ag + I
^ ^
e,,Y o
i8s Eg;*: 'E
; -o6 ^ r E Z {e : Ut di cr
- ! ^ J , = t 2 J L d r X
: i iiT6 3 5,;
o * 3
E : d
- a a 7 , . a
6 = 2 > = 5Fz€5s; q Y o - o 9 B
.oER^6 >,
d e E
s € _ g E e9 g 4'43
l o o o ? = q ; E 5 '9= ;- o
; ;; e= 3 0 d a u ,-
i:;r i -?=: €. i Fn =t . i F f r ; 8 9 ;i F
?.-z t os!3 -
E;'E t-
F . s; ; h i t j ^ 5
€
9
!
s i: . _
E
Y
=v ( t vr F^
4

< 6 b E > 5 0 3 € 5 f i ; 3 ." t& r z E f iS E t € € : E

z
a
boo o
O ! r
6 c-;i
:.): 5 e e Ec g 9o I o-tr ,:
a t Y > - d ;

119
120 Chapter 5 Soil Comqaction

5.8 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

When the compaction work is progressingin the field, knowing whether the specified
unit weight has been achievedis useful. The standard proceduresfor determining
the field unit weight of compaction include
l. Srnd conc mcthoL
2 . R u b b e r b a l l o o nm e t h o d
3. Nuclear method
Following is a bricf description of each of thesemethods.

Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-I556)

The sand conc device consistsof a glassor plasticjar with a metal cone attached at
i t s t o p ( F i g u r c - 5 . 1 7 )T. h c i a r i s f i l l e d w i t h u n i f o r m d r y O t t a w a s a n d .T h e c o m b i n e d
w c i g h t o l ' t h c i a r . t h c c o n e ,a n d t h e s a n df i l l i n g t h e j a r i s d e t e r m i n e d( W ' ) . l n t h e f i e l d ,
1 small holc is excavatedin the area where the soil has been compacted.lf the weight
o1'themoist soil excavatedfnrm the hole (Wr) ir determined and the moisture con-
tcnt of thc cxcavatcdsoil is known. the dry wcight of thc soil can be obtained as
W.
W3- (s.11)
u)e/")
l +
l(x)
whcrc tr, n t o i s t u tc c ( ) t t l c n t .

Figure 5. 17 Glass jar filled with Ottawa sand with sand cone attached
 5.8 Determination of Fietd IJnit Weight of Compaction

I, .lar
'.,
*/'

'
Ottawa sand

..'
\ Mctrl
C,rnc * vill\c
plrrle
t'"t '/
.,i..........

\ Hut" fiiled with

C)ttawasand

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. 18 Field unit weight determined by sand cone method:
(a) schematiccliagram;
(b) a test in progress in the field
Chapter 5 Soil ComPaction

After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is
inverted and placed over the hole (Figure 5.18).Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar
to fill the hole and the cone. After that, the combined weight of the jar, the cone, and
the remaining sand in the jar is determined (lVa)' so

Ws: Wt - Wq ( s.12)

where W, : weight of sand to fill the hole and cone.

The volume of the excavatedhole can then be determined as

W.' - W,.
tv/ -
- (s.13)
7ri(sand)

where I42.: weight of sand to fill the cone only

: dry unit weight of Ottawa sand used
7ri(sancl)

are determined from the calibration done in the labo-

The values of I4z,and 7,1(sanct)
ratory. The dry unit weight of compaction made in the field can then be determined
as follows:

Dry weight of the soil excavatedfrom the hole w1

f,t
(-s.14)
Volume of the hole

Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation D-2167)

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand cone
metltod; a test hole is made and the moist weight of soil removed from the hole and
its moisture content are determined.However, the volume of the hole is determined
by introducing into it a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel,
fiom which the volume can be read clirectly.The dry unit weight of thc compacted
soil can be determined by using Eq. (5.1a).Figure 5.19showsa calibratedvessclthat
would be used with a rubber balloon.

Nuclear Method
Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit
weight of soil. The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground
ruriu.". The instrument measuresthe weight of wet soil per unit volume and the
weight of water present in a unit volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted
soilian be determined by subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit weight
of soil. Figure 5.20 shows a photograph of a nuclear density meter.
Figure 5.19
Calibrated vesselused with rubber
balloon (not shown) (courtesyof
John Hester, Carterville, Itlinois)

Figure 5.20
Nucleardensitymeter (courtesyof
David A. Carroll, Austin, Texas)

123
124 Chapter 5 Soil ComPaction

table:
Laboratorycompactiontestresultsfor a clayeysilt aregivenin the following
Moisture Dry unit weight
content(%) {kN/m3)
b 14.80
8 1.7.45
o 18.52
1l 18.9
t2 18.5
1"4 t6.9

performedon
Followingare the resultsof a field unit weight determinationtest
the samesoil by meansof the sand-conemethod:
. Calibrateddry densityof Ottawasand : 1570kg/m3
r Calibratedmassof Ottawasandto filIthe cone : 0'545kg
o Massof jar + cone* sand(beforeuse): 7.59kg
r Massof jar + cone + sand(after use) : 4'78kg
. Massof moist soil from hole = 3.007kg
r Moisture contentof moist soil : 10'2%
Determine
a. Dry unit weightof compactionin the field
b. RelativecomPactionin the field

Solution
a. In the field,
: - :
Massof sandusedto fill the hole and cone 7.59kg 4.78kg 2'81kg
- =
Massof sandusedto fill the hole : 2'81kg 0'545kg 2'265kg
2.265kg
Volume of the hole(Y) :
Dry density of Ottawa sand
kg
.2'265 - = 0.0014426
m3
1570kg/m'
Massof moist soil
Moist densityof comPactedsoil : Volume of hole

? 92''^.: 2084.4
0.0014426 j
ke/ml
(2084.4)(e.81
) :
Moist unit weight of compactedsoil 2O.45kN/m3
1000
Hence,
v 2A.45 :
18.56kN/m3
td
w (o/"\ t0.z
^1 + 1+."--_
100 100
 5.9 Compaction of Organic Soil and Waste Materials 125

z
>

*' ('/c)

Figure 5.21 Plot of laboratorycompactiontestresults

b. The results of the laboratory compaction test are plotted in Figure 5.21.
: 19 kN/m3. Thus, from Eq. (5.6),
From the plot, we see that 7rl(max)
_ - 7,rrri"r.r) 18.56 --
: 97'70/"
" ,rr"- lg"o

5.9 Compaction of Organic Soil and Waste Materials

The presenceof organic matcrials in a soil reducesits strength. In many cascs,soils
with it high organic content are gcnerally discardedas fill material; however,in cer-
tain economic circumstanccs,slightly organic soils are uscclfor compaction. In fact,
organic soils are desirablein many circumstances(e.g.,fbr agriculture,decertifica-
t i o n , m i t i g a t i o n ,a n d u r b a n p l a n n i n g ) .M o r e r c c e n t l y ,t h e h i g h c o s t so f w a s t ed i s p g s a l
have sparked an intercst in the possibleuse of waste materials (e.g.,bottom ash ob-
tained from coal burning, copper slag,paper mill sludge.shreddedwastetires mixed
with inorganic soil, and so forth) in various landfill operations.Such use of wastema-
terials is one of the major thrusts of prescnt-dayenvironmcntal geotechnology.Fol-
lowing is a discussionof thc compaction characteristicsof somc of these materials.

Organic Soil
Franklin. Orozco, and Scmrau (1973) conductedseverallaboratory teststo observe
the effect of organic content on the compactioncharacteristicsof soil. In the test pro-
gram, various natural soils and soil mixtures were tested.Figure 5.22 shows the ef-
fect of organic content on the maximum dry unit weight. When the organic content
exceeds8 to 10%, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction decreasesrapidly.
Conversely, the optimum moisture content for a given compactive effort increases
with an increasein organic content. This trend is shown in Figure 5.23.Likewise, the
maximum unconfined compressionstrength (see Chapter l0) obtained from a com-
pacted soil (with a given compactive effort) decreaseswith increasing organic con-
tent of a soil. From thesefacts,we can seethat soilswith organiccontentshigher than
about 10% are undesirable for compaction work.
126 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

105

to

100

l5
o
,? o\'
z
qn
t l
E
il

Oven-dried
c x t
.: E
Air-dried --
t l
€ !
tr
= R o =
'i E

n >

o Mixture-oven-dried
. Nalurrl silmple oven-dried l t
a Mixture-air-dried

t0.22
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
Organiccontent(o/o)

Figure 5.22 Yariation of maximum dry unit weight with organic content (after Franklin,
Orozco, and Semrau, 1973)

^ 3 0
t
o t<
o

'6
E r o

'a

o t 5

-l 0" 0
5 l0 15 20 25
Organiccontent(70)

Figure 5.23 Yariatton of optimum moisture content with organic content (after Franklin,
Orozco, and Semrau, 1973)
 5.9 Compactionof OrganicSoitand WasteMaterials
127
Soiland Organic Materiat Mixtures
Lancasteret al. (1996)conductedseveralmodified Proctor
teststo determinethe
effect of organiccontent on the maximum dry unit weight
urrJ opti-u- moisture
contentof soil and organicmaterialmixtures.The soils
iested.onrirt"d of a poorly
gradedsandy soil (Sp-SM)mixed with either shredded
redwoodbark, shredded
rice hulls,or municipalsewagesludge.Figures5.24
and5.25showthe variationsof

O Redwoodbark
1 R i c eh u l l s
z O Sludge
- 11
.:l
I lll

':
r 8
l.
!

.E

u 20 10 60 80 t(x)
Organic content (o/o)

Figure 5.24 Yariatictn .f maximum^dry unit weight

of compaction with organic content _
soil and organic material mixtures. st,Lirce:Aftei"The gffect
of organic clontent on Soil
compaction." by J. Lancaster, R. waco. J. Towre,
and R. chane y, tioo. rn proceedings,
7'hird Internationar syrnposium on Environmentar
Geotechnrroly, p. tsv. used with permis_
sion of the author.

1t

s'-
11
c

o
a )t I
=
'I
t r '
rr
6
'E rU

l+

I2

Organic
content
(7o)
Figure 5'25 Yatiation of optimum moisture content
with organic content - soil and organic
material mixtures. Source: After "The Effect of
organic content on Soil compaction,,, by
J' Lancaster, R' waco, J' Towre, and R. chaney, 1sg6. proceedings,
tn iii)a nternatronat
Symposium on Environmentar Geotechnology,p.
159. Used with pJrmission of the author.
128 Chapter 5 Soil ComPaction

maximum dry unit weight of compaction and optimum moisture content, respec-
tively, with organic content. As in Figure 5.22, Ihe maximum dry unit weight de-
creascdwith organic content in all cases(seeFigure 5.24).Conversely,the optimum
moisture content incrcasedwith organic content for soil mixed with shredded red-
wooclor rice hulls (seeFigure 5.2-5),similar to the pattern shown in Figure 5.23.How-
ever, for soil anclmunicipal sewurgcsludge mixtures, the optimum moisture content
remained practically constant (sec Figure 5.25).

Paper Mill Sludge

Paper mill sludge.despite a high watcr content and low sttlid contents,can be com-
pactecland uscd for landfill. The statcsof Wisconsin and Massachuscttshave both
u s c c lp a p e r m i l l s l u c l g ct o c a p l a n d { i l l s .M o o - Y o u n g a n d Z i m m i e ( 1 9 9 6 ) p r o v i d e d
thc standarclProctor compaction charactcristicsfor severalpaper mill sludges,and
t h c s c a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r c . 5 . 2 6T. h c p h y s i c a lp r o p c r t i e so l ' t h e s es l u d g e sa r e s h o w n
in Tlblc -s..1

Bottom Ash from Coal Burning and Copper SIag

Labgratory standard Proctor tcst rcsults for bottont ash f'ront coal-burning power
plants ancl I'rtrcopper slag arc also availablc in thc litcraturc. These waste products
have bccr-rshown to bc cnvironnrcntallysal'cl'or r-rse as lantllill. A summary of some
'l'able
ol'thcsc tcst rcsults is giver.rin -5.4.

r S l u t l g cA
a S l u t l g c1 3
o S l u t l g cl )
o Sludgc I.i
z

! /

0 -50 2s0 300

"'utn,r,u,.'lln,"n,
,'r"lt"'

Figure 5.26 Yariatt<tnof dry unit weight of compaction with moisture content for paper mill
sludge. Source: From "Geotechnical Properties of Paper Mill Sludgesfor Use in Landfill
Covers," by H. K. Moo-Young, T. F. Zimmie, 7996,Journal o.f Geotechnical Engineering, 122
(9),p.768-775. Copyright O 1996American Societyof Civil Engineers.Used by permission.
 5.10 Special Compaction Techniques 129
Table 5.3 Physical properties of SlurJgesShown
in Figure 5.26

Moisture Organic Specific gravity

content (%) Plasticity
content (%l of solids, G, index
A 1.50 -25i) 4-5-50 I.88-1.96 191
B 200-250 -56 l.f.i3-l.u5 1.5
D l -50-200 41 r.93-1.9-5 lt7.-5
E I -50-200 35-44 1.962.08

Table proctorTestResultsof Bottom

5'4 standarcr Ash ancrcioppcrSrag

Maximum
Optimum
dry unit moisture
weight
content
tb /ft3 (%l
Bottom ash- Fort Martin I3.4 8-s 24.5 S c a l s .M o u l t o n , a n d R u t h
bituminouscoal Kamntcr 16.0 t02 13.t3 (1e72)
(WestVirginia) K a n a w h aR i v c r I 1.4 72.6 26.2
Mirchcll I IJ.3 l 16.6 14.6
Muskingham 14.3 9 l. l 22.0
Willow Island 14..5 L)2.4
Bottom ash -
2 1. 2
[3ig Stonc Powcr 16.4 104..1 20.5 Das. Selinr. and pl'cifle
lignitecoal P l a n t ,S o u t h D a k o t a
Copperslag ( I e78)
Anrcr-icanSmclter ancl 19.8 t26 l8.ri D a s , ' l h r q u i n ,a n d J o n c s
Rclincry Clompany,
( ler]3)
Ill Paso,Jtxas

5.10 Special Compaction Techn iques

Severalspccial types of compaction techniques
have becn dcvcropeclr.orcleepcom_
pactiol"tof in-placc soils, ancl these techniques
are used in the fietd fbr large-scale
compaction works. Among_these,the popurar
methods are vibroflotation, jynamic
and brasring.Derairs of the.scmethods are provi<lcd
in the foirowing
::L:i::tr"'

Vibroflotation
vibroflotation is a technique for in situ d,ensification
of thick layersof loose granu-
lar soil deposits.It was devcloped in Germany
in the 1930s.The first vibroffotation
device was used in the United Statesabout l0years
later. rn.fro..r,' involves the
use of a vibroflot 5.27 (arso cailed the vibrating
unit), whichis about 2.1 m (:7 tt)
long' (asshown in Figure 5.27.)This vibrating
unit has an eccentricweight inside it
and can develop a centrifugal force, which enibles
the vibrating urit to vibrate hori-
zontally. There are openings at the bottom and
top of the vib'iating unit for water
jets' The vibrating unit is attached
to a folrow-up pipe.Figure 5.27 showsthe entire
assembly of equipment necessaryfor conducting
the field"compaction.
130 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

fir.,
,ffi#fu
ee*scr*;--- -. ;
Follow-up j i
"
C y l i n d c ro l c o r n p a c t c d
nrateriirl,addedl'rom the
s u r l a c et o c o m p e n s a t c
lirr the loss of volume
causedhy the increascol'
d e n s i t yo f t h e c o m p a c t e d
soil
B
C y l i n d c ro f c o m p a c t e d
nraterial,producedby a
s i n g l ev i b r o f l o tc o m p a c t i o n

Figure 5.27 Yibrofrotationunit (after Brown, 1977)

The entire vibroflotation compaction process in the field can be divided i

four stages(Figure 5.28):
Stagel: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered i
the ground.
Stage2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil and it allows the
brating unit to sink into the ground.
Stage3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from
the lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit.
This water carries the sranular material down the hole.
 5.10 Special Compaction Techniques 131

S t a g c3

Figure 5'28 Compaction hy vibroflotation proccss(alter

flrown. 1977)

Table5.5 Types of Vibroflot Units'.

75 kW electric
Motor type and hydraulic 23 kW electric
a, Vibrating tip
Length 2 . 1m ( 7 . 0I ' t ) l.fi6m(6.llf'r)
Diameter z 1 0m 6 n r( 1 6i n . )
3ttl rnnr( 1.5in)
Weight r 7 . 8k N ( 4 ( X nl b)) l7.lJkN (4(XX) ltr)
Maximummovemcnt when full 1 2 . -m5 m ( 0 . 4 9i n ) 7 . 6m m ( { ) . 3i n . )
Centlifugal force 1 6 0k N ( l t 3t o n ) l J gk N ( 1 0t o n )
b. Eccentric:
Weight 1 . 2k N ( 2 6 0t b ) 0 . 7 6k N ( 1 7 0 l b )
Offset 3lJmnr ( l.-5in) 3 2 m m ( 1 . 2 5i n )
Length 6 1 0m m ( 2 4i n ) 3 t Xm) m ( 1 5 . 2 -i n
5. )
Speed 1800rpm Itt00rpnr
c. Pump
Operatingflow rate 0 - 1 . 6m r / m i n( 0 - 4 ( n g a l / m i n ) 0 - 0 . 6 m r / n i n ( 0 - 1 5 0g a l / m i n )
Pressure 7 0 0 - 1 0 - 5k0N / m , ( 1 0 0 _ 1 . 5l b0/ i n 2 ) 7 0 0 - 1 0 - 5k0N / m r( 1 0 0 l 5 0 t b / i n r )
d. Lower follow-up pipe und extensions
Diameter 305mm (12 in.) 3 0 5m m ( 1 2i n . )
Weight 3.6-5
kN/m (2,50 lb/ft) 3.6.5kN/m (2s0lb/fr)
*AfterBrown (1977.)

Stage4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about

0.3 m (:l ft) lifts and
held vibrating for about 30 secondsat eachlift. This process
compacts
the soil to the desiredunit weight.
The details of various types of Vibroflot units used
in the United States are
given in Table 5.5. Note that 23 kw (30-hp) electric
units have been used since the
latter part of the 1940s.The 75 kw (100-hp) units were
introduced in the earlv 1g70s.
132 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

\
/
fl::,:l';,H:".."
Figure 5.29 Probcspacingfor vibroflotation

The zone of compaction around a singleprobe varieswith the type of Vibroflot

useil.the cylindrical zone of compactionhas a radius of about 2m (:6 ft) for a 23 kW
(30-hp) unir. This radius can exrcnd ro about 3 m (: l0 ft) for a 75 kw (100-hp) unit.
Compaction by vibroflotation is done in various probe spacings,dependingon
the zone of compaction. This spacingis shown in Figure 5.29.The capacity for suc-
cessluldcnsification ctl'irt situsoil dependson severalfactors,the most important of
which is the grain-sizeclistributionof the soil and the type of backfill used to fill the
holes during the withdrawal period of the Vibroflot. The rangc of the grain-sizedis-
tribution of in situsoil marked Zonc I in Figure 5.30is most suitable1'orcompaction
by vibroflotation. Soils that contain excessiveamounts of finc sand and silt-sizepar-
ticles arc difticult to compact,and considcrableeffort is necded to rcach the proper
relative density of compactictn.Zone 2 in Figure -5.30is thc approximate lowcr limit
of grain-sizedistribution for which compaction by vibroflotation is effective.Soil de-
posits whose grain-sizedistributions fall in Zone 3 contain appreciableamounts of
gravel.For these soils.the rate of probe penctration may be slow and may prove un-
e c o n o m i c a il n t h e l o n g r u n .

U n i f l e dS o i l C l a s s i l i c a t i o S
n ystern

Grain size (mm)

Figure 5.30 Effective range of grain-size distribution of soil for vibroflotation

 5.10 Special Compaction Techniq {35
(Y)

The grain-sizedistribution of the backfiil material is an imoorran

controls the rate of densification.Brown (Igjll has defined a quantit
suitability number for rating backfill as

- i 3 | 1
r,ry:LV1r; * * (-5.1s)
6 orrt,

where Dsc,,D.u, and D',, are the diameters (in mm) through which. respectivery,50,
20, and 10./" of the material Dasses.
T h e s m a l l e rt h c v a l u e . , t S r . t h " m o r e d e s i r a b l et h e b a c k f i l lm a t e r i a l .F o l l o w -
ing is a backfill rating systemproposed by Brown:

Range of S, Rating as backfill

0-10 E,xcellcnt
I0-20 Good
20-30 Fair
30-.s0 Poor
>-50 L]nsuitablc

Dynamic Compaction
D y n a m i c c o m p a c t i o ni s a t e c h n i q u ct h a t h a sg a i n e dp o p u l a r i t yi n t h e U n i t c c lS t a l e s
for the densificationof granular soil deposits.This proccssconsistsprimarily of drop-
ping a heavy weight repeatedlyon thc ground at regular intervals.The weight of the
h a m m e r u s e d v a r i e so v e r a r a n g e o f 8 0 t o 3 6 0 k N ( 1 l Jt o g 0 k i p ) , a n d t h e h e i g h t o f
the hammcr drop varies betwcen 7.-5ancl 30.-5m (2.,5and 100 ft). The stresswaves
generated by the hammer drops aid in the dcnsification.The desree of compaction
a c h i e v e da t a g i v e ns i t e d e p e n d so n t h c l b l l o w i n g l h r e e l a c t o r s :

1. Weightof hammer
2. Height of hammer drop
3. Spacingof locations at which the hammer is dropped

Leonards, cutrer, and Holtz (19u0) suggestedthat the significant depth of

influencefor compaction can be approximated by using the equation

D:(lSlw,n (,5.t6)
where D : significantdepth of densification(m)
W11: dropping weight (metric ton)
/.t : height of drop (m)

In English units, the preceding equation takes the form

D: 0 . 6 1 v w ( s.17)
where the units of D and h are fr, and the unit of I4zais kip.
134 Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

Blasting
Blasting is a technique that has been used successfullyin many projects (Mitchell,
1970)for the densificationof granular soils.The general soil grain sizessuitable for
compaction by blasting are the same as those for compaction by vibroflotation. The
process involves the detonation of explosive charges such as 60% dynamite at a
certain depth below the ground surfacein saturatedsoil. The latcral spacingof the
chargesvariesfrom about 3 to 10 m (10 to 30 ft). Thrce to five successfuldetonations
are usuallynecessaryto achievethe desiredcompaction.Compaction up to a relative
density of:rbout 80% and up to a depth of about 20 m (60 ft) over a large arca can
easily be achievedby using this process.Usually,the explosivechargesare placed at
a clepthof about two-thirds of the thicknessof the soil layer desiredto be compacted.

Exa mp l e5 .4

Followingare the detailsfor the backfillmaterialusedin a vibroflotationproject:

' D n : 0 . 3 6m m
t Dzl'= 0'52mm
. D s o: 1 . 4 2 m m
Determine the suitability number S". What would be its rating as a backfill
material?
Solution
From Eq. (5.15),

SN
-* 1 1
' ' ' V|
m *
r - - - j - + - .
(4,,)t (Dri' (D,,,)'

-- t' 1'\ m
l
(t.442 (0.s2)'z (0.36)'z
= 6.1

Ratins: Excellent

Example5.5
For a dynamiccompactiontest we are giventhe followi -ng:weight of hammer :
15 metric tons and height of drop : 12 m' Determine t$ significantdepth D of
influencefor compaction,in meters. ;

Solution
From Eq. (5.16),

D : G){wrt: (l){rsXra : 6.71m

 Problems 135

5.11 Summary and GeneralComments

Laboratory standard and modified Proctor compaction tests described in this chap-
ter are essentially for impact or dynamic compaction of soil; however, in the labora-
tory, static compaction and kneading compaction can also be used. It is important
to
realize that the compaction of clayey soils achieved by rollers in the field is
essen-
tially the kneading type. The relationshipsof dry unit weight (7,1)and moisture
con_
tent (rv) obtained by dynamic and kneading compaction ur. noi the same. proctor
compaction test resultsobtained in the laboratory are used primarily to determine
whether the roller compaction in the field is sufficient.The siructuresof compacted
cohesivesoil at a similar dry unit weight obtained by dynamic and kneading .o-_
paction may be different. This dift'erence,in turn, affectsphysicalproperties
such as
hydraulic conductivity,compressibility,and strength.
For most fill operations,the final selectionof the borrow site dependson such
factors as the soil type and the cost of excavationand haulins.
Fill materials for compaction are generally brought to the site by trucks and
wagons.The fill material may be end-dumped,side-tlumped,or bottsm-4umpetl
atthe
site in piles. If the material is too wet, it may be cut and turned to aerate and dry be-
fore being spread in lifts for compaction.If it is too dry, the clesiredamount of
water
is added by sprinkling irrigation.

Prohlems
5.1 Given G, : 2.72,calculatethe zero-air-voidunit weight for a soil in lb/ft3 at
w : 5"/" , 8y", 10"/", 12"/", and 15% .
5.2 Repeat Problem 5.1 with G" : 2.62.plot a graph of
7,nn*(kN/m3) againstw.
5.3 calculate the variation of dry unir weighr (kN/m3) of i ioil
1c. : i.es1 at
w : 10"/" and 20"/" for degree of saturation (S) : g0% 90yo, and 100"/o.
,
5.4 The resultsof a standard proctor test are given below. Determine the maxi-
mum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture content.

Vorume
or T?:::frt Moisture
Proctormold in the mold content
(ft3) flb) (/"1
l/30 3.26 8.4
U30 4.l-) 10.2
l/30 4.67 1L-,)
t/30 4.02 14.6
t/30 -r.o-t 16.8

5.5 For the soil describedin Problem 5.4, if G" :2.72, determine the void ratio
and the degree of saturation at optimum moisture content.
5.6 The results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table. Deter-
mine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum mois-
Chapter 5 Soil Compaction

ture content. Also. determine the moisture content required to achieve95%

of 7a(-o*).

Massof
Volume of wet soil Moisture
Proctormold in the mold content
(cm3) (kS) t%l

943.3 1.68 9.9

943.3 1.71 10.6
943.3 1.7'7 t2.1
943.3 1.83 t 3.[t
943.3 1.86 l -5.1
943.3 t.[3tt 17.4
943.3 1.87 19.4
943.3 1.t35 21.2

5.7 A field unit weight detcrmination test for the soil describedin Problem 5.6
vielded the following datzr:moisture content : 10.27"and moist unit
weight : 16.1kN/ml. Determine the relative compaction'
The in sl/& moisture content of a soil is 18% and the moist unit weight is
105 fb/ft3.The specihcgravity of soil solids is2.15.This soil is to be excavated
ancltransported to a constructionsite for use in a compactedfill. If the speci-
ficzrtionscall for the soil to be compactedto a minimum dry unit weight of
103.-5 lb/ftr at thc samc moisture content of 18%, how many c-ubicyards of
soil from the excavationsitc are nceded to produce 10,000yd' of compacted
fill? How many 20-ton truckloads are nceded to transport the excavatedsoil?
5.9 A proposed embankment fill requires 5000 m3 of compactedsoil. The void
ratio of the compactedllll is specifiedas 0.7. Four borrow pits are available
as dcscribed in the following tablc, which lists the respectivevoid ratios of
the soil and the cost pcr cubic meter for moving the soil to the proposed con-
struction site. Make the necessarycalculationsto selectthe pit from which
thc soil should be bought to minimize the cost. Assume G. to be the same at
all pits.

Borrowpit Void ratio Cost{$/m3}

A 0.u5 9
B 1.2 6
C 0.95 7
D 0.75 l0

5.10 The maximum and minimum dry unit weightsof a sand were determined in
the laboratory to be 104 lb/fc and 93 lb/ft3, respectively.what would be the
relative compaction in the field if the relative density is 78Y"?
5.11 The maximum and minimum dry unit weights of a sand were determined in
the laboratory to be 16.5 kN/m3 and 14.6 kN/m3, respectively.In the field, if
the relative density of compaction of the same sand is7O"/",what are its rela-
tive compaction (%) and dry unit weight (kN/m3)?
 References 197
5'12 The relative compaction of a sand in the
field is 94o/o.Themaximum ancl
minimum dry unit weights of the sand are 103lb/ft3
and ss tblrc, ."rp".-
tively.For the field condition, determine
a. Dry unit weight
b. Relative density of compaction
c. Moist unit weight at a moisture content of
l0%
5.13 Laboratory compaction test resultson
a crayeysilt are given in the fblrowing
table:

Moisture Dry unit

content (%) weight (kN/m3)

6 r4.80
u t7.45
9 1u..52
ll I u.9
t2 I fi.6
t4 16.9

Following arc the resurtsof a field unit weight

determination test on the
s a m es o i l w i t h t h e s a n dc o n e m c t h o d :
. C a l i b r a t e dd r y d c n s i r y
o l O t t a w a s a n d : 1 6 6 7k g / m 3
o calibrated mass.,f ottawa
sanclto fill the cone : 0. l r 7 kg
. Mass of jar * cone + sand (before
use) : 5.99 kg
. M a s so f j a r * c o n e + s a n d
( a l t e r u s e ) - 2 . t i 1k g
. Mass of moist soil from
hole : 3.33I ks
. M o i s l u r cc o n t c n to l m o i s t
soil _ | I.by,
Determine
a. Dry unit weight of compaction in the fielcl
b. Relative compaction in the field
5.14 The backfill matcrial fbr a vibrollotation project
has the following grain
sizes:
. D r , , : 0 . 1 Im m
. D z , t : 0 .l 9 m m
. D s , : 1 . 3m m
Determine the suitability number, S1u, for each
5.15 Repeat Prcblem -5.14using the followins
values:
D , , , : 0 . 0 9m m
D1, : 0.25 mm
D 1 , : 0 . 6I m m

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TRaNspoR.rATroN
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AveRrceN S.cre'v poR TesrrNcro"o irot..nrnr-s (1999).
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WestConshohocken. pa.
138 Chapter 5 Soil ComPaction

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