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Advanced
Drilling
Engineering

Principles and Designs

G. Robello Samuel, Ph.D.

Xiushan Liu, Ph.D.

Houston, Texas
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Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Authors xix

Chapter 1 General Introduction 1

Summary and Organization 1
Overview, Concepts, and Definitions 4
Tangent-Normal-Binormal (TNB) Frame 8
Frenet-Serret Formulas 9
Curvature and Torsion 10
Curvature 10
Torsion 11
Classification 12
Rotational Vector 13
Rotation Index 13
Path versus Trajectory 14
Transition Curves 14
Covariance and Covariance Matrix 14
Splines 15
Supplementary Problems 16
References 18

Chapter 2 Geodesy 19
Ellipsoid and Geoid 19
Types of Coordinates 24
Easting and Northing 27

vii
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Families of Map Projections 27

Principal Types of Projections 27
Cylindrical Projections 29
Mercator Projection 29
Transverse Mercator Projection 30
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 31
Conic Projection 31
Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) Projection 31
Azimuthal (Planar) Projection 31
Datum 33
Geodetic Transformation 35
Grid North and True North 36
Magnetic Reference and Interference 36
Projection Calculations 40
Transverse Mercator Projection 40
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 41
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 42
Polar Azimuthal Equidistant Projection 44
Supplementary Problems 45
References 48

Chapter 3 Well Path Trajectory 49

Basic Definitions 50
Inclination Angle 50
Azimuth Angle 50
Measured Depth 50
True Vertical Depth 51
Kick-Off Point 51
Turn-Off Point 51
Build-Rate Angle 51
Drop-Rate Angle 51
Turn-Rate Angle 51
Lead Angle (LA) 51
Survey Station 52
Departure 52
Closure 52
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Closure Azimuth 52
Course Length 52
Tie-In Points 52
Toolface Angle 54
Plots and Coordinate Systems 54
Graphical Representation of a Well Path 54
Well Trajectory Coordinate Systems 62
Borehole Curvature and Torsion 65
Moving Frame 66
Borehole Bending 71
Average Curvature 76
Borehole Turning 78
Torsion Angle 78
Models for Well Path Trajectories 82
2D Mechanical Models 82
2D Mathematical Models 90
3D Well Path Models 97
Supplementary Problems 114
References 119

Chapter 4 Well Path Planning—2D 123

Directional Wells 124
Horizontal Wells 132
Horizontal Arch Design 133
Horizontal Ladder (Staircase) Design 135
Planning the Well Path Just Before Targets 141
Slight-Build Transition Well Path 146
Case of Uncertainty in the Position of the
Reservoir Top 151
Extended-Reach Wells 151
Catenary Profile 155
Parabolic Profile 158
Clothoid Profile 161
Supplementary Problems 164
References 170
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Chapter 5 Well Path Planning—3D 173

Multilateral Wells 174
Conventional Model 174
Azimuth or Azimuth/Inclination Correction 174
Toolface Angle Calculation 184
Complex Models 187
Cubic-Type Wells 187
Spline-in-Tension–Type Wells 200
Sidetracking Wells 210
Wells Bypassing Obstructions 219
Bit-Walk Wells 238
Clothoid-Inserted 3D Wells 243
Supplementary Problems 243
References 247

Chapter 6 Well Trajectory Monitoring 249

Azimuth Conversion 249
Geomagnetic Field and Declination 250
Azimuth Conversion Methods 256
Well Survey Calculations 258
Data Processing 258
Typical Calculation Methods 260
Summary of Methods 272
The Real Shape of a Well Trajectory 273
Curve Structure Method 279
Accurate Calculation Method 282
Trajectory Deviation 288
Projection Plot Method 289
Normal Plane Scanning 292
Off-Target Distance 295
Target Distinction 302
Supplementary Problems 303
References 304

Chapter 7 Anti-Collision and Error Analysis 307

Anti-Collision 308
Collision Avoidance 314
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Rule-Based Collision Avoidance 314

Separation Factor Collision Avoidance 315
Risk-Based Collision Avoidance 318
Pedal Curve 326
Normal Probability Distribution for Risk Level 326
Anti-Collision Plots 329
Tortuosity 331
Methods for Applying Continuous Tortuosity
to a Well Path 331
Calibration of Tortuosity Factors 336
Absolute and Relative Tortuosity 337
Discussion of Multiple Hits 338
Bias-Type Errors 340
Modeling Uncertainty 340
Determining the Size and Shape 341
Covariance Matrix 344
Collision Risk 347
Supplementary Problems 348
References 349

Chapter 8 Well Path Optimization 351

Derivative Analysis 351
Optimization of Total Strain Energy of the
Well Path 353
Length Optimization for Horizontal Wells 354
Horizontal Well Length 354
Placement and Length of Horizontal Section 358
Completion Design 359
Number of Wells 360
Length and Direction of Horizontal Section 361
General Utility Planning Methods 365
Universal Arc Profile 365
Characteristic Parameters and Constraint
Equations 367
Universal Method for Planning Various
Well Paths 368
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Numerical Design Method 369

Analytical Design Method 370
Smoothening the Path 374
Clothoid Curve 376
Curvature Bridging 379
Well Path Optimization with Cubic Function 380
Well Path Optimization with SiT Method 384
Bit-Walk Unit Partition Based on Rock Strata 384
Supplementary Problems 387
References 388

Chapter 9 Measurement Tools 391

Survey Tools 391
Classification of Survey Tools 392
Magnetic Survey Tools 392
Gyro Survey Tools 395
MWD Tools 404
Telemetry System 406
Through-Bit Logging 411
Rotary Steerable Tools 412
Hollow Whipstock 414
Downhole Deflection Tools 415
Supplementary Problem 416
References 417

Chapter 10 Solid Expansion Technology in Complex

Well Construction 419
Expansion Technology 420
The Expansion Process 420
Expansion Force and Pressures 423
Expansion Effects on Material Properties 424
Expandable Connectors 426
Expansion Techniques 427
Hydroforming Expansion 427
Cone Expansion 427
Compliant Rotary Expansion 429
Expansion Direction 429
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Expansion Systems 431

Solid Expandable Systems for the Cased Hole 431
Solid Expandable Systems for the Open Hole 433
Using Expansion Technology 437
Conditions Mitigated with Expansion Technology 437
Increasing Production 439
Drilling Longer Wells 440
Traversing Depleted Formations to Reach
New Horizons 440
Downsizing Wells or Preserving Hole Size
While Addressing Drilling Hazards 441
Casing Exit from an Existing Completion 442
Advantages of Solid Expansion Technology 442
Solid Expandable System Limitations 443
Application of Solid Expandables to
Complex Wells 444
Complex Wells in Tight Economic Environments 445
Subsalt Rubble Zones 451
Extended-Reach Drilling Wells 456
Multiple and Added Contingencies 457
Tight Drilling Margins 463
Supplementary Problems 466
Bibliography 467

Chapter 11 Directional, Horizontal, and Multilateral

Well Economics 469
Well Planning Considerations 469
Time Value of Money 470
Economic Parameters 471
Price Elasticity 475
Ranges of Elasticity 476
Risk Analysis in Directional, Horizontal,
and Multilateral Well Developments 476
Capital Expenditure Reductions 479
Reserves Additions 481
Real-Options Valuation 481
Other Methods of Cost Estimation 483
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Neural Network–Based Cost Estimation 484

Support-Vector Machine–Based Cost Estimation 487
Econometrics 491
References 491

Appendix Useful Conversion Factors 493

Index 497