1

Well Completion Design

Types of completion
Openhole completions
Uncemented liner completions
Perforated completions
Completions for pumping wells
Single-string flowing well completions
Multizone completions
Reduced diameter or "tubingless" completions
Subsea completions
Completion selection and design criteria
Functional and well service requirements
Drilling considerations
Specifications and regulations
Feasibility
Recommendations

1.1 Types of Completion

BASIC COMPLETION CATEGORIES

There is a significant diversity in the type of completions being used around the
world. However, in general there are variations on a few basic designs. The most
common criteria for classifying completions include:

1. The interface between the wellbore and reservoir

• openhole completions
• uncemented liner completions
• perforated completions

2. Production method

• pumping
• flowing

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3. Number of zones to be completed

• single zone
• multiple zones

Table 1.1 outlines the general completion categories from this perspective.

Table 1.1 – Completion categories based on production method and zones completed.

PUMPING FLOWING

SINGLE ZONE
Well Types Well Types
• oil wells • gas wells
• wet gas wells • high-pressure oil wells
• gas lift oil wells
Pump Types • injection wells
• rod
• submersible Variations
• hydraulic • temporary completions
• plunger • tubingless completions
• high-rate completions (large size tubing)
• high-pressure zones
• liner with polished bore receptacle

MULTIPLE ZONES
A few multiple zones completions
include one or more pumps in
parallel strings of tubing
Well Types
Same as above, although multiple gas lift strings
in a single well can be difficult. High-pressure gas
wells are often singles for safety reasons.
Multiple-zone injection wells are not common.

Variations
• tubingless completions
• commingled zones
• concentric strings
• parallel strings

Single-zone completions include downhole commingling of production from several

intervals and may be designed to allow sequential development of successive
reservoirs. Multizone completions include not only the separation of various zones but
also segregation of individual sand units within a thick pay section for reservoir
control purposes.

Beyond these major classifications, the completion complexity is largely a function of

the problems encountered and the prevailing economic constraints. We shall look at
each of these basic categories in more detail.

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1.1.1 Openhole Completions

In thick reservoir sections of relatively competent rock type, openhole or "barefoot"

completions are often used. This is the oldest form of well completion, dating back to
the cable tool drilling days. Figure 1.1 illustrates how the production casing is set in
the cap rock above or just into the top of the pay zone, while the bottom of the hole is
left uncased. Often, this final drilling of the pay zone is carried out with special
nondamaging drilling fluids or an underbalanced mud column.

PRODUCTION CASING

Fig. 1.1 – Openhole or “barefoot” completion.

The advantages of openhole completions are:

• The entire pay zone is open to the wellbore;

• There is no perforating expense;
• Log interpretation is not critical since the entire interval is open to flow;
• Drawdown can be reduced because of the large inflow area;
• There is a slightly reduced casing cost;
• The well may be easily deepened;
• The completion can be easily converted to a liner or perforated casing
completion;
• Because there is no cementation, there is no risk of formation damage being
caused by the cement.

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Openhole completions are particularly attractive where it is difficult to identify the net
pay within the gross completion interval (e.g., alternating thin, sandy/silty sequences
or naturally fractured reservoirs); or where severe filtrate losses can lead to deep
damage (e.g., as in high permeability carbonates).

Some of the disadvantages and limitations of openhole completions are:

• Excessive gas-oil and/or water-oil ratios cannot normally be controlled (except

in the case of bottom water) because the entire interval is open to flow;
• The casing may need to be set before the pay is drilled or logged;
• Well control during the completion may be more difficult;
• The technique is not acceptable for layered formations consisting of separate
reservoirs with incompatible fluid properties;
• Separate zones within the completion interval cannot easily be selectively
fractured or acidised;
• This completion will require frequent clean-outs if the producing sands are not
completely competent or if the shoulder of the cap rock between the shoe and
top of the pay is not stable.

1.1.2 Uncemented Liner Completions

To overcome the problems of collapsing sands plugging the production system, the
early oil producers placed slotted pipe or screens across the openhole section acting as
a downhole sand filter (Fig. 1.2). The use of uncemented liners as a method of sand
control remains popular today in some areas. Such completions have the following
advantages:

• No formation damage due to completion work,

• No perforation required,
• Log interpretation is not critical,
• Easy to control sand production,
• Adaptable to other special technique to control sand,
• Cleanout problem can be avoided,
• Deepening of the well can be accomplished easily.

In the simplest and oldest form, slotted pipe is run into the openhole. The slots are cut
small enough that the produced sands bridge off on the opening rather than passing
through. For very fine sands, the slots cannot be cut small enough so wire-wrapped
screen or sintered bronze is used. This technique is a reasonably effective sand control
method in uniform coarse sands with little or no fine particles. Sometimes this is the
only sand control system that can be used, because of pressure loss and placement
considerations (e.g., in unconsolidated heavy oil sands).

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PRODUCTION CASING

SCREEN AND LINER

ASSEMBLY

Fig. 1.2 – Screen and liner completion.

However, the uncemented liner completion is no longer generally recommended for

the following disadvantages:

• Sand movement into the wellbore tends to cause permeability impairment by

the intermixing of sand sizes, and of sand and shale particles;
• Fine formation sands tend to plug the slots or the screen;
• At high rates, the screen often erodes as formation sand moves into the
wellbore;
• Poor support of the formation can cause shale layers to collapse and plug the
slots or the screen;
• Formation failure can cause the liner itself to collapse.

To overcome these problems, the annulus between the openhole and the screen is
often filled with graded, coarse sand. The sand or "gravel" acts to support the
openhole section and prevent formation sand movement by causing it to screen out
against the packed gravel.

This type of uncemented liner completion is generally referred to as external gravel

pack; it will be discussed in more detail in CHAPTER 5 - SAND CONTROL. To
improve productivity and gravel placement, the openhole section is often
underreamed, or enlarged several inches beyond its original diameter. This process
may also remove some of the drilling fluid damage.

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1.1.3 Perforated Completions

By far the most common type of completion today involves cementing the production
casing (or liner) through the pay zone(s), and subsequently providing communication
with the formation by perforating holes through the casing and cement (Figs. 1.3 and
1.4). These perforations are designed to penetrate any damaged zone around the
original wellbore and to create a clean conduit within the undamaged formation. If the
well is cased and unperforated during the early stages of the completion operation,
well control is easier and completion costs may be reduced.

PRODUCTION CASING

Fig. 1.3 – Perforated casing completion.

Using various depth control techniques, one can decide precisely which sections of
pay should be perforated and opened to flow, thereby, avoiding undesired fluids (gas,
water), weak zones that might produce sand, and unproductive sections or shale
barriers.

This selectivity, which is completely dependent on a good cement job and adequate
perforating, also allows a single wellbore to produce several separate reservoirs
without their being in communication. This is done by setting isolating packers within
an unperforated section of the pipe. Selective perforation can also be used to control
the flow from, or stimulation of, various parts of the pay. By shutting off or partially
plugging selected perforations, injected fluids (water, stimulation fluids or cement)
can be diverted into less permeable zones.

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PRODUCTION CASING

LINER

Fig. 1.4 – Perforated liner completion.

A reduction in well control problems may be achieved by the ability to set casing at
TD rather than completing the well openhole. Moreover, the decision to set
production casing can be deferred until the openhole logs of the prospective pay
zone(s) have been evaluated, substantially reducing the dry-hole costs if the hole is
dry.

In summary, the advantages of cased and perforated completions include:

• Safer operations,
• More informed selection of the zones to be completed,
• Reduced sensitivity to drilling damage,
• Facilitation of selective stimulation,
• Possibility of multizone completions,
• Reduced dry-hole costs,
• Easier planning of completion operations.

This type of completion is generally used unless there is a specific reason to prefer an
openhole or uncemented liner completion. Even where sand control is planned,
perforated completions with internal gravel packs have become the norm for light-oil
and gas developments because of the flexibility provided.

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Perforated casing or liner completion, however, has the following disadvantages:

• Wellbore diameter through pay zone is restricted specially for liner

completion,
• Log interpretation is critical,
• Good quality liner cement job is difficult to obtain,
• Additional costs are involved due to perforation work, additional cement work
and rig time,
• Formation damage caused by cementing and perforation work.

1.1.4 Completions for Pumping Wells

Pumping wells are generally completed with an open annulus through which the gas
is bled off at the surface. All pumping systems (except plunger lift) become
increasingly inefficient in the presence of gas.

ROD PUMPING
Failure to anchor the tubing in rod pumping installations decreases the efficiency
of the pump because of tubing stretch, and can result in rod or tubing wear
because of buckling (Fig. 1.5). However, a tubing anchor may not be necessary
where clearances between casing and tubing are small (less than 0.3 in. or 0.76
cm), provided the pump is modified accordingly. Shallow wells (< 3000 ft or 900
m) often are not equipped with tubing anchors.

FLUID LEVEL

TUBING ANCHOR

PUMP SEATING NIPPLE

Fig. 1.5 – Single-completion – Pumping well.

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SUBMERSIBLE PUMPING
The casing size is a critical limit to the installation of submersible pumps (Fig.
1.6). It is also important that the downhole configuration provides adequate
cooling of the pump motor with production. Particular attention should be paid to
protecting the electrical cable that carries power to the pump.

CABLE

PUMP

INTAKE

PROTECTOR

MOTOR

Fig. 1.6 – Submersible pump well.

HYDRAULIC PUMPING
A number of tubing configurations are used for hydraulic pumps (single string,
dual-string, multi-string) to handle power oil and produced fluids, to separate gas,
or to isolate casing from corrosion. Probably the most common is the casing-free
pump (Fig. 1.7) in which the tubing is used for power oil supply and the produced
fluids are lifted up the annulus. This is the one pump installation that requires a
packer to isolate the production interval.

TUBING

HOUSING

PUMP

PUMP SEATING
NIPPLE

STANDING VALVE

Fig. 1.7 – Hydraulic pump well.

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PLUNGER LIFT PUMPING

Plunger lift units can be installed relatively easy into open-ended tubing (Fig. 1.8).
An open annulus is required to store gas energy to operate the plunger.

TUBING

PLUNGER

SEAT

Fig. 1.8 – Plunger lift well.

GAS LIFT PUMPING

In gas lift wells, gas is fed into the tubing through valves installed in mandrels
located in the tubing string. Hydrostatic head is lowered and flow of oil to the
surface is assisted by gas (Fig. 1.9).

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GAS LIFT MANDRELS

GAS IN CASING/TUBING
ANNULUS

Fig. 1.9 – Gas lift well.

1.1.5 Single-String Flowing Well Completions

Single-string flowing well includes:

1. Flowing well - casing and tubing flow

2. Flowing well - casing flow
3. Flowing well - tubing flow

FLOWING WELL – CASING AND TUBING FLOW (Fig. 1.10)

Flow is up both the casing and tubing string. Flow potential is lower than possible
via unrestricted casing flow but capability still exists for high flow rates. Tubing
string can be used as a kill string and for chemical injection. The "no-go" nipple
provides a means of pressure testing the tubing.

Flowing wells that are equipped with a single tubing string may be completed
with (Fig. 1.11) or without a packer. Many wells that are equipped for pumping
are temporarily produced by natural flow. The main problem with flowing a well
without a packer is the possibility of heading, a condition caused by the large
volume of highly compressible gas stored in the annulus. Heading can result in
alternating slugs of liquids and gas being produced up the tubing.

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PRODUCTION TUBING

TEST SUB, "NO-GO" NIPPLE, ETC.

Fig. 1.10 – Casing and tubing flow.

PRODUCTION TUBING

PACKER

TEST SUB, "NO-GO" NIPPLE, ETC.

Fig. 1.11 – Single-tubing string completion with a packer.

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FLOWING WELL – CASING FLOW (Fig. 1.12)

Flow is up the casing and unrestricted by tubing or packers. This completion
approach would be restricted to wells capable of producing at extremely high rates
at low to medium flowing and closed in pressures.

Tubingless completions are a particularly low-cost installation method used in

marginal flow operations, such as low-rate gas developments. While they are also
used in high gas-oil-ratio oil fields, problems develop when artificial lift is
required. Hollow sucker rod pumps or small diameter "macaroni" gas injection
tubing strings must be installed. Minor liquid build-up in gas wells can usually be
easily blown out of the well with flexible small diameter tubing.

PRODUCTION CASING

Fig. 1.12 – Casing flow.

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FLOWING WELL – TUBING FLOW (Fig. 1.13)

Both tubing string and production packer are installed. Maximum potential flow
rate is restricted in comparison to casing or casing-tubing flow.

FLOW COUPLING

SELECTIVE LANDING NIPPLE

CIRCULATING SLEEVE

PRODUCTION PACKER

TEST SUB or "NO-GO" NIPPLE

Fig. 1.13 – Tubing flow.

Packer installation may be required for casing protection and subsurface well
control. The "no-go" nipple can be used for bottom hole choke, regulator, or
safety valve service. The landing nipple would be run specifically for flow control
device installation. The flow coupling is positioned above or above and below the
landing nipple to absorb erosion due to turbulence and abrasion. The primary use
of the circulating sleeve is to displace the tubing with a low density fluid after
installation of the well head.

An unperforated reservoir is illustrated as an alternate completion interval for

future plugback. It can be opened to the wellbore by wireline or concentric tubing
methods without disturbing the existing production setting.

In some cases, a small diameter, concentric "kill string" is used to circulate fluids
to kill the well when required (Fig. 1.14). Two strings of tubing also are run
externally to each other and connected downhole by means of a circulating head
(Fig. 1.15).

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KILL STRING

Fig. 1.14 – Single completion with concentric high-pressure kill string.

FC

LN

FC

FC

LN

FC

CIRCULATING HEAD

Fig. 1.15 – Completion with extra tubing string for chemical injection.

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This design is found in wells subject to sulphur, salt, and scale plugging problems.
Chemicals can be circulated down either string while producing up the other.

For high-rate, low-pressure flowing wells, a production packer and tubing safety
valve are installed at some shallow depth in the well (Fig. 1.16). Flow proceeds up
the tubing and annulus to a point below the packer, enters the tubing through a
ported nipple, flows through the packer and valve, and then again continues up
both the tubing and annulus by means of a second ported nipple.

HYDRAULIC CONTROL LINE

FLOW COUPLING

SELECTIVE LANDING
FC NIPPLE
LN
PORTED NIPPLE

TUBING INTEGRAL SAFETY

VALVE

LN
POLISHED NIPPLE

Fig. 1.16 – Single completion – High-rate, low-pressure flowing well.

The complexity of tubing and packer installations depends on the functional

requirements and economic considerations. Since a number of useful features can
be installed at very low incremental cost, the designer should consider these
options and possibilities:

• Simplification of the completion and future workover operations;

• The optimum tubing size for maximum long term flow rate;
• Future artificial lift needs;
• A "bomb" well for future bottomhole pressure surveys;
• Use of a permanent packer and tailpipe to protect the formation during
workovers or to facilitate "killing" the well;

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• The need for moving seals and/or a slip joint to accommodate tubing
elongation and contraction caused by thermal stresses;
• Anchoring the tubing to the packer;
• Availability of a downhole circulation sleeve for removing or adding fluid
to the tubing (kick-off or killing operations);
• The need for downhole corrosion inhibitor injection;
• An additional packer and nipple between sets of perforations for future
recompletion operations;
• Use of tubing-conveyed perforating gun and/or through-tubing guns for
underbalanced perforating to improve completion efficiency.

For single-tubing-string liner completions (Fig. 1.17), a polished bore receptacle

in the liner hanger is often used in place of a packer. This is simply a polished
internal section at the top of the liner, into which the tubing string is inserted,
much as it would be into a packer. This is useful both for deep wells where
tubing/casing clearances are often small and for very high productivity wells
where the use of a packer might cause a restriction on well productivity. In this
type of completion, it is useful to incorporate a landing nipple in the liner string
for future isolation of the producing zone via wireline.

PRODUCTION TUBING

CASING

POLISHED BORE RECEPTACLE

PERFORATED LINER

Fig. 1.17 – Single-tubing-string liner completion.

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1.1.6 Multizone Completions

For multizone completions, the key issue is whether it is desirable to produce more
than one zone at a time. When a well encounters multiple pay zones, a decision must
be made either to

• produce the zones individually, one after another, through a single tubing
string;
• complete the well with multiple tubing strings and produce several zones
simultaneously;
• commingle several zones in a single completion; or
• produce only one zone from that particular well, and drill additional wells for
the other accumulations.

This decision must be based on an economic comparison of the alternatives.

Multiple zone completions include:

1. Single string with multizone completions.

2. Crossover dual completion - single string.
3. Dual string completion.
4. Triple completion.
5. Multistring tubingless completions.

SINGLE STRING WITH MULTIZONE OR ALTERNATE COMPLETIONS

In a single well with alternate completion (Fig. 1.18), the alternate zone is
perforated on initial completion, but isolated between packers. It is placed on
production when the lower zone is depleted by perforating the tubing opposite the
alternate perforations.

A "blast joint" section is indicated as optional equipment. Blast joints are thick-
walled subs used for abrasion resistance opposite producing perforations. They
would not normally be installed in an alternate completion of the type illustrated.

DUAL COMPLETION – SINGLE-PACKER, SINGLE-TUBING STRING (Fig. 1.19)

Production of the lower zone is up the tubing; upper-zone flow is up the casing-
tubing annulus.

The primary advantage to this technique is reduced cost. There are, however,
several disadvantages. For one thing, only the lower zone can be artificially lifted.
In addition, the production casing is exposed to well pressure and corrosive fluids.
Solids settling from the upper zone can stick the tubing string. It is necessary to
kill the lower zone before working over the upper interval.

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FLOW COUPLING

SELECTIVE LANDING NIPPLE

UPPER PROD. PACKER

BLAST NIPPLE

CIRCULATION SLEEVE - CLOSED

LN
SELECTIVE LANDING NIPPLE

LOWER PROD. PACKER

Fig. 1.18 – Single well with alternate completion.

FC
LN
FC

BJ

LN

Fig. 1.19 – Two zones – Single-packer, single-tubing string dual completion.

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CROSSOVER DUAL COMPLETION – SINGLE-TUBING STRING (Fig. 1.20)

With this design, it is possible to produce either zone up the tubing by utilization
of a crossover or regular flow choke.

This technique retains the disadvantages of casing exposure, plus inability to

workover the upper zone without killing the lower. However, it does permit
selectivity as to which zone is produced up the annulus.

FC
LN
FC

FC CROSS OVER CHOKE or

REGULAR FLOW CHOKE

BJ

LN

Fig. 1.20 – Two zones – Two-packer, single-tubing string. Tubing/casing crossover dual
completion.

DUAL COMPLETION – PRORATED FLOW, SINGLE-TUBING STRING (Fig. 1.21)

Proration control is accomplished by regulating flow from each zone through
specifically sized orifices within the dual flow choke. The dual flow streams are
then commingled in the tubing above the choke.

An upper packer is shown as optional, but recommended, equipment. This device

prevents exposure of the casing to well pressure and corrosive fluids.

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With this completion design, flow from the weaker zone will be "assisted" by flow
from the stronger zone. In addition, both zones can be artificially lifted
simultaneously up the same string of tubing. However, proration control by this
method is not permitted in certain states. Also, sand production creates orifice
erosion and plugging problems.

FC
LN
FC

FC

DUAL FLOW CHOKE

BJ

LN

Fig. 1.21 – Two zones in one tubing string – Simultaneous prorated flow dual completion.

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PARALLEL DUAL COMPLETION (Fig. 1.22)

Separate flow from each zone is maintained by use of two tubing strings and two
packers. Either zone can receive selective artificial lift or concentric remedial
attention. Proration control is more positive. This design is adaptable to special
techniques of sand control.

The primary disadvantage of this technique is its higher initial cost. Also,
workovers that require removal of the existing production equipment setting can
be very expensive.

FC
LN
FC FC
LN
FC

LN

BJ

LN

Fig. 1.22 – Two zones, two packers – Two-tubing strings dual “parallel” dual completion.

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PARALLEL DUAL WITH TWO ALTERNATE COMPLETIONS (Fig. 1.23)

Alternate completions are installed in both the long-string and short-string
completions.

FC FC
LN LN UPPER DUAL
FC FC PRODUCTION PACKER

BJ BJ

LOWER DUAL
LN
PRODUCTION PACKER

BJ

LN UPPER SINGLE
PRODUCTION PACKER

BJ

LOWER SINGLE
LN PRODUCTION PACKER

Fig. 1.23 – Dual well with two alternate completions.

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TRIPLE COMPLETION (Fig. 1.24)

This design can be accomplished using either two or three tubing strings and
packers. It yields high total daily production per wellbore and generally improved
well-cost payout. However, triple completions are difficult to install and are
susceptible to communication problems.

FC
FC LN
LN FC
FC FC
LN
FC

LN TRIPLE PACKER

BJ BJ

LN LN DUAL PACKER

BJ

LN

SINGLE PACKER

Fig. 1.24 – Triple completion – Three zones (2 or 3 packers, 2 or 3 tubing strings).

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1.1.7 Reduced Diameter or "Tubingless" Completions

Reduced diameter single completions are essentially just miniaturized versions of

conventional configurations. Multiple tubingless completions are a more modified
approach.

Reduced diameter completions represent an attempt by the industry to lower

completion investment costs. Since approximately 1950 a limited degree of interest
had been directed toward development of miniaturized equipment for concentric
workovers. However, widespread interest in this concept was stimulated by the
recession following the 1956 Suez Crisis.

Major advantages are:

1. Reduced completion cost.

2. Multiple completions less difficult to install.
3. Wells can be worked over selectively

Major limitations of this completion are:

1. Lower maximum potential productivity.

2. Lower maximum potential stimulation rate.
3. Paraffin, scale and corrosion problems more critical.
4. Difficulty experienced in obtaining good primary cement job.

Typical completion configurations can be categorised:

1. Single flowing well,

2. Potential single and completion variations and
3. Triple completions.

SINGLE FLOWING WELL (Fig. 1.25)

This is a miniaturized version of the basic "perforated casing" category. The
integral landing nipple is used for safety valve service, as a pump seating nipple,
etc.

POTENTIAL SINGLE AND DUAL COMPLETION VARIATIONS (Fig. 1.26)

A combination of potential tubingless completion variations is possible within the
framework illustrated: single flowing well, dual flowing well, single artificial lift
well, unperforated and perforated alternate completions, etc.

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LN

Fig. 1.25 – Single tubingless completion – Flowing well.

MACARONI

GAS LIFT
MANDRELS

BJ

LN

Fig. 1.26 – Various design possibilities for tubingless completions.

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TRIPLE COMPLETION (Fig. 1.27)

This configuration is comparable to a conventional triple completion in which the
casing string has been deleted and the packers have been replaced by cement.

Single-string, multizone completions are often found to be preferable because in

dual tubing strings the casing size limits the diameter, which, in turn, limits the
flow rate obtainable through each string. Single-string completions may also be
used where segregation is required purely for reservoir control (e.g., in a case
where zones will be commingled at some stages, but shut in during other periods
because of high gas-oil ratio, high water cut, or for some other reasons). These
completions may also be used to minimise completion costs, which is also often
the reason for limiting the size of the production casing.

Fig. 1.27 – Triple tubingless completion.

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1.1.8 Subsea Completions

Although more than 300 subsea completions have been installed in various parts of
the world, the majority has been simple shallow water operations, developmental
installations, or involved only a small number of wells to exploit marginal fields or
outlying accumulations. The Shell/Esso Underwater Manifold Centre (UMC) on the
Central Cormorant Field in the North Sea is probably the first subsea operation aimed
at producing more than 100 million barrels of reserves under waterflood.

Subsea wells can be located a distance away from the main production platform
outside of the reach limitations for deviated wells (+10 000 ft at 8000 ft, or 3000 m at
2400 m). Their limitation is the pressure loss that occurs in the flow lines connecting
them to a producing facility. Early installation of artificial lift, particularly hydraulic
pumping or gas lift, can minimise the effect of longer flow lines. However, it is
important to realise that these subsea flow lines are subject to substantial cooling by
seawater, which often results in poor oil flow properties. In the case of deep
reservoirs, however, vertical subsea wells can be cheaper than highly deviated
platform wells. Total subsea developments in combination with floating production
facilities are becoming increasingly popular as a method of developing marginal
offshore fields.

The main problem with subsea wells is the difficulty and cost of access for well
servicing. Historically, the main problem has been the servicing of subsurface safety
valve (SSSV). Two new developments considerably ease this problem: the availability
of long-service-life tubing retrievable subsurface safety valves (TRSSSV) and
accessories, and through flow line (TFL) servicing.

TFL servicing involves the modification of wireline tools so that they can be pumped
into the tubing via the flow line. Rather than manipulating the tools via a wireline,
operations of the tool string can be performed by varying the pump pressure on the
tools after they are pumped down the well. The main requirement for this type of well
servicing is two conduits (either two tubing strings or a tubing and annulus) (Fig.
1.28). Special tools are required since they must be able to pass through a 5-ft (1.5 m)
radius bend at the wellhead. Surface facilities must also be designed to conform to
these specifications. More than 160 TFL completions have been installed to date, of
which 35 are in subsea producers. Since force transmission is more positive and less
restricted with fluid pressure than with wireline, TFL can be more efficient and
therefore is being used for servicing some difficult land wells and highly-deviated
offshore platform wells.

Full TFL capabilities are currently only proven for tubing sizes of up to 3½" (89 mm),
with some 4½" (114 mm) systems having been land tested. A limited amount of
testing has been carried out on 5½" (140 mm) tools.

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Fig. 1.28 – A complex multizone TFL subsea completion.

1.2 Completion Selection and Design Criteria

As well as varying with production method (Table 1.1), well completion designs will
vary significantly with

• Gross production rate,

• Well pressure and depth,
• Rock properties,
• Fluid properties and
• Well location.

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Typical ranges for various classes and design implications are presented in Table 1.2.
Given the variety of production conditions around the world, definition of the
thresholds is naturally somewhat nebulous (a low production rate in a Middle Eastern
well would be considered a very respectable rate in many North American fields).
However, this table gives a general idea of the range of design considerations.

Table 1.2 – Typical ranges for various classes and design implications.

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1.2.1 Functional and Well Service Requirements

Definition of functional and well servicing requirements at the outset can

considerably simplify selection of preliminary completion concepts and will highlight
key tradeoffs needing further evaluation. Table 1.3 is a checklist for identifying
critical concerns for a completion design, it illustrates the use of such a checklist in
designing a specific subsea oilwell. The completion engineer relies on experience and
judgment to prepare the initial input at the concept stage. However, as development
plans become more clearly defined, it is often possible to quantify the requirements
based on the results of the initial wells or of detailed design or field studies.

Table 1.3 – Subsea oilwell functional requirements.

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It is important for the completion design engineer to have some appreciation for the
relative impact of production revenue, capital costs and operating costs on project
economics. In a high tax environment they are usually in the order of importance
listed above, with the revenue stream being the most critical. Installation costs are
only significant to the extent that special completion requirements have a significant
impact on the overall drilling and completion time. The actual cost of the completion
equipment is often relatively insignificant compared to the value of incremental
production from improved potential or increased uptime. However, production
engineers must not take this argument too far. It is important to remember that, in
most cases, downtime only results in deferred production (an exception is the case of
competitive production along lease lines). Nevertheless, for subsea developments in
hostile environments, it is reasonable to assume that a premium can be paid for
minimising the frequency of reentry and for equipment reliability and durability.

To a large extent, reservoir, geological, and economic considerations will dictate the
functional requirements of a completion and the relative significance of major and
minor workovers. These requirements have to be anticipated at an early stage since
the techniques to be employed (wireline, service rig reentry, TFL, coiled tubing, etc.)
are limited by the tubing design and packer/tubing configurations of the completion.

The completion design of a well is also influenced by the well service requirements.
As shown in Fig. 1.29, the general term "well servicing" covers a broad range of
activities, which can be broken down into five major functions:

1. Routine monitoring
2. Wellhead and flow line servicing
3. Minor workovers (through-tubing operations)
4. Major workovers (tubing-pulling operations)
5. Emergency situations

While to some extent these apply to all oil and gas developments, their relative
importance, frequency, complexity and cost depend on:

• reservoir conditions,
• governmental regulations,
• operating philosophy and
• geographic and environmental considerations.

For example, it should be self-evident that the options for reentry of subsea wells in
deep waters are limited and expensive. This is true to a certain extent for any offshore
well. The designer must therefore look carefully at the functions that can be built into
the completion and wellhead to minimise well service requirements.

As illustrated at the top of Fig. 1.29, it is probable that at least three different generic
types of service system will be involved: those with functions built into the producing
facilities, service units and workover rigs.

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Fig. 1.29 – Well service functions.

From a completion design viewpoint, it is also important to appreciate what

capabilities are already inherently available. For example, all wells have the potential
for "bull-heading" kill or pumping treatment fluids through the tubing, although it
becomes more difficult to control the operation and ensure an efficient displacement
as the tubing size and deviation increases. Similarly, with relatively shallow dry gas
wells, it should be possible to estimate the bottomhole pressure fairly accurately from

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tubing head pressure measurements, avoiding the need to run bottomhole surveys.
Another built-in function in all offshore wells is the ability to achieve a subsurface
shutoff using government-regulation-required subsurface safety valve.

As completion designs become more sophisticated, they can provide an increased

number of integrated service functions, up to the ultimate multizone, full TFL
completion with downhole pressure monitoring capability. The economic and
technical justifications for this type of completion must be based on a detailed
functional analysis of the reservoir, completion lifetime, and well service economics.
Moreover, increased sophistication also introduces higher risks of completion
problems or subsequent failures, requiring improved quality control and materials
selection.

1.2.2 Drilling Considerations

Several drilling considerations can influence the type of completion installed,

particularly for exploration and delineation wells. Conversely, completion
considerations will help determine drilling practices in development and infill wells.
Factors to be considered include

• Probable extent of drilling damage and the resulting requirements for special
perforating or stimulation techniques, or the selection of special drilling fluids,
or both.

• Evaluation program, particularly the need for pre-completion testing, to

determine if special logs or tools like the repeat formation tester (RFT) can
reduce testing requirements.

• Size and weight of the production casing. Table 1.4 illustrates the limitations
this imposes on the type of completion that can be installed. The heavyweight
tubular casing used in high-pressure wells has reduced drift diameters (internal
diameters, or IDs), which imposes limitations on the packers and accessories
that can be used. For example, the use of 7-in (178-mm) production casing
precludes the use of a dual tubing string with 2 7 8 x 2 7 8 -in (73 x 73-mm) or
larger tubing diameter. Depending on the production capacities and reserves of
the various producing zones, a single-string, multizone completion with larger
diameter tubing may be better.

• Burst and collapse strengths of the production casing. The casing must be able
to withstand the maximum closed-in tubing pressures in case of a tubing break
at surface. Similarly, if the well is to be pumped off with an open annulus, the
casing must have adequate collapse strength. Casing strength often dictates
stimulation design, kill procedures and selection of annulus pressure operated
tools.

• Wear or corrosion of the production casing must be evaluated in liner

completions, especially for deep wells and, if necessary, a tie-back string must
be installed. However, the use of a tie-back string may limit throughput
capacity by limiting the diameter of the production tubing.

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• In sour (H2S) environments, or where conditions could become sour,

production casing materials should conform to NACE specifications. This is
critical in deep, high-pressure wells where very small amounts of H2S can
result in a stress cracking risk.

• Couplings used on the production casing need to be carefully selected where

high differential pressures (> 5000 psi or > 34 MPa), high temperatures (>
300oF or > 422 K), or high compressional or tensional loads are expected (e.g.,
deep wells, high rate wells, thermal wells). Where a gas-tight seal is essential
(e.g., sour or high-pressure gas wells or wells with high-pressure gas-lift
systems), premium couplings are generally recommended.

• Proper cementation of the production casing is the key to successful zonal

isolation and avoidance of many production problems.

Table 1.4 – Effect of casing and tubing size on maximum theoretical capacity.

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1.2.3 Specifications and Regulations

In many well completion situations (e.g., high pressure wells, deep wells, sour gas
wells, and offshore and subsea completions), design options are constrained by
government regulations, company operating philosophies, and company design
specifications.

In addition, designers are expected to conform to the standards of "good oilfield

practice", which are often embodied in agreements and regulations. Generally, this is
interpreted to mean keeping the well under control with two lines of defence, so that a
single failure or human error will not cause serious injury or environmental damage.
Typical provisions for a moderate to high-pressure well are presented in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5 – Typical provisions of a two-barrier safety philosophy for a moderate to high-
pressure well.

1. During Production
a. Surface
• Internal: Xmas-tree wing and master valves and offshore Xmas tree and SSSV
• External: packer and wellhead
b. Subsurface: tubing and casing (check valve and casing for side pocket mandrel devices)

2. During Drilling and Workover

a. Surface
• Internal: mud/workover fluid and BOPs
• External: cement and wellhead
b. Subsurface: mud/workover fluid and casing/shoe strength

3. During Lifting BOPs/Xmas Tree

a. Surface
• Internal: two plugs or SSSV and plug
• External: packer and wellhead, including annular access shutoff via a valve, plugs, or
annular SSSV
b. Subsurface: (as in 1b)

4. Long-Term Suspension of Completed Well

a. Surface
• Internal: deep-set plug and SSSV
• External: deep-set plug and packer
b. Subsurface: (as in 1b)

5. Long-Term Suspension of Uncompleted Well

a. Surface
• Internal: two cement and/or bridge plugs
• External: (as in 2a – External)
b. Subsurface: plug and casing/shoe strength

6. Temporary Suspension of Uncompleted Well

a. Internal: (as in 5a – Internal); or casing/cement and a kill string/tubing hanger

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Even if the well has such low pressures that it tends to kill itself, wellsite personnel
should always be able to rely on a second line of defence (wellhead, BOP, etc.).
Switching off the artificial lift system or lift gas supply can sometimes be considered
a line of defence in pressure control, if this action would normally cause the well to
die.

The major design specifications commonly used by the oil industry worldwide are
those issued by the American Petroleum Institute (API). In general, the specifications
address the manufacture and testing of components; however, a number of Bulletins
and Recommended Practices address the performance that can be assumed for design
purposes and the procedures to be adopted in implementing that design. Materials
used in sour wells should conform to NACE Specification MR-01-75.

1.2.4 Feasibility
Most completion installations are equipped with off-the-shelf completion items that
have been proven by field usage or laboratory testing. However, in preparing
conceptual development plans for discoveries that are unlikely to come on-stream for
some time, the engineer must decide whether to consider only the equipment and
techniques that are currently deemed feasible, or to assume improvements in
technology that can reasonably be expected to become proven and available in the
interim. New environments require innovative thinking and techniques if high cost oil
and gas are to be economically developed.

In order to achieve a reasonably balanced solution to this dilemma, the engineering

departments of most operators adopt a philosophy of one-step-beyond; that is, they
will include potentially feasible concepts that go just one step further than those
currently in use (i.e., taking existing systems and applying them in a new environment
or more demanding role, or modifying present systems for old or new environments).
Completely new, potentially valuable concepts are often identified in the course of
such studies, but are generally not included in the conceptual plan until they have
been proved by feasibility studies, or field trials, or both.

1.2.5 Recommendations

• Evaluate different completion designs in the light of operating conditions. We

should emphasize that the range of conditions under which a well must operate
dictates which options may be considered from a variety of completion design
possibilities. Economics dictate which of these options is most suitable for a
particular situation.

• Identify the type of completion required. Completion designs may be categorized

according to several different characteristics (openhole, perforated, multizone,
single zone, pumping wells, flowing wells, etc.), but ultimately each completion
will be unique.

• Select the best completion on the basis of functional and service requirements.
Selecting the best completion design for a given situation requires that the
engineers consider the present and future performance of the well, the constraints
imposed by the drilling program, any applicable regulations and policies, and the
feasibility of new technology.

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• Maximize the productivity. We now address the subject of maximizing well

productivity, a topic of increasing importance when acceleration of production is
important to project economics.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are advantages and disadvantages of open-hole or “barefoot” completions?

2. Draw a diagram showing all essential components of a gas-lift well and explain how it
works.

3. A gas well with tubingless completion (i.e. casing flow) has been producing for a number
of years, but now has liquid-lifting problems. What would you do to resurrect the well?

4. To reduce completion costs, reduced diameter completions are sometimes used. But what
are major limitations of this type of completion?

5. As a completion engineer, what would you consider as critical issues that need to be
evaluated when designing a completion?

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