n i 0.

12
1 1.12
2 1.2544
3 1.404928
4 1.573519
5 1.762342
6 1.973823
Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler
by direct method with the data given below:
– Type of boiler : Coal fired
– Quantity of steam (dry) generated : 7 TPH
– Steam pressure (gauge) / temp : 8 kg/cm²(g)/ 150°C
– Quantity of coal consumed : 1.5 TPH
– Feed water temperature : 80 °C
– GCV of coal : 3250 kCal/kg
– Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm² pressure : 675 kCal/kg (saturated)
– Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kCal/kg

Boiler Efficiency (η) = 7 x (675 - 85) X 1000

x 100 = 0.8472
1.5 x 3250 x 1000
= 84.72%
 perhitungan
No.
10 Example: The following are the data collected for a typical oil fired boiler. Find out the efficiency of the boiler by indirec
• Type of boiler : Oil fired
• Ultimate analysis of Oil
C : 84%
H2 : 12%
S : 3%
O2 : 1%
• GCV of Oil : 10200 kCal/kg
• Steam Generation Pressure : 7 kg/cm2(g)-saturated
• Enthalpy of steam : 660 kCal/kg
• Feed water temperature : 60 °C
• Percentage of Oxygen in flue gas : 7
• Percentage of CO2 in flue gas : 11
• Flue gas temperature (Tf) : 220 °C
• Ambient temperature (Ta) : 27 °C
• Humidity of air : 0.018 kg/kg of dry air
• Cp spesific panas dari flue gas : 0.23 kCal/kg
• Cp Specific heat of superheated steam : 0.45 kCal/kg

Solution
Step-1: Find the theoretical air requirement
= [(11.6 x C )+{34.8 x (H2-O2/8)}+(4.35 x S)]/100 kg/kg of oil
= [(11.6 x 84)+{34.8 x (12-1/8)}+(4.35 x 3)]/100 kg/kg of oil
= 14 kg of air/kg of oil

Step-2: Find the %Excess air supplied

Excess air supplied (EA) = (O2 × 100)/(21-O2)
= (7 × 100)/(21-7)
= 50 %

Step-3: Find the Actual mass of air supplied

Actual mass of air supplied /kg of fuel (AAS) = [ 1 + EA/100] x Theoritical Air

= [1 + 50/100] x 14
= 1.5 x 14
 = 21 kg of air/kg of oil

Step-4: Estimation of all losses

i. Dry flue gas loss
Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =

m = mass of CO2 + mass of SO2 + mass of N2 + mass of O2

= [(11.6 × 84) + [{34.8 × (12 – 1/8)} + (4.35 × 3)]/100

m=
m= 21 kg / kg of oil
Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = x 100 = 9.037%

Alternatively a simple method can be used for determining the dry flue gas loss as
given below.
a) Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =

Total mass of flue gas (m) = mass of actual air supplied + mass of fuel supplied
= 21 + 1 = 22
%Dry flue gas loss = x 100 = 9.5%

ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel

Where, H2 - percentage of H2 in fuel

=

= 7.2%

iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air

x 100

= = 0.32%

iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses

For a small boiler it is estimated to be 2%

Boiler Efficiency
i. Heat loss due to dry flue gas : 9.037%
ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel : 7.2%
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air : 0.32%
 iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss : 2%
Boiler Efficiency = 100- [9.14 + 7.10 + 0.322 + 2]
= 81 %

Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilised for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
= 10200 × 0.83/ (660-60)
= 14.11

11 metode langsung

Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:

– Type of bo: Coal fired

– Quantity of steam (dry) generated : 7 TPH
– Steam pressure (gauge) / temp : 8 kg/cm²(g)/ 150°C
– Quantity of coal consumed : 1.5 TPH
– Feed water temperature : 80 °C
– GCV of coal : 3250 kCal/kg
– Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm² pressure : 675 kCal/kg (saturated)
– Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kCal/kg

Boiler Efficiency (η) = 7 x (675 - 85) x 100 = 0.8472

1.5 x 3250 = 84.72%

14 a) metode langsung

Boiler Efficiency (η) = 7 x (675 - 85) x 100 = 0.8472

1.5 x 3250 = 84.72%

b) metode tidak langsung

Boiler efficiency(ἠ) = 100 – (i+ ii+ iii + iv + v + vi + vii)

Boiler Efficiency = 100- [9.14 + 7.10 + 0.322 + 2] = 81 %

26
Sensible Heat Latent Heat

Cp water = 4200 J/kg °C Panas laten pada proses penguapan (dari

m= 1 Kg air ke uap) adalah 2260 kJ/kg. jadi untuk
∆T = 100°C – 25°C = 75 °C 1 kg air pada suhu 25 oC adalah 2260
= 75 °C kj/kg . 1 kg = 2260 kj

Qs = m. Cp . ∆T
Qs = 1 kg . 4200 J/kg °C . 75 °C
= 315000 J
= 315 KJ

27
Untuk boiler di 8 kg / cm2(G) Tekanan uap. Rincian berikut diberikan

suhu saturasi uap = 170 °C

panas yang masuk akal air = 171 kkal / kg
panas laten penguapan = 490 kkal / kg
kadar air di uap = 4%

berapa total panas uap ?

• Tekanan boiler 8kg/cm² = 7.9 bar

Hf = 172.04
Hfg = 489.68 entalphy pada suhu 170 °C = 661.72 kCal/kg

• Total panas dari uap jika uap mengandung 4% kelembaban

Q = Hf + (100-4%).Hfg
= 642.13 kCal/kg

28
Berikut ini adalah analisis utama untuk batubara: Hitung kebutuhan udara stoikiometri.
Carbon-38%, Ash-35%, Hidrogen-5%, Sulphur-2%.
Untuk data yang sama, menghitung CO teoritis2.
Jika ukuran sebenarnya CO2 adalah 8%, tentukan tingkat udara berlebih?

Constituents % By weight keterangan

Carbon 38 Diketahui
Ash 35 Diketahui
Hydrogen 5 Diketahui
 Oxygen 10 Asumsi
Nitrogen 5 Asumsi
H2 O 5 Asumsi
Sulphur 2 Diketahui
Total 100

Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace fuel, the chemical reactions are:

Molecular weight (kg/kg.

Element
mole)
C 12
O2 32
H2 2
S 32
N2 28
CO2 44
SO2 64
H2 O 18

C + O2 → CO2 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O S + O2 → SO2

Komponen-komponen bahan bakar :

· Carbon
C + O2 → CO2
12 + 32 → 44
12 kg carbon memerlukan 32 kg oksigen untuk
membentuk 44 kg CO2, maka dari itu, 1 kg carbon
memerlukan 32/12 kg oksigen.

Jadi, (38) C + (38 × 32/12) O2 → (38 × 44/12) CO2

O2 = 101.33 kg
CO2 = 139.33 kg

· Hidrogen
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
4 + 32 → 36
4 kg of hydrogen memerlukan 32 kg of oxygen to form
36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of hydrogen requires 32/4 8 kg dari oxygen
kg =

S, (5) H2 + (5 × 8) O2 → (5 x 9) H2O
O2 = 40 kg
H2O = 45 kg

· Sulphur
S + O2 → SO2
32 + 32 → 64

32 kg sulfur membutuhkan 32 kg oksigen

untuk membentuk 64 kg sulphur dioxide,
maka dari itu 1 kg sulfur memerlukan 32/32
kg = 1 kg oksigen

So, (2) S + (2 × 1) O2 → (2 × 2) SO2

O2 = 2 kg
SO2 = 4 kg

Total oksigen yang dibutuhkan = 101,33 kg + 40 kg + 2 kg =

Oksigen yang tersedia di bahan bakar adalah 100 kg (diketahui) =
Oksigen tambahan yang dibutuhkan = 143,33 kg – 10 kg =
Maka dari itu, jumlah udara kering yang dibutuhkan adalah 133,33 kg / 0,23 Udara
mengandung 23% oksigen dari beratnya =

a. The stoichiometric air requirement = 579,7 kg / 100 kg

= 579.7 kg udara

b. Perhitungan teoritis kadar CO2 dalam bahan bakar gas

Nitrogen in flue gas = 579.7 – 133.33 = 446.37 kg

Theoretical CO2% in dry flue gas by volume is calculated as below:

• Jumlah mole CO2 di bahan bakar gas = 139,33 / 44 = 3.167
(dari perhitungan pembakaran karbon)
• Jumlah mol N2 di bahan bakar gas = 446,37 / 28 = 15.942
• Jumlah mol SO2 di bahan bakar gas = 4 / 64 = 0.0625

a. Calculation of constituents of the flue gas with excess air

% CO2 measured in flue gas = 8 % (measured)

= 3.167
x 100
3.167 + 15.942 + 0.0625
= 16.52%
 16.52
% Excess air = 8 -1 x 100
106.5%

• Udara teoritis yang dibutuhkan untuk 100kg bahan bakar dalam pembakaran adalah
• Jumlah total persediaan udara yang dibutuhkan dengan 106,5% excess air adalah 579,7 kg . 2,065 =
• Jadi, jumlah excess air adalah 1197,08 kg – 579,7 kg = 617.38 kg

O2 = 617,38 kg x 0,23 = 142

N2 = 617,38 kg - 142 kg = 475.38

The final constitution of flue gas with 106.5% excess air for every 100 kg fuel:
CO2 = 139,33 kg H2O = 45 kg SO2 = 4 kg

O2 = 133,33 kg + 142 kg = 275.33 kg

N2 = 446,37 kg + 475,38 kg = 921.75 kg

29
Diketahui:
• Boiler dengan menggunakan gas alam/metan (O₂) = 5%
• Volume udara kering (O₂) = 20,95% = 21 %

pembahasan :
% Excess Air = (O₂)/(21-O₂) X 100%
% Excess Air = (5%)/(21%-5%) X 100%
% Excess Air = 31%

ket :
: input data
: hasil + input data utk perhitungan lain
: hasil
e efficiency of the boiler by indirect method and Boiler Evaporation ratio.
9.04
7.23
0.32
2.00
kg dari oxygen
143.33 kg
10 kg
133.33

579.7 kg udara
aran adalah 579.7 kg
ir adalah 579,7 kg . 2,065 = 1197.07 kg
 TABLE 7.2 HEAT-TO-POWER RATIOS AND OTHER PARAMETERS OF CO
Cogeneration System Heat-to-power ratio (kWth/kWe)
Back-pressure steam turbine 4.0-14.3
Extraction-condensing steam 2.0-10.0
turbine
Gas turbine 1.3-2.0
Combined cycle 1.0-1.7
Reciprocating engine 1.1-2.5

TABLE 7.3 TYPICAL HEAT: POWER RATIOS FOR CERTAIN ENERGY INTENSIVE I
Industry Minimum Maximum
Breweries 1.1 4.5
Pharmaceuticals 1.5 2.5
Fertilizer 0.8 3.0
Food 0.8 2.5
Paper 1.5 2.5

TABLE 7.4 TYPICAL COGENERATION PERFORMANCE PARAME

Prime Mover in Nominal Electrical Generation Heat Rate (kCal
Cogen. Range / kWh)
Package (Electrical)
Smaller 10–500 kW 2650–6300
Reciprocating
Larger 500–3000 kW 2400–3275
Engines
Reciprocating
Diesel Engines 10–3000 kW 2770–3775
Engines
Smaller Gas 800–10000 kW 2770–3525
Turbines
Larger Gas 10–20 MW 2770–3275
Turbines
Steam Turbines 10–100 MW 2520–5040
Note: Adapted from Cogeneration Handbook California Energy Commission, 1982

7.10 Case Study

Economics of a Gas Turbine based co-generation System
Alternative I – Gas Turbine Based Co-generation
Gas turbine Parameters
Capacity of gas turbine generator :
Plant operating hours per annum :
Plant load factor :
Heat rate as per standard given by gas.turbine supplier :
Waste heat boiler parameters – unfired steam output :
Steam temperature :
Steam pressure :
Steam enthalpy :
Fuel used :
Calorific value – LCV :
Price of gas :
Capital investment for total co-generation plant :

1. Estimated power generation from Cogeneration :

2. Heat input to generate above units :

3. Natural gas quantity required per annum :

:

4. Cost of fuel per annum :

5. Cost of capital and operation charges/annum :

6. Overall cost of power from cogeneration Plant :
7. Cost of power :

Alternative-II: Electric Power from State Grid & Steam from Natural Gas Fired Boiler
Boiler Installed in Plant:
Cost of electric power from state grid – average electricity :
Capital investment for 10 TPH, 8.5 kg/sq.cm.200)°C :
Natural gas fired fire tube boiler & all auxiliaries

Estimation of cost for electric power from grid & steam from direct conventional fired boiler :
1. Cost of Power from state grid for 288 lakh kWh :
2. Fuel cost for steam by separate boiler (i)
Heat output in form of 10 TPH steam per annum :

(ii) Heat Input required to generate 10 TPH steam :

(iii) Natural Gas Quantity :

(iv) Cost of fuel per annum :

(v) Total cost for Alternative-II :

Alternative I - Total cost : Rs 57,600,000.00 lakh

Alternative II - Total cost : Rs 105,387,789 lakh
Differential cost : Rs 47,787,789 lakh

(Note: In case of alternative-II, there will be some additional impact on cost of steam due to
capital cost required for a separate boiler).
In the above case, Alternative 1 gas turbine based cogeneration system is economical com-
pared to Alternative 2 i.e. electricity from State Grid and Steam from Natural Gas fired boiler.

ket :
: input data
: hasil + input data utk perhitungan lain
: hasil
OS AND OTHER PARAMETERS OF COGENERATION SYSTEMS
Power output (as percent of fuel input) Overall efficiency per
14-28 cent
84-92
22-40 60-80
24-35 70-85
34-40 69-83
33-53 75-85

FOR CERTAIN ENERGY INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES

Average
3.1
2.0
2.0
1.2
1.9

NERATION PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Efficiencies, %
Electrical Conversion Thermal Overall
20–32 Recovery
50 Cogeneration
74–82
26–36 50 76–86
23–38 50 73–88
24–31 50 74–81
26–31 50 78–81
17–34 – –
Commission, 1982

4000 kw
8000 hrs
90%
3049.77 kCal/kWh
10 TPH
200 °C
8.5 kg/cm²
676.44 kCal/kg
Natural Gas
9500 kCal/sm³
Rs 3000 /1000 sm3
 Rs 1,300 lakhs

PLF × Plant Capacity × no. plant at 90% Plant Load Factor (PLF)
of operation hours
(90/100)×4000×8000
Units (kWh) × heat rate 288 x 105 × 3049.77
878333.76 × 10⁵ kCal
Heat input / Calorific value (LCV ) of natural gas
878333.76 x 105 / 9500
92.46 × 105 sm3
Annual gas92.46
consumption
× 105× xRs.3000./1000
Price sm3

Rs. 277.37 lakhs

Rs. 298.63. lakhs
Rs 57,600,000.00 lakhs per annum
Rs. 2.00 /kWh

m Natural Gas Fired Boiler

Rs. 3.00/kWh cost with demand & energy charges

Rs. 80.00 lakh

direct conventional fired boiler :

Rs 86,400,000 lakh per annum

Steam quantity × Enthalpy x Operations/annum

10 × 1000 × 676.44 × 8000
= 54115200000 kCal
Heat output/boiler per annum @ 90 % efficiency efficiency
541152 × 10⁵/0.90
= 60128000000 kCal per annum
Heat Input/Calorific value (LCV) of natural gas
601280 × 10⁵/9500
= 6329263.16 sm³ per annum
Annual gas consumption × price
63.29 × 10⁵× 3000/1000 sm³
= Rs 18,987,789 lakh per annum
Cost of grid power + fuel cost for steam
Rs. 864 + Rs.189.88 (lakh)
= Rs 105,387,789 lakh per annum
mpact on cost of steam due to

n system is economical com-

rom Natural Gas fired boiler.
The Total Transformer Loss

P total = P no-load + (% kVA Load /100)^2 x P load

no load loss = 840 w kVA load = 16 kVA = 12800

kVA = 400 kVA
Full load loss = 5700 w

P total = 840 w + (400/100)^2 x 5700 = 72960840 w = 72960.84 kW

ket :
: input data
: hasil + input data utk perhitungan lain
: hasil
w
 Motor spesifications No load test data
Rated power 34 Kw atau 45 HP Voltage, V
Voltage 415 volt Current, I
Current 57 amps Frequency, F
Speed 1475 rpm Stator phase
Insulation Class F resistance at 30 C
Frame LD 200 L No load power, Pnl
Connection Delta

because rated power = 45 HP maka stray losses 1.80%

1 Pst.cu(30C) = 68.43 watts

Pi + fw = Pnl - Pst.cu
Pi + fw = 995.3 watts

2 stator resistance at 120 C resistance at 30

R2 = R1 x 235 + t2
235 + t1

R2 = 0.354 ohm per phase

3 Pst.cu(120C)= 1149 watts

4 Full load slip

S= 0.0167

Rotor input, Pr =Poutput/(1-S)

Pr = 34576.3 watts

Motor
5 full load input power, P input = Pr + Pst.cu(120C) + (Pi +fw) + Pstray
P input = 37332.62 watts

6 motor efficiency at full load

Efficiency = P output x 100%
P input
Efficiency = 0.911 = 91.1%

Full load PF = 0.91

ket :
: input data
: hasil + input data utk perhitungan lain
: hasil
No load test data
Voltage, V 415 volts
Current, I 16.1 amps
Frequency, F 50 Hz
Stator phase
resistance at 30 C 0.264 ohms
No load power, Pnl 1063.74 watt

C
 Motor spesifications
Rated power 75 Kw atau 45 HP
Voltage 380 volt
Current 135 amps
Speed 1430 rpm
Insulation Class F
Frame LD 200 L
Connection Delta

because rated power = 45 HP maka stray losses

1 Pst.cu(30C) = 68.43 watts

Pi + fw = Pnl - Pst.cu
Pi + fw = 1831.6 watts

2 stator resistance at 120 C resistance at

R2 = R1 x 235 + t2
235 + t1

R2 = 0.354 ohm per phase

3 Pst.cu(120C)= 6445 watts

4 Full load slip

S= 0.0167

Rotor input, Pr = Poutput/(1-S)

Pr = 76271.2 watts

5 Motor full load input power, P input = Pr + Pst.cu(120C) + (Pi +fw) + Pstray
P input = 85898.215 watts

6 motor efficiency at full load

Efficiency = P output x 100%
P input
Efficiency = 0.873 = 87.3%

Full load PF = 0.97

5.4 Determining Motor Loading

1. By Input Power Measurements

 First measure input power Pi with a hand held or in-line
power meter
Pi = Three-phase power in kW
 Note the rated kW and efficiency from the motor name plate
 The figures of kW mentioned in the name plate is for output conditions.
So corresponding input power at full-rated load

Pir = Nameplate full rated kW

fl
fl = Efficiency at full-rated load
Pir = Input power at full-rated load in kW

 The percentage loading can now be calculated as follows

Pi
Load = — x 100%
Pir

Example
The nameplate details of a motor are given as power = 15 kW, P= 15
efficiency  = 0.9. Using a power meter the actual three phase η= 0.9
power drawn is found to be 8 kW. Find out the loading of the P actual = 8
motor.
Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 /0.9
= 16.7 Kw
Percentage loading = 8/16.7
= 48%

2. By Line Current Measurements

% Load = Input load current

x 100 (Valid up to 75% loading)
Input rated current

3. Slip Method
In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used
which requires a tachometer. This method also does not give the
exact loading on the motors.

Load = Slip
x 100%
Ss–Sr
Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm at the operating frequency
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed

Example: Slip Load Calculation

Given: Synchronous speed in rpm = 1500 at 50 HZ operating frequency.
(Synchronous speed = 120 f/P) f: frequency, P: Number of poles
Nameplate full load speed = 1450
Measured speed in rpm = 1480
Nameplate rated power = 7.5 Kw

Determine actual output power.

Load = 1500 – 1480

x 100% = 40%
1500 -1450

From the above equation, actual output power would be 40% x 7.5 kW = 3 Kw

Load = Slip (1500-1480)

x 100% = x 100% = 100%
(Ss – Sr) x (Vr/V)2 (1500-1450) x (7,5/3)

Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
V = RMS voltage, mean line to line of 3 phases
Vr = Nameplate rated voltage

5.7.1 Concept of Variable Frequency Drive

The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency
of the AC voltage applied to it, as well as the number of poles in
the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation :
RPM = (f x 120) / p
Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2.

ket :
: input data
: hasil + input data utk perhitungan lain
: hasil
No load test data
Voltage, V 380 volts
Current, I 16.1 amps
Frequency, F 50 Hz
Stator phase
resistance at 30 C 0.264 ohms
No load power, Pnl 1900 watt

1.80%

30 C
Kw

Kw