DR.

BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR MARAHWADA UNIVERSITY, AURANGABAD

Seminar report on: - “Sensorized LED display powered by Solar Energy”

Presented by: - Guided by:-

Faisal Pathan Mr. Abhijit.S.Pande

Roll no:-57(A)

P.E.S COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING, AURANGABAD

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Pathan Faisal of 3rd year,6th semester, Bachelor in
Engineering ,Electrical Engineering, Roll No.-57(A) has completed the seminar
entitled “Sensorized LED display powered by Solar Energy” for partial
fulfillment of requirement of B.E. 3rd year 6th semester of BAMU examination, for
the academic year 2018-2019.

Name of the guide-

Prof. Abhijit.S.Pande

Signature of guide:

Date:-

Head of the Department

Prof. B. N Choudary

Signature:-

Date-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to my concerned teacher and guide Prof Mr.
Abhijit.S.Pande, Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, for his valuable
and inspiring guidance towards the progress on the topic “Sensorized LED display
powered by Solar Energy” and providing valuable information for the
development of my report.

Last but not the least I express my sincere and hearty thanks to all those who have
directly or indirectly helped me in completing this seminar presentation and
report successfully.

Date:
 Index

Sr.No. Contents
1. Introduction
2. Components & their description
 Construction
 Symbols & diagram
 Working & functioning
 Application

3. Circuit diagram
4. Construction and working
5. Advantages
6. Disadvantages
7. Application and Future scope
 Introduction
As the energy sources such as fossils fuels are on the edge of extinction, there is a need to find another
source that will help us to generate electricity and fulfill our demands of energy. Renewable sources of
energy such as Solar energy is one of the major solution that will help us to generate electricity and with
the advancement in our electronic and compact integrated circuits, we can configure various solutions to
our problems. One of such configurated circuits is solar based LED Display. The configuration uses the
solar power to charge a battery using solar panel having a diode in series connection, the 12v battery
supplies power to the display (LED display) which turns on automatically during the night time with the

help of LDR sensor that works according to light intensity .

Components
1. Solar panel :-

Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity. A

photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar
cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates
and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications.

The most common application of solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar water
heating systems.
 Constructions:-
Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells.
The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells
must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible
ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells must be connected electrically in series, one to
another.

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and it is its output interface. Externally,
most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to
the rest of the system. Also, USB power interface can be used.

Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in parallel to
provide a desired current capability (amperes). The conducting wires that take the current off the
modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. Bypass diodes
may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of
module sections still illuminated.

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto
smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a
cost-effective way.

Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector shapes, and
troughs to better support the panel structure

Materials

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells made of
multicrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon accounted for more than 90
percent of worldwide PV production, while the rest of the overall market is made up of thin-film
technologies using cadmium telluride, CIGS and amorphous silicon[16]

Emerging, third generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively
high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar technologies. Also, high-cost, high-
efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are preferably used in solar panels on
spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are
compound semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials.
Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells is concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ).

Standards
Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

Limitations
 Pollution and Energy in Production

Solar panel has been a well-known method of generating clean, emission free electricity. However, it
produces only direct current electricity (DC), which is not what normal appliances use. Solar
photovoltaic systems (solar PV systems) are often made of solar PV panels (modules) and inverter
(changing DC to AC). Solar PV panels are mainly made of solar photovoltaic cells, which has no
fundamental difference to the material for making computer chips. The process of producing solar PV
cells (computer chips) is energy intensive and involves highly poisonous and environmental toxic
chemicals. There are few solar PV manufacturing plants around the world producing PV modules with
energy produced from PV. This measure greatly reduces the carbon footprint during the manufacturing
process. Managing the chemicals used in the manufacturing process is subject to the factories' local laws
and regulations.

 Impact on Electricity Network

With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes 2-way. When there
is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, electricity
network traditionally is not designed to deal with the 2- way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical
issues may occur. For example in Queensland Australia, there have been more than 30% of households
with rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The famous Californian 2020 duck curve appears very often for a
lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may come out as the electricity flows
from these PV households back to the network. There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue,
such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at electricity
distributor level, re-conducting the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often
limitations and costs related to these solutions.

 Implication onto Electricity Bill Management and Energy Investment

Efficiencies:-
There is no silver bullet in electricity or energy demand and bill management, because customers (sites)
have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs,
or different usage patterns. Electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering
charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min
energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charge when electricity
price is reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in Australia and Germany. However for
sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the
late afternoon to early evening, for example residential communities. Overall, energy investment is
largely an economical decision and it is better to make investment decisions based on systematical
evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy
storage

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges
from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same
rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module.
There are a few commercially available solar modules that exceed efficiency of 24%.

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of
light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or
diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can
give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept
is to split the light into six to eight different wavelength ranges that will produce a different color of
light, and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be
capable of raising efficiency by 50%.

A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple
modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a
battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.

Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of multi-junction solar
cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells.The
Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than
45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than
three junctions.
Currently, the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around 21.5% in new
commercial products typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient
mass-produced solar modules have power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2).

2. LDR Sensors:-
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell) is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector
circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as
low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons
absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band.
The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices.
Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain
wavelength bands.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge
carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available
electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron
across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground
state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower
energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If
a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra
electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor

Design considerations
Photoresistors are less light-sensitive devices than photodiodes or phototransistors: the two latter
components are true semiconductor devices, while a photoresistor is a passive component and does not
have a PN-junction. The photoresistivity of any photoresistor may vary widely depending on ambient
temperature, making them unsuitable for applications requiring precise measurement of or sensitivity to
light photons.
Photoresistors also exhibit a certain degree of latency between exposure to light and the subsequent
decrease in resistance, usually around 10 milliseconds. The lag time when going from lit to dark
environments is even greater, often as long as one second. This property makes them unsuitable for
sensing rapidly flashing lights, but is sometimes used to smooth the response of audio signal
compression.

Applications

The internal components of a photoelectric control for a typical American streetlight. The photoresistor
is facing rightwards, and controls whether current flows through the heater which opens the main power
contacts. At night, the heater cools, closing the power contacts, energizing the street light.

Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can be found in many
consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm device (as the detector for a light
beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road studs, etc.

Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on. Ambient light falling on the
photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light is only on
during hours of darkness.
 3.electronic switch:-

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can "make" or "break" an electrical
circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

In electronics, an electronic switch is an electronic component or device that can switch an electrical
circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

Typically, electronic switches use solid state devices such as transistors, though vacuum tubes can be
used as well in high voltage applications.

Types of electronics switches

There is a large variety of different types of electronics switches. Each of these types of switch operates
in a slightly different manner and can be used for different applications.

 Toggle switch: The toggle switch is usually a two position switch. The internal construction
includes a spring such that it is held firmly in the position to which it has been switched. It is
widely used for switching items on or off. Occasionally toggle switches are available with a
centre "off" position. Many versions are able to withstand switching 250 VAC at current levels
of around 1 amp.
 Push button switch: Push button switches are used in many electronic circuits. These electronic
switches are often used when a push action is required to give a momentary connection.
Alternatively they can be used to provide a push on - push off action.
 Rocker switch: In many ways rocker switches are similar to toggle switches. They are widely
used for mains on-off functions and have a two position capability. Some include an integral
neon lamp to indicate when the circuit is on. In view of their intended use, these switches are
often able to switch voltages of around 250 VAC and current levels of around 1 amp.
 Rotary switch: As the name implies, rotary switches are operated by turning a knob. Selecting
the correct position enables the relevant connections to be made. As rotary switches can have
many positions, they enable a particular point to be connected to one of a number of other points
in the electronics circuit.

there are many types of electronics switches used in circuits and equipment. These types represent some
of the major in use, although there are naturally many other types available.

Switch parameters and specifications

There are a number of parameters that are important when selecting a particular switch for a given
application. Electrical capability along with the physical switching requirements and the mechanical
specification for the switch are all important. However to be able to make a choice of the correct switch
it is necessary to understand a little about these parameters.

 Voltage rating: This is the maximum voltage that the switch can withstand. It is determined by
a number of factors including the insulation materials, the contact separation, the rate of
separation, and general safety considerations.
 Current carrying rating: The rating of the maximum steady current that a switch can carry
through a closed contact. This is determined mainly by the heating effect (I^2R) and it is
generally greater than the current / power switching rating.
 Contact resistance: As the contacts of a switch are not a continuous conductor, but are able to
be broken and re-made, there is a contact resistance that is greater than if the conductor were
continuous. In view of the fact that power Is dissipated in any resistance, or because even small
levels of resistance can be important, it is sometimes necessary to consider the contact resistance
of the switch.
  Number of operations: As the contacts of a switch move across each other to ensure that the
best resistance is obtained, there is always a small amount of wear. Accordingly the performance
of a switch will deteriorate after use. To quantify the useful life of a switch, the number of
operations is sometimes quoted. This may be many thousands of operations.

Switches used in electrical and electronics equipment are manufactured and used in their millions. There
are also many types of switch to choose from, each having different properties and specifications.

4. B D 139 (BJT transistor):-

The BD139 from STMicroelectronics is a through hole NPN complementary low voltage transistor in TO-126
(SOT-32) package. This device manufactured in epitaxial planar technology. Used for audio amplifiers and
drivers, utilizing complementary or quasi complementary circuits.

 Collector to emitter voltage (Vce) is 80V

 Collector current (Ic) is 1.5A
 Power dissipation (Pd) is 12.5W
 Collector to emitter saturation voltage of 500mV at 0.5A collector current
 DC current gain (hFE) of 25 at 0.5A collector current
 Operating junction temperature range from 150°C

It is also called TO-126 . TO-126 is a type of semiconductor package for devices with three pins, such
as transistors. The package is rectangular with a hole in the middle to allow for easy mounting to a board
or a heat sink.
Applications

Power Management, Consumer Electronics, Portable Devices, Industrial

A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron
and hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, only use one
kind of charge carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two junctions between two semiconductor types, n-
type and p-type.

BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual components, or
fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers.

The basic function of a BJT is to amplify current. This allows BJTs to be used as amplifiers or switches,
giving them wide applicability in electronic equipment, including computers, televisions, mobile
phones, audio amplifiers, industrial control, and radio transmitters.

Structure

Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction transistor

A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions: the emitter region, the base region and
the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP transistor, and n
type, p type and n type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal,
appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped,
high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the
electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the resulting value
of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross-section view of a BJT indicates
that the collector–base junction has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction.

The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means
that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and
start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for
forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of α and β in
reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower
than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The
emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be
applied before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in
normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency:
the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of
the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.

NPN

The symbol of an NPN BJT. A mnemonic for the symbol is "not pointing in".

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the
"base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large
collector and emitter current. That is, when there is a positive potential difference measured from the
base of an NPN transistor to its emitter (that is, when the base is high relative to the emitter), as well as
a positive potential difference measured from the collector to the emitter, the transistor becomes active.
In this "on" state, current flows from the collector to the emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is
carried by electrons moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To
allow for greater current and faster operation, most bipolar transistors used today are NPN because
electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.

PNP

The symbol of a PNP BJT. A mnemonic for the symbol is "points in proudly".

The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of
P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. In a PNP transistor, the emitter–base
region is forward biased, so holes are injected into the base as minority carriers. The base is very thin,
and most of the holes cross the reverse-biased base–collector junction to the collector.

The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols indicate the PN junction between the base and
emitter. When the device is in forward active or forward saturated mode, the arrow, placed on the
emitter leg, points in the direction of the conventional current.
Regions of operation:-
Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases.

Forward-active (or simply active)

The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most
bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-
active mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately proportional to the base
current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.

Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted)

By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-
active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are
designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the βF in inverted mode is several times
smaller (2–3 times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is seldom used, usually
being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias
breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.

Saturation

With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction
from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged
carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.

Cut-off

In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is
very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.

Avalanche breakdown region

Input characteristics
 output characteristics

Input and output characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor amplifier.

The modes of operation can be described in terms of the applied voltages (this description applies to
NPN transistors; polarities are reversed for PNP transistors):

Forward-active

Base higher than emitter, collector higher than base (in this mode the collector current is proportional

to base current by ).

Saturation

Base higher than emitter, but collector is not higher than base.

Cut-off

Base lower than emitter, but collector is higher than base. It means the transistor is not letting
conventional current go through from collector to emitter.

Reverse-active

Base lower than emitter, collector lower than base: reverse conventional current goes through
transistor.

In terms of junction biasing: (reverse biased base–collector junction means Vbc < 0 for NPN, opposite
for PNP)

Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat
for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter
configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a
reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias
is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be
regarded as the cutoff region.
Active-mode transistors in circuits

Structure and use of NPN transistor. Arrow according to schematic.

The diagram shows a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources.
(The same description applies to a PNP transistor with reversed directions of current flow and applied
voltage.) To make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1 mA) from C to E, VBE
must be above a minimum value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is
usually about 650 mV for silicon BJTs at room temperature but can be different depending on the type
of transistor and its biasing. This applied voltage causes the lower P-N junction to 'turn on', allowing a
flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base
and collector (caused by VCE) will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper P-N junction
into the collector to form the collector current IC. The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes,
the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current,
IB. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, IE, is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the
other terminal currents, (i.e., IE = IB + IC).

In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow
of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative electric charge. In
active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain. This gain
is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see op-

amp). The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as , and the value of this gain for small

signals is referred to as . That is, when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient time

has passed for the new condition to reach a steady state is the ratio of the change in collector

current to the change in base current. The symbol is used for both and .
The emitter current is related to exponentially. At room temperature, an increase in by
approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is
approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.

Early manufacturing techniques

Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors were developed

Bipolar transistors

 Point-contact transistor – first transistor ever constructed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, limited
commercial use due to high cost and noise.
o Tetrode point-contact transistor – Point-contact transistor having two emitters. It became
obsolete in the middle 1950s.
 Junction transistors
o Grown-junction transistor – first bipolar junction transistor made. Invented by William Shockley
at Bell Labs on June 23, 1948.Patent filed on June 26, 1948.
o Alloy-junction transistor – emitter and collector alloy beads fused to base. Developed at General
Electric and RCA in 1951.
 Micro-alloy transistor (MAT) – high speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at
Philco.
 Micro-alloy diffused transistor (MADT) – high speed type of alloy junction transistor,
speedier than MAT, a diffused-base transistor. Developed at Philco.
 Post-alloy diffused transistor (PADT) – high speed type of alloy junction transistor,
speedier than MAT, a diffused-base transistor. Developed at Philips.
o Tetrode transistor – high speed variant of grown-junction transistor or alloy junction transistor
with two connections to base.
o Surface-barrier transistor – high-speed metal barrier junction transistor. Developed at Philco in
1953.
o Drift-field transistor – high speed bipolar junction transistor. Invented by Herbert Kroemer[at the
Central Bureau of Telecommunications Technology of the German Postal Service, in 1953.
o Spacistor – circa 1957.
o Diffusion transistor – modern type bipolar junction transistor. Prototypes developed at Bell Labs
in 1954.
 Diffused-base transistor – first implementation of diffusion transistor.
 Mesa transistor – Developed at Texas Instruments in 1957.
 Planar transistor – the bipolar junction transistor that made mass-produced monolithic
integrated circuits possible. Developed by Jean Hoerniat Fairchild in 1959.
o Epitaxial transistor] – a bipolar junction transistor made using vapor phase deposition. See
epitaxy. Allows very precise control of doping levels and gradients.

Pinout and specifications

The BC548 is supplied in a standard TO-92 3-pin package. The assignment of transistor elements (b,c,e)
to leads, i.e. the "pinout", uses the same convention used by some - but not all - other TO-92 devices. As
viewed in the top-right image, going from left to right, the pinout is as follows:

 lead 1 (left in diagram) is the collector,

 lead 2 is the base, and
 lead 3 is the emitter.

Sometimes the middle pin is supplied bent to form a triangle of leads (as found in TO-18 case transistors
and, for example, the ZTX108-L) to match the pinout of the BC108 more exactly.

The BC548 part number is assigned by Pro Electron, which allows many manufacturers to offer
electrically and physically interchangeable parts under one identification. Devices registered to this Pro
Electron number must have the following minimum performance characteristics:

 Breakdown voltage, collector-to-emitter with base open-circuit VCEO = 30 V (see below)

 Rated continuous collector current IC = 100 mA (Fairchild's BC548 at one time had a higher rating)
 Rated total power dissipation Ptotal = 500 mW (some manufacturers may specify 625 mW - see below)
 Transition frequency (gain-bandwidth product) ft = 150 MHz minimum (300 MHz typical)

5.battery:-

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections
provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.When a battery is
supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The
terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to
the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts
high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the
external circuit as electrical energy.[3] Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device
composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights
and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and
recharged multiple times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can
be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion
batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries
in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or
emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each
year, with 6% annual growth.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline.
In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting
chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

Battery sizes

Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button cells used for electric watches,
to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in
very large sizes; very large batteries can power a submarine or stabilize an electrical grid and help level
out peak loads.
Solid state batteries
On 28 February 2017, The University of Texas at Austin issued a press release about a new type of
solid-state battery, developed by a team led by Lithium-ion (Li-Ion) inventor John Goodenough, "that
could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-lasting rechargeable batteries for handheld mobile devices,
electric cars and stationary energy storage".[69] More specifics about the new technology were published
in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Energy & Environmental Science.

Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries
under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes. The newly developed battery should be
safer since it uses glass electrolytes, that should eliminate short circuits. The solid-state battery is also
said to have "three times the energy density" increasing its useful life in electric vehicles, for example. It
should also be more ecologically sound since the technology uses less expensive, earth-friendly
materials such as sodium extracted from seawater. They also have much longer life; ("the cells have
demonstrated more than 1,200 cycles with low cell resistance"). The research and prototypes are not
expected to lead to a commercially viable product in the near future, if ever, according to Chris
Robinson of LUX Research. "This will have no tangible effect on electric vehicle adoption in the next
15 years, if it does at all. A key hurdle that many solid-state electrolytes face is lack of a scalable and
cost-effective manufacturing process," he told The American Energy News in an e-mail.[

6. Diode:-
 A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction
(asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other. A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes,
a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from cathode to plate. A
semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material
with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals.[5] Semiconductor diodes were the first
semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of asymmetric electrical conduction across the contact
between a crystalline mineral and a metal was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874.
Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other materials such as gallium arsenide and germanium are
used.

Main functions
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the
diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). As such,
the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called
rectification, and is used to convert alternating current (ac) to direct current (dc). Forms of rectifiers,
diodes can be used for such tasks as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action, because of their
nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a
certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode
is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the
current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a voltage
reference. Also, diodes' high resistance to current flowing in the reverse direction suddenly drops to a
low resistance when the reverse voltage across the diode reaches a value called the breakdown voltage.

A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor

materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture.These techniques
are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are
used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes),
to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations
(tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel,
Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching
circuits.

Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as shot-noise generators.

Semiconductor diodes

Point contact diode (crystal rectifier or crystal diode), type 1N23C. Grid one quarter inch.

Point-contact diodes

Point-contact diodes were developed starting in the 1930s, out of the early crystal detector technology,
and are now generally used in the 3 to 30 gigahertz range. Point-contact diodes use a small diameter
metal wire in contact with a semiconductor crystal, and are of either non-welded contact type or welded
contact type. Non-welded contact construction utilizes the Schottky barrier principle. The metal side is
the pointed end of a small diameter wire that is in contact with the semiconductor crystal. In the welded
contact type, a small P region is formed in the otherwise N type crystal around the metal point during
manufacture by momentarily passing a relatively large current through the device. Point contact diodes
generally exhibit lower capacitance, higher forward resistance and greater reverse leakage than junction
diodes.

Junction diodes

P–n junction diode

Main article: p–n diode

A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium
arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative
charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains
positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-type and p-type materials are
attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occur from the n to the p side resulting in a third
region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region
because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached
to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is
where the action of the diode takes place. When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the
P side (the anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion
region from the N-type side to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the
opposite direction when the potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve.

Applications
Radio demodulation

A simple envelope demodulator circuit.

The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The
history of this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of
alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude or envelope is
proportional to the original audio signal. The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only
the positive peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a
simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves.

In microwave and millimeter wave technology, beginning in the 1930s, researchers improved and
miniaturized the crystal detector. Point contact diodes (crystal diodes) and Schottky diodes are used in
radar, microwave and millimeter wave detectors.

Power conversion
Main article: Rectifier

Schematic of basic ac-to-dc power supply

Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (ac) electricity
into direct current (dc). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies
the AC into dc, provides better performance than the commutator or earlier, dynamo. Similarly, diodes
are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers to convert ac into higher ac voltages.
Over-voltage protection

Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices.
They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises
above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used
in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without
the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (A diode used in such an application is called a
flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent
external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from
over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above).

Logic gates

Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred
to as diode logic.

Ionizing radiation detectors

In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In
electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and
multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single
particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge
carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large
enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the
particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of
a magnetic spectrometer, etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge
collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer-range (about a
centimetre) particles, they need a very large depletion depth and large area. For short-range particles,
they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-
bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are
common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy. They have a finite life,
especially when detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are
quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.

Semiconductor detectors for high-energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of energy loss
fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

Temperature measurements

A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode
depends on temperature, as in a silicon bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode
equation given above, it might appear that the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a
constant current), but usually the variation of the reverse saturation current term is more significant than
the variation in the thermal voltage term. Most diodes therefore have a negative temperature coefficient,
typically −2 mV/˚C for silicon diodes. The temperature coefficient is approximately constant for
temperatures above about 20 kelvin. Some graphs are given for 1N400x series, and CY7 cryogenic
temperature sensor.

Current steering

Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a
power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An uninterruptible power supply may use
diodes in this way to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Likewise, small
boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one
used for domestics. Normally, both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy-duty split-charge
diode is used to prevent the higher-charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging
through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is not running.

Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in
electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard
controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The problem with
matrix circuits is that, when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backwards through
the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause "ghost" notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted
notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical
keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid-state pinball machines.

Waveform clipper
Main article: Clipper (electronics)

Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage.

Clamper
Main article: Clamper (electronics)

This simple diode clamp will clamp the negative peaks of the incoming waveform to the common rail voltage

A diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive and
negative values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive, or the negative peaks occur at a
prescribed level. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the
whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level.
 Circuit Diagram

Construction & Working

The solar panel generates electricity with the help of sun light and this energy is stored in the
12v battery during the day time.
The display will turn on automatically with the help of LDR as LDR is Light Dependant Resistor
that acts as a switch (along with a electrical switch for manual control)and will turn on and off
LEDs according to the light intensity.

Advantages
1) These components will help to utilize the renewable source of energy efficiently.
2) As solar causes no pollution it causes no pollution it is also eco friendly.
3) The Project automates the process of turning the display on and off.
4) It requires minimum maintenance cost.
 Disadvantages
1) It depends on sunlight to recharge battery, which is not present on cloudy days.
2) Battery needs to be replaced every 2-3 years.
3) The LDR need not to be covered in order to work correctly.
4) Initial cost of making is more

Applications & Future Scope:-

1. This project can be used to store never-ending solar energy and utilizing it in various daily
needs as of one is our LED Display in Decoration and stage lighting.
2. This technique can be used in store signs , billboards , hoarding, display Board and Banners.
3. This project can but further be utilized and innovated in other domestic as well as commercial
fields such as solar heaters, cookers, solar inverter power supply and using a converter(inverter)
to convert dc to ac and using it.
 References:-
1. Universal Programmer , YouTube ,energy efficient display
2. "Natural Forcing of the Climate System". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived from the
original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 29 September 2007.
3. "Radiation Budget". NASA Langley Research Center. 17 October 2006. Retrieved 29 September 2007.,
4. https://www.circuito.io/
5. Agarwal, Anant. Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits. Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2005, p. 43
6. www.quora.com/IEEE

CONCLUSION:-
o AS RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE SUCH AS SOLAR ENERGY IS NEVER ENDING AND
CLEAN , IT PREVENT FOSSIL FUELS FROM GETTING EXTINCT.
o THE CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION IS COMPACT AND CAN BE INSTALLED ANYWHERE IS IT IS
MORE EFFICIENT.

o AUTOMATIC LED DISPLAY IS MORE TIME EFFICIENT AND COMSUMER-FRIENDLY.

Thank you