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Parking Structure Durability Guidelines PDF
Parking Structure Durability Guidelines PDF
CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR
AND MAINTENANCE OF
PARKING STRUCTURES
March 1994
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project was funded by Real Property Program and the Program on Energy Research and Development
(PERD). Energy Efficiency - Buildings Task 1.4.
Public Works & Government Services Canada would like to acknowledge the technical expertise contributed
by Halsall Associates Limited to this document.
DISCLAIMER
This report is distributed for informational purposes only and does not necessarily reflect the views of the
Government of Canada nor constitute an endorsement of current or future status of any policy or program.
Neither Canada or its ministers, officers, employees or agents makes any warranty in respect of this report
or assumes any liability arising out of this report.
Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
General Durability Design and Construction Principles
FOREWORD
This project on Parking Structures Durability Guidelines was proposed by Technology
Development and Demonstration and was funded by the Real Property Program and the
Panel on Energy Research and Development (PERD). This research was conducted in
collaboration with Halsall Associates Limited. The objective of this project was to develop
specific guidelines for the design, construction, repair and maintenance of parking
structures.
Every year, Public Works & Government Services Canada (PWGSC) spends vast sums of
money on the repair and maintenance of parking structures. While it is generally accepted
that a certain degree of garage maintenance is inevitable, the design and construction
practices in past failed to provide adequate protection against the increasing amounts of
chloride based de-icing chemicals which are being used in present in-service environments.
The salts carried into garages by cars migrate through the concrete to the steel resulting in
corrosion of the embedded steel components.
For the past five years, Technology, A&ES Services, Headquarters, in conjunction with the
Institute for Research in Construction (IRC) at National Research Council Canada (NRC),
have been monitoring the performance of several parking garage structures and evaluating
various repair strategies in an attempt to develop techniques for effective rehabilitation and
maintenance of indoor parking garages. Much of the knowledge gained from this multi-
year research study was used in the development of these guidelines. This document will
serve as a very useful tool for builders, operators and property managers. However, it must
be emphasized that decisions in design, construction, repair and maintenance must be the
responsibility of qualified professionals. If proper procedures are followed, the life of
parking garages will be greatly enhanced.
If you have comments regarding the contents of this document or require additional
information related to this study, please contact:
Allan Wiseman
Project Manager
Public Works & Government Services Canada
Real Property Services, A&ES
Technology & Environment
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
Background ii
Purpose iii
Objectives iii
Scope iii
Chapter 1
General Durability Design and Construction Principles 1
Chapter 2
Specific Durability Design and Construction Details 25
Chapter 3
Durability Aspects of the Design of Post-Tensioned Parking Structures 56
Chapter 4
Material Testing and Quality Control During Construction 77
Chapter 5
Manual for the Operation and Maintenance of Parking Garages 96
Chapter 6
Condition Survey of Reinforced Concrete Parking Structures 117
Chapter 7
Condition Survey of Post-Tensioned Parking Structures 143
Chapter 8
Technical, Practical and Economic Considerations for the Development of
Strategies for the Repair of Deteriorated Garages 161
Chapter 9
Sealers and Waterproofing Membranes 185
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
INTRODUCTION
Background
The problem was caused by the use of chloride based de-icing chemicals
which was being applied in increasing amounts. The salts carried into garages
by cars migrates through the concrete to the steel resulting in corrosion of the
embedded steel components such as reinforcing steel, tendons in post-
tensioned and pre-tensioned structures and structural steel in composite
construction.
Studies have shown that durable parking structures can be built provided
proper planning and attention to design details, quality controlled construction
and a comprehensive maintenance program is followed to reduce the amount
of contaminates to which the concrete is exposed. Also, rehabilitation of
existing parking structures can be successfully completed with the rate of
deterioration substantially reduced, however not totally arrested unless all
active chloride contaminants are removed, a task extremely difficult and
expensive.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Purpose
The purpose of the this document is to provide specific guidelines for the
design, construction, repair and maintenance of parking garage structures.
Four main types of structural systems are considered:
Objective
The objective is to provide specific details in the areas listed above which will
assist designers and contractors in the construction of new parking garages
and repair of existing structures. The document can act as a reference
document to complement the contract specifications.
Scope
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Chapter 4 moves into the construction stage with emphasis on material testing
and quality control. Successful completion of this stage is critical to the final
product. Good design details will be useless if the construction and testing is
poorly carried out.
Chapter 8 deals with strategies for repair from a technical, practical and
economic point of view.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Chapter 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.3.1 Drainage 10
1.3.2 Expansion Joints 11
1.3.3 Vibrations 12
1.3.4 Tensile Stress Control 12
1.3.5 Embedded Materials 12
1.3.6 Future Requirements 13
1.3.7 Volume Change Effects 13
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Page
REFERENCES 23
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
In order to achieve long term durability and assured high performance a basic
understanding is required of the various deterioration processes affecting both
new and repaired parking structures. Most engineers involved in the design
or repair of parking structures are not usually materials and concrete durability
specialists. Current literature on the corrosion of steel in concrete is
confusing, making important decisions on replacement or repair difficult and
sometimes misleading.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Transitory complex theory - chloride ions compete with ions for the
ferrous ions produced by corrosion to form a soluble complex of iron
chloride. This complex diffuses away from the anode, destroying the
protective layer of Fe(OH)2 and allowing corrosion to continue. More
iron ions then migrate into the concrete away from the corrosion site
and form higher oxides resulting in a four fold volume increase which
in turn leads to internal stresses, delamination, spalling, etc.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Equally important are cracks, the bond between reinforcing steel and concrete
and the cover. In most cases combinations of these factors cause the corrosion
of reinforcement and deterioration of concrete. Deterioration rates are
aggravated and accelerated by poor construction resulting from shortcomings
in design, specifications, supervision and workmanship. Concrete permeability
is the dominate key to overall durability.
Some systems are inherently more durable than others, however the durability
of any structural system can be improved. In the initial design stage, the
designers should consider which system will provide the owner with the most
durable and economic product while at the same time fulfilling all of the
functional requirements. For any system to be durable the steel elements of the
structure have to be isolated from the chloride containing environment. The
first line defence often is the concrete, the quality of which is critical. The
concrete must be of adequate thickness, have a low water-cement ratio,
proper air entrainment, low permeability and proper finishing and curing.
Control joints must be strategically located, tooled and sealed.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
When considering thin slab systems such as waffle slabs and flat slabs
supported on a joist system these factors require consideration.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Disadvantages of this system which can affect durability are the installation
and maintenance of the large number of connections and sealed joints. Welded
connections are often a point of corrosion while failure of sealed joints allow
the ingress of contaminates. Common configurations include solid or hollow
core planks, single, double, triple and quad tees.
It has been stated previously that the design must reflect the environment in
which the structure will be functioning. Closed and open parking garages
operate under very different environments.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Therefore the concrete mix, requirements for isolation joints, ventilation and
waterproofing systems are quite different.
Part 4 of the National Building Code outlines the minimum design load
requirements for parking garage structures. The designer must be very precise
in dealing with loads on the structure not only when the structure is completed
and in service but also loads imposed on the structure during construction.
Often the loads carried by the structure during construction are greater.
Particular attention should be given to exposed roof slabs. Provisions for a
variety of loadings may have to be accounted for such as:
Any of the above items could result in overloading of the slab resulting in
excessive deflection and cracking. The type of waterproofing system used on
the slab would also be affected by the above points.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Car bumper lateral loads also needs consideration from the designer.
Perimeter parapets and interior barrier curbs poured monolithically with the
slab must be designed to withstand car impact loads to avoid damage to the
slab and waterproofing system.
Prior to the start of construction it is critical that the contractor supply the
following information to the design engineer for approval.
1.3.1 Drainage
The designer must be aware of the importance of proper drainage and that it
is essential to structural durability. Three main areas are involved in good
drainage design, namely, proper slopes, proper catchment areas and proper
drains. If the structure is to be durable it is important that the drainage system
has the capacity to rapidly carry the water away and that ponding is not
allowed to occur anywhere. If water, salt laden or not is allowed to pond
deterioration will be accelerated.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
The need for expansion joints should be minimized by the design. Joints in
certain cases are essential to avoid restraints however they represent a
potential pathway for moisture ingress into the deck. The preferred joint is the
isolation joint that achieves total independence of one side of the joint from
the opposite side through the use of separate columns on either side of the
joint.
A sliding joint will provide one side of the joint with vertical support only and
little or no lateral force buildup for the other side. The joint is usually a
bearing assembly that will slide and rotate while supporting the vertical load.
Only slide bearing materials that will not corrode should be used. These
materials might include stainless steel and a low friction polymer. All slide
bearing materials develop some friction, thus the bearing assembly should be
designed to transmit limited horizontal force often combined with variable
rotations and should be adequately attached to the respective structural
elements. It is desirable to prevent differential vertical movement of each side
and horizontal movement parallel to the joint because expansion joint seals
generally have little ability to deform in this manner.
Slide bearings may deteriorate with time, especially if they are not maintained
in a clean and dry condition. It is recommended that bearing stresses on the
sliding joint material be designed for half of the manufacturer's allowable
stress. Experience has shown poor performance may result when full
allowable bearing stresses are developed on some assemblies. Retainers may
be required to keep bearings from moving out of the joint. Well designed slide
bearings that are protected from weather have been observed to perform
reasonably well. Sliding joints should only be used for supporting slabs and
precast floor units.
The performance of slide bearings in supporting beams and girders has been
found to be unsatisfactory in many cases. The heavy reactions of most beam
bearings may cause undesirable cracks due to volume changes. Details should
clearly show concrete being excluded from the required open joint space.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
1.3.3 Vibrations
Acceptable vibration levels are subjective and depend on the sensitivity of the
user. From a durability point of view vibrations can adversely affect an
isolation joint seal. An expansion joint located between cantilevered slabs
experiencing differential vibration or deflection due to vibration could expose
the seal. This in turn could cause premature deterioration from vehicle traffic.
To avoid this problem a shear connection should be provided which allows
horizontal movement but no differential vertical movement.
The rate at which concrete deteriorates and the corrosion process begins is
proportional to the permeability of the concrete but also to the degree of
cracking. Cracks located in areas of tensile stress such as in the negative
moment zones at columns and walls are among the first to yield to weathering
deterioration. Bending stresses can be reduced to noncracking levels by the
use of selective prestressing. At the building perimeter, stiff walls and columns
can reduce prestressing forces. Therefore a higher level of prestressing may
be required. Using temporary hinges at these locations to reduce member
stiffness may also be effective. Refer to Chapter 3 for specific details. Other
methods of reducing cracks due to bending stresses include proper slab depth,
accurate placement of reinforcing to ensure design "d" and construction "d"
are the same, proper concrete cover, adequate quantity of reinforcement, and
using smaller diameter bars closely spaced as opposed to the wider spacing of
larger diameter bars.
Typical materials which have been embedded in the concrete structure include
electrical ducts, parking control cables, security systems, plumbing, door
frames and miscellaneous hardware. Concrete durability will be improved by
not embedding anything in the concrete unless absolutely necessary. Electrical
ducts are commonly laid on top of the lower mat of reinforcing. While
aesthetically superior and less expensive, embedded ducts will eventually
contribute to performance and durability problems. Metal ducts and junction
boxes will corrode which can result in leaching and staining on the slab soffit
around the junction boxes. The ducts also provide passageways for migrating
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
water. If water in the ducts freezes splitting of the duct could result and if the
pressure is large the concrete may spall. For these reasons conduits, junction
boxes and other services are prohibited by the National Building Code from
being embedded in the concrete slab or topping.
At the initial design stage meetings clear direction must be given to the design
team as to whether there are any requirements for either horizontal or vertical
expansions. Expansion plans can affect the connection details, location of
columns, expansion joints, etc. Vertical expansions can affect the design loads
used for the structural slabs, columns and walls. In order to add floors,
shoring of existing floors would be required or the slabs would have to be
designed for the full construction load. Failing to account for the above
implications could result in overloading of the slabs which could cause
cracking or more severe structural distress.
In parking garages that have large plan areas volume change effects must be
taken into consideration. Volume change can be a result of drying shrinkage,
elastic shortening, temperature change and horizontal creep. The end result
of all of the above actions are the development of cracks which in turn
provide access to moisture, chlorides and other aggressive chemicals.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Creep is a time dependent change which results in long term deflections under
sustained loads. Cracking at mid-span soffits and in surface tension zones can
be the result. Creep can result in larger magnitude changes than the short term
elastic shortening.
1.4.1.1 Drainage
As mentioned in section 1.3.1 properly drained slabs which do not allow water
to pond have significant benefits from a durability point of view. Chapter 2
deals with specific design requirements in this area for new parking structures.
For the repair of existing parking structures Chapters 7 and 8 will cover the
investigation of drainage patterns and improvement techniques.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
1.4.1.2 Concrete
Good quality concrete is the main component in the design for durability.
Regardless of the type of structural system, design details or internal/external
protection systems without high quality low permeability concrete durability
seldom, if ever, can be achieved. The basic requirements of a durable concrete
mix are:
The quality of the pore system will determine the permeability of the concrete
and its ability to resist chemical attack from acids, carbon dioxide, sulphates,
alkali-aggregate reactivity and from other environmentally induced attack
caused by moisture penetration. Concrete consists of three main ingredients,
cement, water and aggregate. As simple as this may seem these materials are
not always selected properly. Concrete durability requirements are outlined
in section 15 of CSA Standard CAN/CSA-A23.1-M90. Cement types are also
outlined in this CSA Standard for various environments. Water must be of
drinkable quality and free from injurious amounts of oil, acid, alkali, soluble
chlorides, organic matter, sediment, or any other deleterious substance.
Reference can be made to the above code in section 4.0. Both fine and course
aggregate must also conform to A23.1 section 5.0. Gradation, chloride ion
content and expansive qualities are some of the properties which require
quantification.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
1.4.1.3 Additives
Corrosion inhibitors are generally more expensive than the products listed
above and their use on a particular project would have to be assessed on an
individual basis from a cost/benefit point of view. Calcium nitrite is a common
product which reacts with ferrous ions to protect uncoated steel. It should be
noted that this can delay corrosion but with a continual supply of chloride ions
from external sources the calcium nitrite may be used up and corrosion of the
reinforcing will begin.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
1.4.1.4 Admixtures
Fly ash has cementitious properties and is a residue resulting from the
combustion of ground or powdered coal. It improves the workability and
final strength of the concrete and it usually improves impermeability. Concrete
containing fly ash initially gains strength at a slower rate than normal concrete
however final strength is unaffected. Due to this fly ash is not normally used
in post-tensioned parking structures.
Silica fume is another by-product of industry. The silica particles occupy some
of the spaces between the cement particles and react chemically with the
cement. Strength, impermeability and electrical resistivity are all improved.
The improvement in permeability takes approximately one year to fully
develop. Again, assurances from the manufacturer on compatibility should be
obtained. Concrete mixes containing silica fume require careful attention to
finishing and curing. Granulated blast furnace slag cement used as an
admixture reduces permeability and thus enhances durability. It is available in
Central Canada. If exposed to freezing and thawing cycles it is prone to
scaling.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
1.4.1.5 Reinforcement
Cover is only one aspect of protection and is only effective if good quality,
highly impermeable concrete has been used. In order to ensure that the
specified cover is achieved in the field accurate initial placement of the bars
are required. This entails adequate chair bars, well secured ties, proper
placement of the concrete and minimizing construction traffic in areas where
the reinforcement has been completed, conscientious quality control on site,
accurate placement of formwork and finishing.
Epoxy coating of reinforcing was first initiated by the United States Federal
Highway Administration in the 1960's for the use on bridge decks. It was
found that it provided an impervious, tough, bendable coating. The epoxy
powder coating was applied by the electrostatic spray fusion-bonding process.
Minimum requirements are now specified in CAN/CSA S413-87, Table 1
Section 7.0. This table has now been revised in the S413-94 edition.
Using fibre reinforced concrete improves the crack resistance of the concrete
during finishing and curing. In parking garage structures non ferrous fibres are
recommended such as polypropylene. This type of mix has been used as a
patching material, in-filling temporary isolation joints such as pour strips
where the configuration is narrow and as toppings.
Regardless of the structural system or materials being employed if good sound construction practices
are not followed performance and durability of the parking structure will not be achieved. Often,
quality control on the site is the weak link in the sequence of events which take a project from the
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
computer to the finished structure. Concrete quality is affected by many different operations carried
out by a number of companies from mixing to curing. Prior to construction a meeting should be held
with the owner, general contractor, finishing contractor, forming contractor, testing company, design
engineers and anyone else whose work will affect the concrete. Each stage of the process should be
reviewed with clearly defined expectations by the owners design team identified and responsibilities
of the construction team laid out. The meeting should cover producing, delivering, placing, finishing
and curing each type of concrete on the project.
CSA Standard A23.1 and A23.2 outlines requirements for construction and testing methods. These
topics are dealt with in detail in Chapter 4.
Formwork requirements are outlined in CAN/CSA A23.1-M90 section 11.0. Falsework is covered
in CAN/CSA S269.1.
1.4.2.1 Sealants
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
1.4.2.2 Sealers
A properly functioning sealer can extend the life of a sound concrete surface.
Sealers cannot bridge wide cracks. The purpose of a coating type of sealer is
to provide a protective coating to prevent water and water-borne salts from
penetrating the concrete surface. A good penetrating sealer should penetrate
the concrete surface to a depth of 2mm. Sealers have a finite life span and
must be re-applied at specified intervals. The manufacturer should be
consulted as to the life span and reapplication should be incorporated into the
repair and maintenance schedule. This will be discussed further in later
chapters.
1.4.2.3 Membranes
Membranes are significantly different than sealers as they do not penetrate the
concrete but provide a waterproofing layer over the concrete. Membranes can
bridge cracks to varying degrees and typically provide greater durability
however are more expensive. They are classed as either a "thin" or "thick"
membrane.
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1.4.2.4 Overlays
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Polymer concrete overlays can be divided into 3 types which are polymer-
impregnated concrete, polymer-modified concrete and polymer-based
concrete. Polymer-impregnated concrete has had very limited use due to the
large capital investment required for production. Polymer-modified concrete
is a mix of regular concrete with a latex emulsion. The latex quantity is
normally 10 to 15% by weight of concrete. This type of overlay is discussed
in chapter 2 section 2.2.12. Polymer-based concretes replace the cement and
water from a normal mix with a liquid resin. The most commonly used are
epoxies and MMA. Polymer concrete overlays of all types tend to be
expensive and life cycle cost analysis has to be performed to determine the
cost effectiveness of the addition of a polymer concrete overlay.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
REFERENCES
2. American Concrete Institute, Guide to Durable Concrete, ACI 201, April 1992.
4. Suter Keller Inc., Parking Structures: Extent, Causes and Repair Considerations,
CMHC, March 1986.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
7. The ENO Foundation for Highway Traffic Control, Traffic Design of Parking
Garages, 1957.
9. Litvan G., Bickley J., Durability of Parking Structures: Analysis of Field Survey,
Concrete Durability Katherine and Bryant Mather International Conference, Vol. 2,
ACI SP-100, 1987.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Chapter 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
2.1 GENERAL 27
2.2 DESIGN
2.2.1 Concrete 28
2.2.2 Additives 29
2.2.2.1 Air-Entraining Additives 29
2.2.2.2 Water-Reducing Additives (WRA) 30
2.2.2.3 Superplasticizers (High Range Water-Reducers) 30
2.2.2.4 Corrosion Inhibiting Additives 31
2.2.4 Layout 34
2.2.5 Drainage Design Details 35
2.2.6 Volume Change Control Measures 36
2.2.7 Concrete Cover 37
2.2.8 Protection of Reinforcing Steel With Coatings 38
2.2.9 Prestressing and Post-tensioning Anchors 40
2.2.10 Embedded Materials 40
2.2.11 Waterproofing Systems and Sealers 41
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Page
2.2.12 Overlays 42
2.2.12.1 Normal or High Early Strength Portland Cement 42
Superplasticized Low Slump Dense Concrete
2.2.12.2 Latex-Modified Concrete 43
2.2.12.3 Silica Fume Concrete Overlay 44
2.2.13 Connections 45
2.4 CONSTRUCTION 52
2.5 MAINTENANCE 53
REFERENCES 53
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
2.1 GENERAL
Parking structures are unique due to many significant factors which affect
their performance. In Chapters 2 and 3 specific design and construction
details in parking structures are discussed which should be incorporated into
the design philosophy to improve durability. All factors affect durability to
varying degrees. Some of these factors include special structural features,
volume change, cracking, joints and joint seals, control of surface water and
unique loading. Durability is dependent on the design, construction and
maintenance of the structure.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
2.2 DESIGN
2.2.1 Concrete
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
2.2.2 Additives
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
WRA's are based on lignosuphonate which is a waste product from the pulp
and paper industry. Chemicals such as hydroxylated carboxylic acids and
carbohydrates are also used.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Anodic inhibitors have the ability to accept electrons but are only effective if
used in high concentrations. Most of these chemicals are not commercially
available for use as a concrete additive in North America except for calcium
nitrite.
Calcium Nitrite - A corrosion inhibitor that delays the onset of and reduces
the rate of corrosion of the reinforcing steel. It also acts as an accelerator of
concrete hydration.
Precautions:
Powdered inorganic salt normally requires manual addition at the mixer that
needs experienced and knowledgable personnel. Powders can be added with
the sand or with the gauge water or after the initial batching cycle is
completed.
Calcium nitrite when used with other additives should be added separately and
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Calcium nitrite inhibitor accelerates the set of the concrete and may require
a retardant when the ambient and mix temperatures exceed 35oC. In the same
manner corrosion inhibitors which set-retard may require an accelerator to
prevent slow early strength development.
Fly Ash is a mineral admixture of the finely divided residue resulting from the
combustion of ground or powdered coal.
Fly ash decreases concrete permeability (one of the most important durability
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Modifies the products of cement hydration so that they are less harmful in
reactions with sulphates or reactive aggregates.
Pumpability is improved.
Mix Proportions - The most effect method is trial batching and testing for
each application to establish strength, air content, etc. From an economical
standpoint the normal proportions are:
Class F fly ash - 15 to 25% of cementitious material
Class C fly ash - 15 to 35% of cementitious material
Precautions - The set time of the fresh concrete is retarded. The finishing
stage must therefore be delayed appropriately. Finishing the concrete too early
can trap bleed water creating a weak plane near the surface. Admixtures such
as silica fume can be added to increase the early strength gain.
Fly ash characteristics are source dependent and strength and the rate of
strength gain will be dependent on the particular fly ash, cement and the
proportioning of each in the concrete mix.
Drying shrinkage may increase slightly if the water content remains constant
and there is an increase in the paste volume. If there is a water content
reduction the dry shrinkage will be the same as a mix without fly ash.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Mix Proportions - The proportions used are dependent on the end use of
concrete, curing temperature and the grade of the GGBF slag. In general it is
used in proportions of 25 to 50% by mass of the total cementitious material.
2.2.4 Layout
The layout of the parking structure with respect to major restraining elements
such as stairwells, elevator towers and perimeter walls will a significant effect
on the ability of the concrete to resist cracking especially for large plan areas.
Walls should be arranged so that they do not restrain the normal volumetric
changes accompanying post-tensioning, temperature changes, shrinkage and
creep. These effects are more significant in parking structures than in other
structures. Walls should be located at or near the centre of rigidity of the
structure, whether in the interior or on the perimeter.
Designers should consider factors such as not tying the more flexible
superstructure to the less flexible foundation structure, avoid tying the stair
and/or elevator towers, which are usually relatively rigid to the flexible
superstructure and giving attention to the need for isolation, control and
construction joints and locating them in the most effective locations.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
3. Drainage areas should not exceed 400m2. Runoff should never cross
an expansion joint or turn a corner in order to reach a drain.
4. Slabs should always slope away from walls, columns, parapets, and
any other vertical surface.
5. Drains must be properly sized for the design storm and have a
minimum grate drainage area of 33000mm2. The drain must have a
integral 6mm anti-ponding feature or be set 6mm below the floor
surface. Hinged grates that close when released are recommended for
parking garages. Grates which are screw fastened are difficult to lift
and often the screws are not replaced by the maintenance personnel.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Specific Durability Design And Construction Details
Refer to S413-87 Section 7.6 for design requirements pertaining to slopes and
drainage. In the second edition refer to section 7.5.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Durability Aspects of the Design of Post-tensioned Parking Structures
1. For large plan areas the structure should be divided into smaller areas
with either permanent or temporary joints. Table 2.1 provides
recommendations for typical joint spacings for different structural
systems.
3. Installing temporary pour strips joints allows for the release of early
age volume changes due to elastic shortening, temperature movement,
and shrinkage. At the pour strip all steel should be epoxy coated and
the concrete mix for strip concrete must be specifically designed to
control shrinkage. Fibre reinforced concrete is recommended. Control
joints transverse to the strip should be placed at spacing equal to the
pour strip width.
4. At the slab on grade isolate the column from the slab by the use of a
compressible joint.
S413 supercedes A23.1 for minimum cover in the areas listed below.
top reinforcement, tendon sheaths, ducts: with membrane 40mm
exposed 50mm
top mesh 40mm
bottom reinforcement, tendon sheaths, ducts
30mm
bars in vertical elements protected by a membrane extending
100mm above the floor and down to the foundation at the lowest
floor or by a sealer in accordance with clause 7.3.11. 40mm
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Durability Aspects of the Design of Post-tensioned Parking Structures
Minimum actual cover over top reinforcement and mesh in concrete slab or
topping shall be 25mm. Minimum actual concrete cover to top reinforcing
bars and tendon sheaths in post-tensioned concrete 35mm.
0 68 m. max. 91 m. max.
1 at centre 137 m. max. 183 m. max.
at 1/3 points 206 m. max. 275 m. max.
Table 2.1
For steel structures the specified cover slab thickness over the steel deck
flutes shall be a minimum of 90mm. Strength and serviceability requirements
may dictate a thicker section. Encased structural steel members should have
70mm minimum cover.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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There has been many discussions, papers and some on going controversy
regarding the connection between excessive slab cracking and the use of
epoxy coated steel. Manufactures, researchers, and consultants all have
varying opinions on the relationship. The designer of parking garages
specifying epoxy coated steel should be aware of this potential problem. A
suitable waterproofing membrane must be chosen which can bridge the cracks
satisfactorily.
5. Perimeter steel around slab and vertical component openings that are
prone to cracking.
Other coatings that are available are cement mortar slurry, polymer-modified
cement slurry and zinc rich primers. These coatings apply mainly to repair
applications rather than new construction.
The cement mortar slurry provides good protection because of the high
alkaline environment, however the bars in the surrounding concrete corrode.
This is due to the higher pH level in the patch area. The bar within the repair
zone becomes the protected cathode and the bar in the surrounding concrete
becomes the corroding anode.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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touching up any damaged areas in the coating must be done prior to placing
the concrete.
In most cases deterioration in the area of the anchoring systems is one of the
first areas to experience problems. Chapter 3 "Durability Aspects of the
Design of Post-tensioned Parking Structures" provides details of how to
safeguard these areas for both bonded and unbonded systems.
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Apart from the layout of the structural components and slab slopes the
waterproofing membrane and sealers provide the first line of defence against
contaminates which initiate deterioration. S413-94 Table 1 outlines minimum
requirements for protection systems related to the concrete structural system.
2.2.12 Overlays
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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The use of overlays must be done with caution and only after careful
assessment by the restoration engineer. Problems which have been
encountered in the past include:
3. The lower concrete continues to deteriorate and the only way to reach
it is to destroy the new overlay concrete.
2.2.12.1 Normal or High Early Strength Portland Cement (LSDC), Superplasticized Low
Slump Dense Concrete (SLSDC)
2. Once the concrete has set clean all dust and debris from the
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surface.
3. Dampen
4. A thick slurry is then brushed onto the base slab. The slurry
consists of a 1:1 mix of Portland cement and sand (passing the
no. 8 sieve) combined with a water/latex mixture.
5. Place the overlay prior to the slurry drying out. The slurry
should not be allowed to puddle. The overlay should be
compacted and finished with a disc type power floating
machine.
Placing Techniques:
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Silica fume is a pozzolana that forms reaction products with the lime from
hydrated cement and reduces the volume of large pores and capillaries
normally found in cement paste.
Mix Proportions - Slurry form - 7.5 to 9.0% silica fume by weight of cement.
Precautions - Adding silica fume to the mix increases the amount of required
water due to the fineness of the particles. To offset this superplasticizer is
added to the mix.
Silica fume can vary in properties depending on the source. The variations can
influence the colour of the concrete.
Adding silica fume to the mix as a slurry affects the flow properties of the mix,
virtually eliminating bleed water. This could result in premature drying of the
surface which can result in plastic shrinkage cracks. Proper curing is essential.
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2.2.13 Connections
In exterior columns such as shown in figure 3.6 high joint moments can be
present. Top reinforcement in the beam may require special anchorage details
and must be considered by the designer. Shear within the joint caused by the
negative moment may exceed the shear capacity of the concrete and ties could
be required within the joint.
Shear in the columns may require increased tie reinforcement throughout the
column height. Where column vertical bars are lapped development of column
vertical bars and tie requirements need special attention by the designer.
Limiting the moment transferred to the column is one method of reducing the
shear. This is dealt with in chapter 3 in more detail.
In flat slab and flat plate construction similar design problems must also be
addressed at the column-slab intersections.
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2.3.1 Precast
Design Considerations
Live Loads - For proper performance the design engineer must examine the
behaviour of the structure not only for their code specified loads, but also for
the realistic live loads that actually exist in a parking structure. A realistic live
load of 1.2 KPa. is recommended. In areas of average snow loads, the snow
load may be added to this realistic live load. In areas of heavy snow loads,
engineering judgement in combining the loads should be used.
1. For live loading where deicing chemicals are used, "the level
of prestress, for prestressed members without supplementary
mild steel, shall be chosen such that, under a realistic live load,
the flexural tensile stress in the precompressed tensile zone not
exceed 7.5 (f'c)1/2. This will ensure that the concrete is
supporting the loads as an uncracked section which will
enhance performance and durability."10
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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Topping
Joints - Common problems with the joints of precast concrete structures are:
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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Cranked Double Tees - Cranked double tees can be used to frame interior
driving ramps instead of expensive interior framing. This results in simplifying
framing, reducing the number of components and types of connection details
which translates into increased performance and durability.
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6. Oversize the top bearing plate to minimize the potential for the
build up of debris on the lower plate.
2.4 CONSTRUCTION
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2.5 MAINTENANCE
As part of the design stage, long term maintenance of the garage must be a
consideration in order to achieve satisfactory performance levels. At this stage
maintenance should be in the budget and a preliminary plan developed.
Maintenance should be considered an ongoing process with the thought being
to identify and rectify the problems at an early stage to avoid major and costly
repairs at a later date.
1. cleaning
2. inspection and repair of the structure, protection system and drainage
3. recommendations for snow removal equipment and procedures to
minimize damage
4. recommendations for observed conditions which require inspection by
a professional engineer.
Reference should be made to Chapter 5 which deals with the operation and
maintenance of parking structures in detail.
REFERENCES
2. American Concrete Institute, Guide to Durable Concrete, ACI 201, April 1992.
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Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
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4. Suter Keller Inc., Parking Structures: Extent, Causes and Repair Considerations,
CMHC, March 1986.
7. The ENO Foundation for Highway Traffic Control, Traffic Design of Parking
Garages, 1957.
9. Litvan G., Bickley J., Durability of Parking Structures: Analysis of Field Survey,
Concrete Durability Katherine and Bryant Mather International Conference, Vol. 2,
ACI SP-100, 1987.
14. American Concrete Institute, Concrete International, Distress Due to Sun Camber
in a Long-Span Roof of a Parking Garage, July 1988, Volume 10, no. 7, pages 42
to 50.
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Chapter 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
3.1 GENERAL 58
3.5 COVER 64
3.7 DRAINAGE 71
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Page
REFERENCES 76
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3.1 GENERAL
Most post-tensioned parking structures built in the 60's and 70's have
deteriorated to varying degrees due to penetration of deicing salts and water.
Virtually all post-tensioned parking structures were constructed using
unbonded or ungrouted tendons.
A lot has been learned from the deterioration and failures of these parking
structures built in the 60's and 70's.
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One of the most effective durability elements of a parking structure is the use
of epoxy coated reinforcement. If a completely effective waterproofing
membrane is used, the use of epoxy coated reinforcement is not absolutely
essential but still adds protection in case of failure of the waterproofing
system. Post-tensioned parking structures built in the United States and
Canada have frequently not used a waterproofing membrane, reliance being
placed on a sealer applied to the surface. In this case, the use of epoxy coated
rebar is essential.
In the case of unbonded tendons, the steel strand is coated with corrosion
inhibiting grease and fully encapsulated in a plastic sheathing by the process
of extrusion, over its entire length. The watertight encapsulation also includes
the tendon ends . End anchorages, couplings and other post-tensioning
hardware is provided with corrosion protection by means of epoxy coating or
plastic encapsulation. Extreme care has to be taken during construction to
ensure that there is no damage to the encapsulation. The plastic encapsulation
is supposed to provide protection to the prestressing steel against water
penetration. The grease is intended to break the bond between steel and
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Anchorages: Anchorage system must meet all requirements below and those
of PTI Guide Specifications for aggressive environments. All anchor plates
should be epoxy coated or plastic encapsulated. Tie wires shall not be
tightened to the extent that the tendon sheath is cut or damaged during
installation or tendon stressing.
Anchor Cap:
1. Stressing Ends: Plastic cap should fit tightly, covering
stressing end of barrel and wedges, and should be fitted with
sealing device. Cap should allow minimum 40 mm protrusion
of strand beyond wedges.
2. Intermediate Stressing Ends: This plastic cap, similar to
above, should be used with exception that cap should be open
to allow passage of strand.
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Sleeve: A Plastic sleeve should be used on bearing side of the anchor casting
which will prevent moisture leaks into anchor casting or tendon sheathing.
Plastic sleeve should be 250 mm long, minimum and sealed at the ends with
moisture-proof tape. Wrapping exposed tendons or anchor assemblies with
duct tape or any other type is not acceptable.
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Mid length duct joints, if not properly sealed, may let in concrete mortar and
later during grouting operations cause problems. A partially grouted duct will
create a durability problem for the prestressing steel.
The two primary purposes a grout must fulfil in post-tensioned members are
to inhibit corrosion by encapsulation of the steel in an alkaline environment
and to have the ability to transfer bond stresses between the prestressing steel
and the duct enclosing the grout.
For detailed requirements for Cement Grout for Bonded Tendons refer to
CAN/CSA A23.1-M90. A summary is given below:
. Materials
Cement, water, aggregate, air entraining agent, expansion agent, w/c
ratio not to exceed 0.45
. Use colloidal mixer for mixing.
. Test grout for
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- Fluidity
- Bleed water
- Minimum grout strength 20 MPa at 7 days
- Corrosion inducing chemicals, e.g. chlorides and nitrates.
3.5 COVER
Increasing concrete cover over reinforcing steel increases the distance the
chlorides must travel in the concrete to cause corrosion. Minimum cover
recommended for enhancing protection against water and salt ingress is 40
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mm. This is required wherever water or salt come in contact with concrete
surface. Generally speaking these areas include the top and edges of slabs,
column and wall surfaces. Fireproofing requirements should also be
considered; in some cases fireproofing may require a larger cover.
3.6.2 Creep
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3.6.4 Temperature
The more flexible is the supporting structure the smaller are tensile stresses
produced in the floor structure and less cracking is likely to occur. The
restraining elements should be so placed and detailed that they provide least
amount of restraint possible to floor structure shortening. See figure 3.1 for
arrangement of restraining walls.
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Figure 3.1 shows an example of poorly placed walls in a building. The walls
are placed in such a manner that they will restrain the shortening of the slab,
thereby inducing excessive stresses and cracking.
! Column Cracks
Columns supporting post-tensioned beams can develop shear cracks
depending on the relative stiffness of the column and the beam.
Typically short columns at split levels in parking structures absorb a
considerable amount of prestress from the beam which results in large
shear forces in the columns. Figure 3.4 shows a typical example.
Large shear forces can be induced in full height columns, if the
columns are very large due to architectural reasons. Columns tied to
half height walls, as shown in Figure 3.5, also develop large shear
forces because the columns are very stiff due to the presence of the
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walls. Tensile forces in the slab build up along the length of the
building. Therefore, end columns of long buildings are particularly
susceptible. Figure 3.6 illustrates this problem. The moments and
shears generated in the columns due to this displacement, should be
accounted for in the design of such columns.
! Wall Cracks
Figure 3.7 illustrates the most common crack formation due to overall
behaviour of walls tied to post-tensioned slabs. The diagonal tension
cracks form because of the force exerted on the wall by the movement
of the slab. It should be noted that this type of stress develops only
if the other end of the slab is also rigidly connected to a rigid concrete
wall. If the other end is connected to a relatively flexible member, all
the movement can take place on the other side. The member on the
other side should then be designed to resist the movement or other
measures (described later) should be introduced.
The most effective way to mitigate restraint cracks is to plan the placement
of rigid supporting elements in a way that the horizontal shrinkage and
expansion of the floor structure can take place with as little restraint as
possible. The walls should be placed symmetrically, the wall with the strong
axis in the direction of movement should be placed at or near the point of the
movement. Figure 3.1 illustrates some favourable and unfavourable
arrangements of walls.
All parking structures, stair and elevator shafts are usually placed on the outer
periphery of the building. There is a tendency by design engineers to use
these to resist lateral loads. This should be avoided, i.e. stair and elevator
shafts at the perimeter should be isolated from the main structure by means of
expansion joints and other locations in the structure should be selected for
shear wall placement as illustrated in Figure 3.1 Any other small appendages
to the main building should be separated from the main structural system by
means of expansion joints (see Figure 3.8).
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A closure strip or a pour strip is a temporary gap left between two regions of
slab to be post-tensioned separately. Each region separately is allowed to
undergo initial elastic shortening due to post-tensioning and initial drying
shrinkage. After a period of 30-60 days, the gap is closed with non-shrink
concrete and conventional bonded reinforcement. The width of the closure
strip is determined by the space required for stressing operations because
intermediate stressing is required at a closure strip. Closure strips are usually
located at quarter points of the slab where the moment is usually the
minimum. For corrosion protection it is emphasized that the stressing ends
of the tendons terminating in a closure strip should be cut, sealed and grouted
in the same manner as a free edge. As indicated in Figure 3.9. additional
epoxy coated re-bar should be added across the joints to make up for the
crack resistance of monolithic concrete.
! If slab length is larger than 80 meters, but less than 110 meters
provide one centrally located closure strip.
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Wall/Slab Release
A typical wall slab release detail is shown in Figure 3.10 to illustrate this
concept. In the case of a ground floor slab with basement, casting the ground
floor slab over and on top of the basement walls should be avoided.
Basement walls should be placed outside the structural system as illustrated
in Figure 3.11. The basement walls should be cast after the stressing
operations are complete so as not to lose prestressing force into the basement
walls.
Beam/Slab/Column Release
Columns may either be designed to withstand full anticipated stresses due to
volume changes of the slab structure or the joints may be released to partially
mitigate the stress levels. A temporary release of the beam/column joint can
be achieved as shown in Figure 3.12 to allow shortening of the beam during
post-tensioning. Figure 3.13 illustrates a detail to create a hinge at the bases
of the columns to reduce their stiffness and their resistance to movement of
the floor structure.
It should be noted that implementation of release joints improves the
serviceability of the structure at the cost of structural redundancy.
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Slab Joints
Any isolated pieces of slabs as illustrated in Figure 3.8 should be separated
from the main structure by means of through slab joints. These are planes of
weakness in the slab and, if not isolated, cracks usually develop at locations
like this.
Wall Joints
Concrete walls or block walls which are full height and tightly built between
the columns and the floor structure should be provided with joints as
illustrated in Figure 3.15 This is applicable to those walls which are non-
bearing and do not form part of the lateral load resisting system.
Additional Reinforcement
In addition to well planned layout of shear walls and supporting structures and
provision of releases, it is necessary to place additional rebars or post-
tensioning tendons at locations of potential distress to mitigate crack
formation. Figure 3.15 illustrates potential locations.
S + SV < SP + MR
S = Stress due to Bending
SV = Stress due to Volume Change
SP = Stress due to Post-Tensioning
MR = Modulus of Rupture of Concrete
SP should be kept about 1 MPa (150 psi) more than that required by
bending alone.
3.7 DRAINAGE
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In the case of unbonded tendons along with all the durability factors noted
above, the Post-tensioning Institute recommends use of a high quality
penetrating sealer. Sealer application will have to be repeated depending on
the quality of the product and application. Sealers should not be specified if
reapplication of sealer cannot be assured. Sealers slow the penetration of
water but do not bridge cracks. Silane sealers are penetrating type while
polyurethanes are surface sealers. Polyurethane sealers are subject to ultra-
violet degradation. In the case of bonded tendons with steel ducts and
uncoated strands, the use of a waterproofing membrane is a must. In the case
of unbonded tendons a life cycle cost analysis should be carried out to
determine whether a sealer or a waterproofing membrane is more beneficial.
Please refer to Chapter 9 for detailed discussion of sealers.
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3.9.2 Formwork
Deicing chemicals should not be used to melt snow and ice on the formwork.
Plastic coated chairs, tie wire and concrete blocks should be used to support
post-tensioning tendons. Tie wire should not project into the concrete cover
and should not damage tendon sheaths by tightening the sheaths excessively.
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Bases of all walls and columns should be protected as shown in Fig 3.17 and
installation of dykes around the column footings be considered.
In the case of normal spread footings or piled foundations, the slab on grade
usually provides enough protection against water and chloride ingress.
However, in the case of raft foundation, special precautions have to be taken.
Epoxy coated rebar should be used in the top layer of the raft. In addition, a
waterproofing membrane should be provided. All other durability factors
discussed earlier for a structural slab should be followed. Due to the
possibility of migration of moisture from the bottom of the raft to the top
surface, there may be durability problems with use of a waterproofing
membrane. Consideration should be given to using a 100mm to 150 mm thick
dense concrete overlay to provide protection.
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5. Shear walls are located near the centre of the building to allow for
movement of the structure.
7. The basement walls are isolated from the ground floor structure in
order to allow volume changes. The basement wall were cast after the
ground floor was post-tensioned.
8. Stair and elevator shafts are separated from the main building by
means of expansion joints to allow for volume changes.
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REFERENCES
1. Aalami, Bijan O. and Barth, Florian G., Restraint Cracks and their Mitigation in
Unbonded Post-Tensioned Building Structures, Post-Tensioning Institute,
Phoenix, Arizona.
3. Chrest, Anthony, P., Smith, Mary S., and Bhuyan, Sam, Parking Structures, 1989.
8. Mailvaganam, Noel P., Repair and Protection of Concrete Structures, CRC Press,
1991
76
List of Figures:
Fig. 3.1 Planning and Layout of Shear Walls To Mitigate Slab Crack
3.2 Irregular Slab Plans Showing Crack Formation
3.3 Cracking in Slabs
3.4 Cracking in Short Column at Split Level of Parking Structure
3.5 Wall - Column Release
3.6 Locations of Potential Distress Due to Shortening of Post-tensioning
Slabs in Multi-storey Buildings
3.7 Cracks in Wall Due to Slab Movement
3.8 Slab Isolation Locations
3.9 Details of Slab Joints
3.10 Temporary Release
3.11 Wall/Slab Release
3.12 Temporary Release during Stressing
3.13 Hinged Construction At Base of End Columns
3.14 Non-load Bearing Wall Detail
3.15 Crack Mitigating Rebar Next to Shear Walls
3.16 End Anchorage Protection
3.17 Wall and Column Base Protection
3.18 Example of Parking Structure
3.19 Example of Parking Structure
3.20 Example of Parking Structure
3.21 Example of Parking Structure
3.22 Typical Connection Between Column and Post-tensioned Beam
3.23 Example of Unbonded Monostrand Post-tensioned Anchor
Durability Guidelines for Parking Garages
Material Testing and Quality Control During the Construction of Parking Garages
Chapter 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
4.1 GENERAL 78
4.2 COMMUNICATION 78
REFERENCES 95
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4.1 GENERAL
4.2 COMMUNICATION
In most cases, the lowest bidder wins the Contract. It is therefore essential
that the tender documents should be complete, and clearly convey the
intentions of the Engineer. Design, materials, testing and inspection
requirements for a parking structure are more stringent than those of an
ordinary building consisting of a similar structural system. Any special
requirements should be very clearly stated in the Tender Documents.
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Compressive strength
A minimum of one strength test should be conducted for every 100 m3 of
concrete placed or one test for every pour or class of concrete, if the pour is
less than 100 m3. A set of three cylinders should be obtained from a random
sample of concrete. One should be tested at 7 days and two at 28 days. In
addition, cylindrical samples should be cast within the structure and later
removed for testing to help determine in-situ strength of concrete prior to
stripping the forms. Refer to CSA Test Method A23.2-20C.
Pull out tests can also be used to determine the in-situ strength of concrete.
A pullout test measures the force required to pull a specially shaped steel rod
or disc out of the hardened concrete into which it has been cast. Because of
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its shape, the steel rod is pulled out with a cone of concrete whose surface
slope is approximately 45 degrees to the vertical. Pullout test equipment is
commercially available. The manufacturer of the equipment publishes a
recommended relationship, relating pullout force to the compressive strength
of standard cylinders. Each test takes approximately 2 minutes and it is
recommended that about 10 inserts be used for each 100 m3 of concrete
placed. A primary use of pullout testing is to determine the safe removal time
for forms or the earliest time at which post-tensioning may take place. The
inserts have to be preplaced in the forms before concreting. As the inserts
may be lost or misplaced, this is perceived as a disadvantage of this testing
method. Another disadvantage of this method is that during winter
construction this method tests the strength of concrete in the best protected
area of the slab, which is the soffit. This test method cannot predict the
strength near the top surface of the slab, in winter conditions it is the top
surface which gets the least protection and heat.
Slump
A slump test should be made with every strength test. Slump is a measure of
workability of concrete. Recommended slump for parking slabs and beams
is 80 mm, the allowable variation is +/- 30 mm. Excessive slump can lead to
segregation of materials in the mix. Too low a slump will make the concrete
hard to place in areas of closely spaced reinforcing steel. High or low slump
will affect the durability of concrete. In concrete with a slump high enough
to the point of segregation, the top surface of the concrete will end up with
excessive water and cement paste. The aggregates tend to settle thereby
producing non-uniform strength, a weak surface and excessive permeability.
In concrete with too low a slump, air pockets around areas of closely spaced
rebar may be left and concrete will be difficult to consolidate.
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Air Content
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All the above factors can result in segregation, voids, honeycomb, large air
and water pockets, if not carried out by experienced personnel.
Once the concrete has been placed and finished, curing and protection of the
concrete must begin immediately until the concrete hydration process has been
completed. Curing is required in both hot and cold weather. Freshly placed
concrete requires protection from freezing, high temperatures, rapid
temperature gradients, premature drying and moisture loss in order to develop
the specified properties. All concrete requires a basic curing period as
outlined in the code as either 3 days at a minimum temperature of 10oC or the
time required to gain 35% of the specified 28 day compressive strength. In
the case of C-1 exposure concrete there is an additional curing requirement
for durability. The code states that the concrete be cured for an additional 4
days at a minimum temperature of 10oC or the time it takes for the concrete
to reach 70% of the specified compressive design strength.
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Cure concrete using water. In extremely cold weather conditions, wet curing
may not be practical; however the use of a curing compounds is presently
prohibited by CSA S413. Using insulated tarps over the top surface of slabs
heated from below is necessary in cold weather concreting.
Design of structural slabs is based upon the effective depth (d) of the slab.
Effective depth is the dimension from the surface of the compression face of
the concrete to the centre of the reinforcing bar in the tension zone in the
direction being considered. Slab strength and deflection is dependant on the
reinforcing steel being placed in accordance with the designer's design criteria.
To help ensure that the reinforcing is placed accurately, the following
recommendations are listed:
1. Whenever possible use the same diameter bar throughout the top mat
reinforcing. This results in the fewest number of chair sizes being
required and therefore less chance for mistakes and the thickness of
cover over the steel is more uniform.
2. For top reinforcing, use a minimum 15 M diameter bar. This bar size
will less likely suffer permanent deformation during the placement of
the concrete or if stepped on by workers, loaded by the storage of
reinforcing, buggies, compressors etc., which are often present on the
formwork surface prior to casting the slab.
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6. Only epoxy coated wire ties should be used with epoxy coated steel.
8. Epoxy coated bars should not be cut on the site. All exposed ends
should be painted with epoxy paint.
Definitions
Falsework - The structural supports and the necessary bracing required for the
support of temporary loads during construction.
1. The plywood seams must be tight to prevent the cement paste from
bleeding out, resulting in poor quality concrete. This often occurs at
column and beam corners and at the edges of drop panels.
2. All debris such as saw dust, wood, reinforcing ties and nails etc. must
be removed from the formwork. Debris often collects at the top of
the previously poured columns and along the edges of the drop panels
and beams. If the debris is not completely removed concrete will be
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2. The moisture levels in the slab should not exceed those recommended
by the manufacturer.
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7. Vehicles should be kept off the slab until the wearing course has been
placed and cured.
A. General
.1 Pre-construction Meeting
.2 Retain an experienced material testing agency
.3 Keep records
D. Reinforcement - Review
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F. Joints
.1 Construction Joints
.2 Expansion Joints
.3 Contact of dissimilar materials
G. Drainage
.1 Floor slopes
.2 Drain placement
.3 Types of drains
.4 Flood test to determine areas of ponding and fix. Repair leaks
at drains, construction joints and expansion joints.
H. Miscellaneous
.1 Surface preparation
.2 Curing compound not be used
.3 Moisture content of substrate
.4 Ambient temperatures at time of application
.5 Application rate of membrane material or sealer
.6 Sealer penetration
.7 Membrane turned up at columns and walls
.8 Sealer protection at vertical surfaces
.9 Membrane connection to drains and expansion joints
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J. Joints
K. Drains
L. Miscellaneous
4.6.1 General
General quality control requirements are the same as for normal reinforced
concrete structures as listed in 4.5.1 to 4.5.8. Special requirements for post-
tensioned structures are listed below in the form of a checklist.
4.6.2 Checklist
A. P/T Tendons
.1 Sheathing thickness
.2 Tears repaired
.3 Proper amount of grease
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.1 Main tendons
.1 Number
.2 Drape profile check at 1/4 and 3/4 points and at ends.
.3 Properly supported
.4 Grouted system
.1 Grout pump
.2 Method of grouting
.3 Temperature of structure
.4 Heating requirements
.5 Availability of grout to check filling of duct
.6 Check complete grouting of the ducts
D. Formwork
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4.7.1 General
Quality control for placement of concrete topping will be as for normal reinforced concrete
structures as listed in 4.5.1 to 4.5.8. Field observation guidelines and plant visit guidelines
are provided below in the form of a checklist.
A. Pre-Visit Review
.1 Forms
.1 Forms are clean and free of pits, bends, bowing and
uneven joints
.2 Form will provide an approved finish
.3 Form oil is applied properly per manufacturer's
recommendations and no puddles are left in form
.4 Form is of correct configuration and dimensions
.5 All blockouts are correctly positioned.
.2 Reinforcements
.1 Shear reinforcement in stems provided per drawings
.2 Shear reinforcement held with nonmetallic chairs
which provide specified concrete cover
.3 End-bearing plate in place and held in proper position
.4 Bearing plates have received the proper finish and
have the correct reinforcement welded to them
.5 Flange welded wire fabric (WWF) located per plans
and held with nonmetallic chairs which provide
specified concrete cover.
C. Concrete
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D. Pretensioning Strand
E. Tensioning
F. Finishing Concrete
G. Curing Concrete
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I. Storage
A. Connections
.1 Column foundation
.2 Base protection to column
.3 Beam/Column
.4 Double Tee Flange connections
.5 Bearing Pads
B. Finish
C. Expansion Joints
D. Concrete Topping
.1 Control Joints
.2 Control joint sealant
.3 See 4.5.1 to 4.5.8
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4.8.1 General
A. Bases
B. Floors
C. Concrete Topping
G. Waterproofing Membrane.
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REFERENCES
1. Aalami, Bijan O. and Barth, Florian G., Restraint Cracks and their Mitigation in
Unbonded Post-Tensioned Building Structures, Post-Tensioning Institute,
Phoenix, Arizona.
3. Chrest, Anthony, P., Smith, Mary S., and Bhuyan, Sam, Parking Structures, 1991
8. Mailvaganam, Noel P., Repair and Protection of Concrete Structures, CRC Press.
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Chapter 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
5.1 GENERAL 98
5.2 DEFINITIONS 99
5.3 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM AREAS 100
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REFERENCES 116
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5.1 GENERAL
This manual will deal with all the previously mentioned structural systems
with particular areas of attention being highlighted for individual systems.
Although this manual will strive to be as specific as possible it is a guideline
only and it should be stressed that each individual garage must be considered
unique in many ways. A operational and maintenance manual should be
produced for each garage under consideration and a budget set up for the
initial writing of the manual and an annual allocation to implement the
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The owner has basic control over the durability of a parking structure. If the
owner chooses to invest in durability features in the original construction, the
future preventive maintenance and repair costs will be less. Therefore it is the
owner, not the operator that should be responsible for preventive maintenance
and repairs to protect the investment. The maintenance schedules will help in
extending the parking structures useful life and minimize costly repairs.
5.2 DEFINITIONS
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Once the program is in place regular walk through inspections then form the
basis for implementing and monitoring the effectiveness of the program. The
regular inspections could be carried out by the maintenance staff. A record
should be kept of any signs of distress which would then be reviewed and
evaluated by the engineer. Under the engineers direction areas requiring a
more in depth examination could be carried out.
5.3.1 Structural
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Another test that can be used is the Initial Surface Absorption Test
that is widely used in Europe and is described in the British Standard
BS 1881: Part 5 1980. Typical values using this method are quoted in
Table 5.1.
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Pre-tensioned structures are of simple span construction, cast off site with the
components transported to the site and assembled. Precast concrete parking
structures require a minimum, but specific periodic maintenance. The concrete
is normally of very high quality with good impermeability. Therefore the type
of concrete deterioration problems listed for conventionally reinforced
structures are not as frequent but can still occur and should be monitored. For
this type of structure, emphasis should be placed on the inspection of
connections and bearing pads. Typically connections consist of steel plates
with embedded steel anchors. The connections will either be welded or bolted.
The connection should be checked for staining, cracks and spalling concrete.
Cracking and or spalling concrete could be an indication of corroded anchors.
Special concrete components such as corbels supporting beams should be
checked along with beam bearing plates. Steel connections are either
galvanized or protected with various brands of corrosion resistant paint. Field
welding of these connections often damage the protective coating resulting in
surface rusting.
Concrete slabs cast on steel pan deck require special attention. The structural
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design may have used the pan as external reinforcement or strictly as a form
to support the slab until it has reached sufficient strength to support itself.
Corrosion of the pan, staining or leakage can quickly lead to structural
problems and must be monitored on an ongoing bases. In new construction
CSA S413-94 prohibits the use of the pan as external reinforcement.
5.3.2 Operational
Operational items include cleaning, snow and ice control, mechanical systems,
electrical systems, parking control equipment, security systems, signage and
striping, inspection and safety checks. The items which affect performance
from a durability point of view will be dealt with in this section. Operational
problem areas are basically the same for all the structural systems.
5.3.2.1 Cleaning
Regular cleaning of the floor slabs are very important to reducing the rate of
deterioration. The accumulation of dirt and debris collects in corners, along
walls and columns and in the ramp areas. Oil and grease deposits are usually
found in parking stalls, at the bottom of ramps, entrance gates and adjacent
to the cashier's booth. In winter months salt deposits build up in much the
same areas.
Damage to the roof system of exposed parking garages often occurs from the
operation of snow and ice removal equipment. The most common causes of
damage are dropping or dragging heavy or sharp objects on the surface and
tire chains.
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5.3.3 Aesthetic
Landscaping, painting and the general appearance of the garage are typical
aesthetic factors. These factors have an indirect impact on durability issues.
As trees mature and grow the loads on the roof deck increases. These can
result in slab cracking and moisture ingress. Peeling paint can be a sign of
moisture penetration through exterior walls. If a garage is well maintained,
clean and well lighted the users of the facility tend to litter less and in general
be less abusive to the structure.
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5.4.1 Cleaning
3. Sweep away from expansion joints as grit and debris can damage
sealing mechanisms.
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snow can become quite dense and ice can form in the pile. The loads
would probably not be high enough to cause a structural failure
however cracking could result. The formation of cracks, as discussed
previously provides a path for the ingress of moisture and deicing
chemicals which increase the rate of deterioration.
The control of ice on the concrete surface can be controlled with the use of
chemicals. The following is a list of the most common and the affect they have
on the environment.
1. Urea - It is the only available de-icier that does not damage concrete,
metal, and the surrounding vegetation , but being a fertilizer, promotes
growth of seaweed in inland waters, reduces their oxygen content and
affects adversely the fish stock.
3. Sodium chloride - (halite, table salt, rock salt) has little chemical
affect on concrete but damages vegetation and is corrosive to steel.
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Protected structural slabs wearing course for wear, Record defect type, approximate Quarterly
cracking, peeling, or bulging. size and location on drawings. If
Check soffit for water leakage, extensive notify engineering
leaching, rust stains, cracks, consultant.
spalling and exposed reinforcing.
Slabs on Grade Check for cracks, slab curling, Record location, type and Quarterly
settlement, water infiltration approximate size of
around columns and at the deterioration. If extensive notify
junction of the walls and the slab. engineering consultant.
Walls Check for water infiltration, Record location, type, and Quarterly
cracks, spalling, exposed approximate size of
reinforcing. deterioration. If extension notify
engineering consultant.
Roofing and Waterproofing Check for leaks in roofing, joint Record defects and initiate spot Monthly
sealant in floors, expansion repairs or notify engineering
joints, around windows, doors. consultant.
Check floor membranes
Table: 5.2
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Connections Check all structural connections Direction for repair strategy from Annually
and surrounding concrete. All the engineer.
cracks and staining should be
recorded for review by the
engineer.
Parapets and guardrails Check for impact damage. Tighten rail bolts and strand Annually
Record all areas of drawings for guardrails. Initial minor concrete
periodic review by the engineer. repair work.
Elastomeric bearing pads Check the condition of the pads Notify engineer for further Annually
(tearing, displacement) and for review and direction.
any cracking of the concrete in
the area of the bearing surface.
Record for periodic review by the
engineer.
Table: 5.3
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Anchor and stressing head Rust staining, exposed Record location on drawings. Annually
locations anchorage, concrete cracking Notify engineer for review and
direction.
Deflections Excessive deflection .Loss of Notify engineer for review and Annually
camber direction.
Table: 5.4
Connections, stiffener plates, surface rust, pitting, scaling, Clean loose scale and repaint Annually
bearing plates, base plates, visible cracks in welds, with zinc rich paint.
corroded bolts, missing nuts Report cracks in welds or bolt
deterioration to engineer.
Metal pan water stains on underside of pan Record location of stains and Semi-annually
corrosion of metal pan leakage. Report to engineer
Waterproofing Membrane debonding of membrane from Check for wearing, tearing and Quarterly
concrete deck budging
Record location and initiate
minor repairs.
Table: 5.5
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Cleaning - Mechanical sweeping Clean all parking areas, aisles Machine sweep and machine Monthly
and ramps scrub all surfaces.
Washdown Parking Floors debris accumulates along washdown with low pressure Semi-annually minimum. In
perimeter walls, in corners, at the hoses to avoid damage to joints, winter months monthly is
bottom of ramps and at entrance and previously sealed cracks. recommended for closed
gates. Cover drains with filter to structures.
prevent debris from clogging
drainage system
Water Ponding check and note areas where Squeegee water into nearest Daily depending on weather and
ponding occurs drain. Note locations on time of year.
drawings for possible future
drain location.
Drains and Sump Pumps, trench check drains to ensure that they notify maintenance staff to clean weekly
drains are clear of debris, check trench out drains
drains at entrances
Damage from Snow and Ice check for damage to expansion notify management and/or annually - early spring
Removal joints, parapets, membrane engineering consultant
wearing course
Heating, Ventilation and Air check for proper operation notify maintenance people to weekly
Conditioning - HVAC proceed with repair immediately.
Table 5.6
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Sealants check each sealant joint Replace sealant as required Annually in spring
Table 5.6
Painting check for peeling paint on the notify engineering consultant for quarterly
interior of the exterior walls, etc. direction in sealing crack
which could indicate moisture
ingress through cracks or porous
concrete.
check metal door frames etc. for prepare surface and repaint
rust staining annually
Table: 5.7
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REFERENCES
2. Public Works Canada, Parking Garages: Condition Survey, Document D32, March
1988.
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Chapter 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
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REFERENCES 142
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6.1 GENERAL
In many cases for existing parking structures which have had no formal
maintenance program over the years, concern over the condition of the
structure is not normally expressed until deterioration becomes noticeable to
the inexperienced eye. At this point the owner will engage an engineer to
assess the structure and since the deterioration is probably in an advanced
stage a full condition survey is necessary.
In this section of the guideline the items discussed above will be expanded
with special emphasis on how each of the testing methods relate to providing
information regarding the degree of deterioration and the impact on
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The purpose of a detailed condition survey is basically three fold. The first
objective is to determine the extent of deterioration. Secondly, the causes of
the deterioration must be identified, and finally to provide a strategy for
repair. Since no two parking structures are the same and in varying degrees
of deterioration the authority in charge of the survey must decide the extent
of the survey and which tests will be performed from a cost/benefit point of
view.
Initially, the main task of the investigating engineer is to assess the existing
condition of the structure by a walkthrough inspection. The purpose of the
walkthrough is to form an overall impression of the garage and to identify
areas which require further inspection. The type of structural system will
dictate to some extent where the engineer will focus his inspection. Previous
chapters have dealt with specific structural types and the components which
are prone to deterioration.
Once this stage has been completed a brief report summarizing the finding and
recommendations for a more detailed survey, if required should be submitted
to the owner.
Once it has been agreed that a detailed condition survey is required the
engineer should try to obtain as much background information as possible.
This information would include:
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The information from the work sheets will be transferred to the repair contract
documents at a later date, therefore it is important that the scale of the work
sheets and the contract documents be the same.
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6. Popouts (m2) - Popouts will usually not account for large areas of
deterioration but may indicate problems with the aggregate.
8. Leaching, leaking and rust stains (m) - This indicates that moisture
is migrating through the concrete and the probable presence of a crack
which may or may not be visible.
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9. Dusting (m2) - Test the floor by scrapping with 10% HCL. If rapid
effervescence takes place then carbonation has occured and a
polymeric sealer which fortifies the surface should be used.
11. Expansion Joints (m) - Record condition of seal, leakage along joint,
staining of concrete, concrete deterioration along joint, accumulation
of debris, condition of steel nosing, anchors, or plates if present.
Once all visual areas have been identified there are a few simple methods that
can be used to quantify the degree of deterioration.
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5. When strategies for repair are being prepared the depth of the
reinforcing may effect the methods of concrete removal that can be
used.
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immediately. The readings are normally taken on a 1200 x 1200 grid pattern.
A detailed description of the apparatus and parameters for the use of the
apparatus are given in ASTM876. The equipment for the test consists of:
The half-cell survey is conducted with the voltmeter set on +DC volts, and on
0 to 1 volt range. One terminal is connected to the deck reinforcement. A
clean tight connection is very important. Any coating on the reinforcing steel
must be removed including rust, by filing to exposed base steel. A clamp is
used to attach the wire to the ground connection. A ground should be
checked with several others to eliminate the possibility of using a ground
which is isolated from the deck reinforcement. The other is connected to the
half cell. The half cell is maintained at least half full with saturated copper-
copper sulphate solution. The half cell is placed on the surface of the concrete
slab through a wet sponge or the surface of the slab is wetted and the half cell
placed on the wet surface. A spool of wire permits surveying large areas of
the deck from the same ground. When moving to a new ground connection,
a ground continuity check should be run. The half cell is placed on the deck
and voltmeter readings are taken from both grounds. The readings should
agree with +/- 0.2 volts. By convention, a negative sign (-) is used for all
readings. If the half cell temperature is outside the range of 22oC +/- 5oC the
voltage readings will need correction. The temperature coefficient for
correction is given in ASTM C876.
If potentials over an area are less negative than -0.2V (CSE) there is
a greater than 90% probability that there is no corrosion activity in the
steel in concrete at the time of measurement.
If the potentials in the area are in the range of -0.2 to -0.35V then the
corrosion activity is uncertain.
If potential in the area are more negative than -0.35V CSE then there
is greater than 90% probability that there is reinforcing steel corrosion
in the area at the time of measurement.
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In areas which are exhibiting visual signs of deterioration half cell tests will
not provide new information that has not already been obtained from the
visual and chain drag survey. It must be left up to the discretion of the
engineer the extent of the survey in relation to the cost/benefit. For slab
surfaces which do not have a membrane or are protected with a sealer only,
covering 5% to 10% of the surface area with half cell would probably be
adequate to confirm the chain drag survey. Again, judgement is involved that
would have to take into consideration overall area. For small garages the
percent area covered could be increased without much added cost.
For slabs with thin membrane protection systems, half cell can be used to
confirm the results of the chain drag survey. Once the chain drag survey has
been completed and plotted areas can be chosen for half cell testing. A cross
section of locations should be selected to represent all conditions. For
example choose areas which show little to no deterioration, a mix of
deterioration and critical areas such as turn lanes or ramps. Covering a
maximum 15% of the area should be enough to confirm the results.
For slabs with thick membrane systems the half cell survey could be used
instead of the chain drag. The major drawback is that the membrane integrity
would be destroyed. Prior to proceeding a method of repairing the membrane
would be required.
The results are plotted in the form of equipotential contour lines and
compared to the chain drag survey. Proprietary products are now on the
market which use computerized measurement and mapping techniques.
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As with the previous tests the engineer must decide location and number of
tests to be done. It is a matter of judgement and economic restraints. Samples
should be taken at all parking levels of a structure including ramps, parking
stalls, drive and turn lanes in both sound areas and deteriorated locations as
determined by the delamination survey.
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When coring avoid drilling through to the soffit since repair of the hole is
much more difficult. CSA Standard A23.2-M-90-4B determines water soluble
chloride ion content. There are other chloride ion test methods: ASTM C114
and FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). Both methods determine the
acid soluble chloride content which is also the total chloride ion content. ACI
201-2 recommends that tests first be conducted according to the acid soluble
technique because it is considered to be more reliable. If the acid soluble
chloride content is less that the established threshold limit, the criterion is met.
If the acid soluble content exceeds the limit, it is suggested that the water
soluble chloride content be checked. The water soluble ion content is,
depending on the chloride content of the aggregate, often about 75 to 80% of
the acid soluble for hardened concrete; however the water soluble chloride
content is not a constant proportion of the acid soluble chloride content and
its measurement and reliability is still the subject of research.
Threshold levels are a guideline only and must be viewed together with the
other tests. It is possible that high chloride levels can be found with no
corrosion if moisture is not present. Corrosion will not take place without
moisture and oxygen being present.
Chloride ion testing can provide other useful information such as:
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Depending on the area of the garage slab surface a limited number of cylinders
should be cored from each level to check compressive strength of the in-situ
concrete to the specified design strength. One core per level is probably
enough unless there are serious doubts as to the strength of the concrete.
Relevant data which can be obtained from compressive strength tests are:
1. the average of all tests shows a spacing factor not exceeding 230um
with no single test greater than 260um.
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2. Depth of carbonation
3. Air content
4. Presence of contaminates
5. Occurrence of bleeding.
A new technique has recently been introduced by the Institute for Research
in Construction on petrographic evaluation of concrete. The procedure
involves using a stereobinocular microscope to count defects in polished
concrete samples. The number of each type of defect is multiplied by a factor
that reflects the significance of each defect. For example, discoloured grains
have little bearing on the stability of the concrete, however an open crack is
very significant. The results provide a Damage Rating Index which can be
illustrated on a cumulative bar chart. Damage found in different concrete
cores can then be compared easily.
This test can be used to evaluate the bond of existing toppings, overlays or
previously patched areas. A bond capacity should exceed the tensile strength
of the parent concrete. CAN/CSA A23.2-6B describes the procedure for
carrying out this test. Normally if a topping, overlay or patch has debonded
it will be detected by the chain drag delamination survey, however this test
can be useful for verifying results. Some toppings contribute to the structural
capacity of the slab and debonding can seriously affect the structural integrity
of the slab. This test will detect four possible combinations of failure:
1. The failure plane occurs in the original concrete which means that the
bond interface is adequate.
2. The failure occurs within the topping or patch material which again
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4. Failure of the adhesive bond between the testing apparatus and the
concrete surface.
The concrete permeability test utilizes 100mm diameter cores. There is a slow
test which takes 90 days. A 3% sodium solution is applied to the surface of
the concrete and samples are taken over this period of time to measure the
chloride content. The Portland Cement Association developed a quick test
which takes 100mm x 50mm long cores and subjects them to an electrical
charge and monitors the charge which passes through the specimen. The
sample is immersed on one side in a sodium chloride solution which forces the
chloride ions to migrate through the concrete. The lower the total electrical
charge which passes through the sample the more impermeable the concrete
is to chloride ions. This test takes approximately six hours to complete. Table
6.1 provides typical reading for various types of concrete which was taken
from a CMHC report "Deterioration of Parking Structures: Extent, Causes
and Repair Considerations".
The Institute for Research in Construction have now developed a faster and
less expensive method for measuring chloride permeability. They monitored
temperature, AC impedance, DC current, charge passed and chloride ion
profiles while voltages were applied. The results showed that simple
measurement of DC current or AC impedance at the outset of the rapid
chloride penetration test correlated well with the results from standard testing.
Measuring resistivity or DC current for only a few minutes produces
measurements similar to those obtained in the rapid chloride penetration test.
It has to be kept in mind that all these tests measure properties that are at best
only related to permeability and may not reflect permeability of the concrete
in field setting.
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The tests outlined in this section are generally more expensive than the
previously described tests, however the engineer may require their use due to
specific circumstances or information which the test is best suited. Contractors
specializing in this type of work must be engaged to do the following testing.
Interpretation of Results
Chloride Permeability Charge Passed (coulombs) Type of Concrete
High 4000 High water-cement ratios (0.6)
Table 6.1
This test measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the
concrete. ASTM C597 describes the test apparatus. This test can be used to:
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X-ray examination is very expensive and is not often used in parking garage
surveys. However it can be effective in the following applications.
This type of testing is expensive but can be cost effective when large areas of
floor slab are to be surveyed. In radar profiling echoes from a pulsed
electromagnetic wave are received by an antenna. The penetration and
resolution of the signal are a function of the frequency of the electromagnetic
pulse. A high frequency signal provides high resolution but has shallow
penetration. Lower frequency signals have greater penetration but poorer
resolution. Radar examination can be used:
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1. cracks
2. excessive deflection
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General Information
Design Data
2. Concrete:
Class of exposure specified (circle one): A B C D (refer to Table 7 in CSA Standard CAN3-A23.1-M77),
or C1 C2 C3 C4 (refer to Table 8 in CSA Standard CAN3-A23.1-M90).
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3. Type of Construction:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Repair History:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_ ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________
2. Level: _______
3. Top surface
a) Protection:
________ membrane
________ sealer
________ topping
________ none
b) Membrane:
Type: _____________________
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c) Sealer:
Evidence of re-sealing? _______________
f) concrete delamination:
_____ % of area (estimated by random chain drag)
g) Maintenance:
Are floors swept clean? _____
Any signs of salt deposits? _____
4. Underside (soffits)
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d) Wet spots:
_____ none
_____ few
_____ many
_____ numerous
Do these spots correspond to locations of ponded water on the top surface?
__________________________________________________________________
Other Components
( use terms: none/few/some/many/numerous )
Leakage __________
Cracking/separation from concrete __________
Rust staining __________
Adjacent spalling __________
Adjacent exposed bars __________
Expansion joint movement accommodated? yes _____ no _____
Leakage __________
Cracking/separation from concrete __________
Rust staining __________
Adjacent spalling __________
Adjacent exposed bars __________
Expansion joint movement accommodated? yes _____ no _____
3. Columns/Beams
Cracking __________
Spalling __________
Exposed bars __________
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4. Walls
5. Drains
clean __________ clogged __________
Areas of ponded water without drains ____________________
Leakage around drains? ____________________
Leakage through headers? ____________________
Adjacent concrete deterioration? ____________________
Are drain pipes still effective? ____________________
6. Electrical:
Are electrical conduits badly rusted? __________
Are junction boxes badly rusted? __________
Summary of Ratings
( use terms: very poor/poor/fair/good/very good )
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REFERENCES
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Condition Survey of Post-tensioned Parking Structures
Chapter 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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REFERENCES 160
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7.1 GENERAL
There was a boom in the construction of parking structures in the 60's and
70's. At the same time, use of prestressed concrete in parking structures
became very common, both as pre-tensioned precast concrete and cast-in-
place post-tensioned concrete. Engineers believed that since the use of
prestressed concrete reduces cracking that this will also eliminate the
ingress of water and salt into the concrete. Another reason for the
popularity of pre-stressed concrete was that long spans could be obtained
at a fairly economical cost. Too much reliance was placed in prestressing
to making the concrete waterproof; the fact that concrete is inherently
permeable was overlooked. As the boom in building construction and
parking structures took place, the use of deicing salts on roads also
increased. In 1950, in the U.S. less than one million tons of road salt was
used. By 1970 this figure had gone up to 9 million tons.
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Water Ingress
Ingress of moisture and chlorides is the major problem in deteriorating
post-tensioned structures. Investigations of existing structures have
confirmed that moisture can get into unbonded tendons due to the
following means:
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Eruption of Strands
When a strand breaks and if in that vicinity there is low concrete cover,
cases of broken strands erupting from the concrete surface have been
found. Only a small percentage of strands have been found to erupt from
concrete surfaces. Eruptions can be from a few millimetres to several
meters in length. Strands can also erupt through end anchorages.
Corrosion
Breakage of strands in deteriorating prestressed structures is generally
caused by a phenomenon known as "stress corrosion cracking". There is
very little loss of cross-section in this case but rather a small pit develops
due to corrosion and the crack in the steel develops from this pit. This
form of failure is a brittle fracture. The cause of it is not exactly known but
depends on the following factors:
! Electrochemical
! Mechanical
! Metallurgical
It should be noted that ingress of pure water or high relative humidity, even
in the absence of chlorides is sufficient to cause corrosion of tendons that
are not in direct contact with alkaline concrete. However, chlorides will
accelerate the process.
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The first step in preparing for a detailed field survey is to obtain and review
the plans and specifications used for the construction of the building. For
post-tensioned structures attempt to identify the post-tensioning
subcontractor and obtain shop drawings of post-tensioning hardware. Also
obtain concrete mix design, testing and inspection reports and maintenance
and repair records, or any other repair and restoration work performed
earlier.
If design and construction drawings are not available for review, the basic
structural design of the structure has to be visually confirmed by means of
exploratory openings at typical locations and at locations where
deterioration is most likely to occur.
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7.5 EQUIPMENT
Avoid field delays by making sure that the following equipment and
manpower is available:
During this phase of the survey, record deterioration, cracks, leaks and any
other visual signs of corrosion or distress in the following elements of the
building:
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When steel begins to corrode and before spalls are visible on the surface,
horizontal cracks or delaminations occur at or above the level of
reinforcing steel. At locations of delaminations a high level of corrosion
activity is indicated. In post-tensioned structures delaminations can occur
at prestressing steel, bonded reinforcing steel, anchorages and metallic
sheathing of bonded tendons. Delaminations are located by sounding the
surface with a steel chain or hammer. When delaminations are present, a
distinct hollow sound is heard.
Delaminated area at the top and soffit should be plotted on the drawings.
The number of readings and the location depends on the type and amount
of embedded prestressing and reinforcing steel. Approximate lines of
prestressing tendons should be located on the slab. Covermeter readings
should be taken at high points of the strands. In areas where reinforcing
steel is known to be present, additional readings should be taken. Some
readings should also be taken at the soffit of the slab.
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For general information about Half Cell Testing, please refer to Chapter 6.
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7.12.1 General
It should be noted that the post-tensioning system is live and under tension;
extreme caution should be observed while removing concrete.
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Openings at the slab soffit need not be closed using concrete. The grease
coating and sheathing should be patched and a steel coverplate installed
using expansion bolts and the cover fireproofed using spray fireproof
insulation if required.
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C At end anchorages
Water frequently gets in near the anchorages where the sheath over the
prestressing strands or tendons is discontinued near the end or is lapped
with a larger sheathing going over the anchorage system. The lap joint is
not properly waterproofed. Also grout protection at the exterior ends of
the anchorage should be removed and exposed hardware examined for
degree of corrosion. In underground structures, water gets into the
anchorages from the outside.
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C Beams
n = N
1+ e2(N-1)
Z2(p)(1-p)
where n = sample size
N = lot size
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Note that the value of e is arbitrarily chosen by the investigator, the smaller
the e selected, the larger the sample size will be. The value of p is obtained
from overall historical average of defects under investigation. In the case
of post-tensioning tendon deterioration, it can vary from structure to
structure. A value of p = 0.2 can be assumed and then modified as the
investigation proceeds.
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The method consists of passing low pressure dry nitrogen gas through the
cable via nipples installed for this purpose and monitoring the relative
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REFERENCES
2. Chrest, Anthony, P., Smith, Mary S., and Bhuyan, S., Parking Structures, 1991
11. Tracy, Robert, Crower, Steven, and Zeort, Khadje, Evaluation of a Deteriorated
Post-Tensioned One-Way Slab, Concrete International, June 1991.
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Chapter 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
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Page
REFERENCES 183
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8.1 GENERAL
After the condition survey is complete the next step is to explore and develop
strategies for a repair and restoration programme. This involves the following
steps:
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The load carrying capacity of the structural system should be determined after
taking into account loss of bond, shear and reinforcing cross-sectional area
due to observed deterioration. Potential for future deterioration should also
be considered by analyzing the half-cell data. If it is not possible to compute
the residual load carrying capacity by computation, then a load test may have
to be carried out. A load test is carried out in accordance with CSA A23.3.
The load test will determine the load carrying capacity at the particular
location at that point in time. The locations for load tests should be
selected so that they are representative of general deterioration. While
selecting the size of the area to be loaded, consideration should be given to
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distribution of the load to adjacent areas of the structure, thereby reducing the
effect of the load on the area being tested. In some cases, the area to be
loaded may have to be quite large to allow for distribution of load to other
areas and to load test the shear capacity at columns. More than one load test
may have to be carried out if conditions warrant. Approximate cost of a load
test varies between $25,000 to $35,000. If the load carrying capacity is
determined to be less than the design loads, one of the following options are
considered.
1. Structural
2. Functional
3. Economic
8.2.3.1 Structural
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If the existing structure does not have the structural capacity to support the
additional load, then this method of repair is ruled out.
8.2.3.2 Functional
8.2.3.3 Economic
1. Do nothing and use up the remaining useful life of the floor structure
and then build a new floor structure.
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3. Perform repairs every five years or so. This method of repair will
involve repairing only deteriorated concrete and applying a
waterproofing membrane.
4. Use a method of repair which will repair all deteriorated concrete and
also remove some contaminated concrete which has not yet
deteriorated. Assuming that for this method, repairs will be required
every 10 years.
The following assumptions have been used in developing a life cycle analysis
for strategy 1 & 3 noted above:
The effects of escalation and interest rates have not been taken into account
for the sake of simplicity; these factors will have negligible effect on the final
comparative costs. Current costs have been used for repairs.
Strategy-1
Strategy-2
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Repair at Year 5
6000 x 0.3 (250 + 30) = $ 504,000
Repair at Year 10 to 45
6000 x .2 x (250 + 30) x 8 = 2,688,000
TOTAL: $3,732,000
! Dimensional Stability
Provision of good bond between the new material and the concrete substrate
is important for restoring monolithic character of the member being repaired.
Most cementitious materials shrink soon after they are cast and the substrate
is old and has already undergone shrinkage. Therefore, repair material must
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When large and thick patches of repair materials are used, the co-efficient of
thermal expansion of the patch material and the substrate should be matched
as closely as possible. Differences of volume change that arise in the
composite will give rise to large forces at the interface of the two materials
often causing bond failure at the interface or the weaker material. If a
polymer or epoxy modified material is proposed to be used, this property
should be carefully investigated.
! Modulus of Elasticity
Materials with higher modulus of elasticity deform less than materials with
low modulus. In a composite member made of two materials of widely
different moduli, internal strains developed by different moduli should be
investigated. Use of materials of widely different moduli should be avoided.
! Permeability
! Chemical Compatibility
! Electrical Properties
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! Service Conditions
The choice of the right repair materials also depends on the service conditions,
e.g.
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Concrete walls in buildings are exterior basement walls, interior load bearing
walls or shear walls forming part of the lateral load resisting system.
Basement walls are usually lightly loaded and, therefore, the delaminations in
basement walls are not structurally as serious as in heavily loaded load bearing
walls or shear walls.
Raft foundations are required for some buildings due to soil conditions. If
cars are parked on the concrete surface of the raft foundation, the top of the
raft begins to delaminate due to the corrosion of the top mat of rebar in the
raft. Delaminations should be repaired following the method outlined in
Figure 8.1. The top of the raft slab should then be protected from further
ingress of moisture and chlorides by means of a waterproofing membrane or
a low slump high density concrete (LSDC) overlay protected with a
penetrating sealer. Method of protection will also be determined by the
availability of headroom for the concrete overlay. Durability of a
waterproofing system is effected by migration of underground moisture to the
membrane concrete interface. Any reinforcing steel in the concrete overlay
should be epoxy coated. Based on the availability of headroom, slopes can be
incorporated for improved drainage.
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1. Dormant cracks
2. Growing cracks
3. Active cracks
Dormant cracks remain constant in width and length and there is no vertical
movement across the crack. Growing cracks keep increasing in width or
length indicating that the stresses causing the crack are still present. These
stresses could be differential settlement, corrosion or freeze-thaw. Active
cracks close and open when the structure is loaded and unloaded.
This method is used to bond the two sides of the crack rigidly together. In
doing so, the structural concrete strength of the member across the crack is
restored. This method is suitable only for dormant cracks. Epoxy or resin
can be injected into cracks as narrow as .05 mm. Generally, this method is
not applicable if the cracks are actively leaking or cannot be dried out. This
technique is highly specialized and should only be carried out by specialist
contractors. Injection is carried out at pressures of 135 to 275 KPa (20 to 40
psi).
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It should be noted that this method is not suitable if the crack is active or
growing. If this method is used in such cracks, either new cracks may open
adjacent to existing cracks or the same cracks will reopen again.
In practice, it has been found that in slabs this method does not completely fill
the cracks. If there is no waterproofing membrane, the water can enter the
unfilled part of the crack with the epoxy in the filled part, acting as a dam.
This situation can make the condition of the structure in this vicinity even
worse than if the crack had not been injected. Epoxy injection of slab soffit
cracks is not recommended.
Low viscosity resins can be used to seal cracks by feeding the crack from the
top. Epoxy resin finds its way into the top part of the crack and fills it. This
is not a structural repair however, this type of repair will help in keeping the
water out of the crack. If the crack is active, epoxy resins which remain
flexible should be selected. This method can be used to seal active or growing
cracks.
This method should only be used in slabs or areas of slabs which are of no
structural significance. Routing consists of cutting a chase along the length
of the crack in the form of a square-groove and filling with a suitable sealant.
Width and depth varies between 10 mm to 12 mm. The groove results in loss
of concrete depth and care should be taken to ensure that no rebar is cut. In
structural slabs, in the regions where there is compression at the top, loss of
effective depth should be investigated. It should also be noted that if and
when the sealant loses its bond to the sides, there is a larger area through
which water can enter.
4. Waterproofing Membrane
When delaminations exceed 25% of the slab and the whole slab is
contaminated with chlorides above the threshold level, complete slab removal
and replacement should be seriously considered. This alternative has been
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successfully carried out for flat slab structures. The columns and concrete
walls are left largely intact. The procedure involves the following major steps
in a multi-storey underground garage:
4. Provide a seat or support for the new slab at existing columns or walls
8.2.4.10 Removal of Top Contaminated Layer of Concrete and Replacing with New
Concrete.
It is very important that all rebar in the new concrete, whether old rebar or
new rebar, should be epoxy coated so that it is electrically isolated from the
surrounding concrete. This is essential to prevent any electrochemical
corrosion activity between the steel in new concrete and steel in old existing
concrete. If any chlorides above the threshold level are present in the old
concrete near the level of bottom steel, new corrosion cells will develop. The
old rebars, which were previously acting as a cathode, will now become
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Usually, the number of strands is governed by point no:1 above; point no:2 is
automatically satisfied. Based on the percentage of strands (which are
determined to be ineffective), both the above conditions should be checked.
It is possible that with reduced number of strands ultimate strength may be
satisfactory but stress in concrete may exceed the prescribed limit due to
reduced prestress, or there may be a situation when concrete stress may be
within prescribed limits but ultimate strength may be below that required. In
both cases the structure is considered unsatisfactory and then one of the
following measures have to be taken:
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1. Structural
2. Functional (see 8.2.3.2)
3. Economical (see 8.2.3.3)
8.3.3.1 Structural
It should be noted that the condition of the system is often worse than
concluded by visual inspection on opening a few exploration openings.
To illustrate the principal on which repair strategies are based, the following
scenarios will be discussed.
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1. Replace existing strands with new strands. This may or may not be
feasible depending on the size and condition of the duct.
2. If replacement of the strands is not feasible or possible or an alternate
method is required, then the following can be used; Remove existing
slabs between and over the beams and place new reinforced concrete
or post-tensioned slabs. Existing beam design should be checked for
the effect of off-loading the dead load of the slab from the post-
tensioned beams. Post-tensioned beams will have to be tied down or
jacked up to beams above.
3. As an alternative to above procedure supplementary framing can be
provided between beams to support the slab between the beams.
3. Cut the corroded part of the strands and splice new strands.
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Repair alternative 1
Repair Alternative 2
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strand or a strand of slightly reduced diameter and with an epoxy coating. The
process of rethreading may not be possible or straightforward if the existing
system is a paper wrapped wire post-tensioning system. The duct cross-
section is usually not regular and the paper wrapping acts as an obstruction.
Repair Alternative 3
This method also requires the presence of some minimum bonded non
prestress steel in the slab. The slab is assumed to span between the structural
steel members using the non-prestress rebar. Any delamination in the existing
slab is repaired. Apply a waterproofing membrane.
Out of all the structural systems used for parking garages, precast, prestressed
structures have performed the best. This can be attributed to the following
factors:
2. The prestressing steel in the double tees is at a large distance from the
source of salt and water.
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3. Water leaking on to the beam ledges and corroding the rebar and
causing spalling and delamination of the edges of the beam ledge and
destroying the bearing of the double tee.
4. Deterioration of the double tee stem and the beam ledge due to the
lack of bearing pads.
5. Deterioration of the double tee stem and the beam ledge due to the
bottom of the double tee stems welded to the beam ledge.
6. Bearing pads "walking off" the support due to thermal expansion and
contraction.
7. Deterioration of beam ledges due to the tee stem sitting too close to
the edge.
8.4.1 Repairs
Alternatives 1
Alternatives 2
Add a secondary support system adjacent to the existing beam . See fig. 8.8
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If the leaking is confined to control joints and cracks at the junction of flanges
of the tees, one of the following methods is recommended:
! Rout the existing crack or joint and fill with a suitable sealant.
Until now the methods of repair that have been discussed are conventional
repairs using materials that have been used by industry for many years. Most
repairs show a marked decrease in the rate of corrosion however corrosion is
never totally arrested.
High strength continuous fibres such as glass, carbon and aramid impregnated
with resin and formed into a mesh. Applications in parking structures
encompass slab on grade, wall repairs and curved surfaces such as circular
columns.
Unidirectional carbon fibre composite cable (CFCC) that is light, strong and
corrosion resistant. Applications of this product can be the external
reinforcement of beams and replacement of unbonded post-tensioned tendons.
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Other products presently being tested are fibre reinforced plastic bars and fibre
reinforced concrete.
Many of these products have been used in building applications in Europe and
Japan but have not been tested by Canadian Authorities. The development of
standards that industry can use and improving the economic viability is
required.
Engineers involved in the design and repair of parking structures should keep
current with the continuing development of these products which in many
cases are tailored to repairs in severe environments such as parking garages.
REFERENCES
1. Aalami, Bijan O. and Barth, Florian G., Restraint Cracks and their Mitigation in
Unbonded Post-Tensioned Building Structures, Post-Tensioning Institute,
Phoenix, Arizona.
2. Aalami, Bijan, O., and Swanson, David T., Innovative Rehabilitation of a Parking
Structure, Concrete International, February 1988.
3. Chrest, Anthony, P., Smith, Mary S., and Bhuyan, S., Parking Structures.
7. Mailvaganam, Noel P., Repair and Protection of Concrete Structures, CRC Press.
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12. Repair and Rehabilitation II, Compilation 20, American Concrete Institute.
15. Tracy, Robert, Crower, Steven, and Zeort, Khadje, Evaluation of a Deteriorated
Post-Tensioned One-Way Slab, Concrete International, June 1991.
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List of Figures:
Chapter 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
REFERENCES 203
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Sealers and Waterproofing Membranes
9.1 GENERAL
1. Impermeability
An effective membrane must prevent water from being absorbed into the
slab.
2. Breathability
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3. Crack Bridging
Membrane systems must remain waterproof over cracks that occur in the
slabs. Most waterproofing membrane manufactures require additional
detailing of the membrane to provide reinforcement over cracks. Detailing
varies to suit the type and size of crack and the type of membrane being
used. This crack bridging ability must be maintained through the
temperature range the membrane will experience. Ideally the waterproofing
membrane should not be applied until shrinkage cracking has occurred in
the slab.
4. Adhesion
The bond of the membrane to the slab must be sufficient to resist shear
forces from service loads and tensile forces from vapour pressures. Failure
of bond generally results in membrane failure.
5. Physical Impact
6. Chemical Resistance
7. Ultra-Violet Rays
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9.2.2 Sealers
1. Waterproofing
A sealer must reduce the amount of liquid water and chlorides which
penetrate the concrete compared to unsealed concrete.
2. Breathability
3. Chemical Resistance
Sealers should withstand the oils and fluids spilled by cars on a parking
deck and still perform their intended function. To date, no well
documented research has been carried out to determine the effect of these
various chemicals on sealer performance.
4. Ultra-Violet Rays
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5. Penetration
Penetration into the concrete is important to ensure not only ultra violet
resistance, but also to withstand abrasion of the surface of the concrete.
Laboratory tests have shown that excessive penetration causes sealers to be
too diffuse so that complete hydrophobic layers are not formed.
6. Finish
Some sealers leave a splotchy or glossy finish which may or may not be
acceptable. Others leave a tacky finish which picks up dirt.
7. Skid Resistance
Sealers should not significantly reduce the skid resistance of the surface if
used on the traffic deck or pedestrian walkways.
8. Toxicity
Some sealers and carriers are hazardous materials. Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS) should be consulted during installation.
9. Volatility
Some of the active ingredients in the sealer can be lost if the sealer is too
volatile. Conditions during installation should be monitored to minimize the
loss of active ingredients. Sealers must adhere to the volatility requirements
dictated by the fire marshalls specifications.
Some standardized tests have been modified to be used to test sealers for
the above properties with some success in the laboratory. These tests
include:
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AASHTO T227
Two field tests have been developed by the Strategic Highway Research
Program to assess in situ the effectiveness of sealers. The first test is an
electrical resistivity test which involves painting strips of conductive paint
on the concrete surface and measuring the change in resistivity of the
concrete after being wet and allowed to dry. The field tests performed to
date show some promise for this test. The second test is a water uptake
test where a tube is sealed to the concrete and filled with water. The
amount of water absorbed in a given time should give the relative
performance of sealers. The field testing performed to date has not found
good correlation between laboratory findings and findings on site. The seal
between the apparatus is difficult to obtain in warm or cold weather. The
Ontario Ministry of Transportation is presently evaluating the electrical
resistivity test.
Until these tests have evolved into reliable methods, there is no certain way
of field testing the performance of sealers. Correlations cannot necessarily
be drawn between findings in the laboratory and field performance due to
the variability and complex chemistry of concrete.
9.3 MATERIALS
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The membranes are either liquid applied (hot and cold) or sheet applied (
adhesive or torch applied). Close examination of a system performance in
field applications should be made before a system is selected. The following
table generally classifies most of the available systems:
Waterproofing Membranes
Membrane THIN THICK
System
Classification
General CUrethane CBituminous CBituminous
membrane CUrethane/ CUrethane
composition epoxy
CNeoprene
Membrane CCold liquid CHot CHot liquid CCold liquid CCold liquid
application liquid CCold sheet CHot liquid CHot liquid
CTorch sheet CTorch sheet CTorch sheet
TABLE 9.1
Thin traffic toppings are generally cold applied in liquid form with a total
system thickness of about 3 mm. Thin systems generally consist of a
waterproofing membrane and a wearing surface. The wearing surfaces
available vary from a semirigid epoxy to a flexible urethane.
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2. Thick Toppings
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There are two basic types of concrete surface sealing products used to treat
parking structures under the general heading of concrete "sealers". These
are penetrating sealers and coatings. These products should be referred to
as "penetrating sealers" and "coatings". However, some literature refers to
penetrating sealers as "sealants", or coatings as "sealers". For these
reasons, care must be taken when reading literature to be sure which type
of product is being discussed.
Penetrating sealers are products which absorbed into the surface of the
concrete and react with the concrete to form a hydrophobic (or water
repelling) surface. No film is formed, and pores in the concrete are not
blocked. Cracks are not bridged, but narrow cracks can be waterproofed if
the hydrophobic properties are strong enough. Wider cracks must be
caulked with a flexible sealant.
Coatings are products which bond to the surface of the concrete and form
a film. The waterproofing properties of the coating are generally
independent of the concrete properties, although the coating must remain
adhered to the concrete for the coating to function. Generally products
which penetrate less than two millimetres are considered to be coatings.
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There are many different silanes available, with different alkyl groups linked
with the silicon atom. These different products do not all necessarily
perform the same. Some silane sealers have been shown to perform well in
laboratory testing. However, the hydrophobic layer formed by some other
silanes has been found to have poor resistance to the alkaline environment
of concrete, even though they require an alkaline environment for the first
stage of the reaction. If some silane sealers come in contact with water on
the surface of the concrete during installation they can polymerize and will
not penetrate and react with the concrete.
Silane molecules are very small and penetrate even dense concrete well.
Additional coats of a silane sealer can be applied over concrete previously
sealed with silanes with a synergistic effect.
Silanes are volatile, and some of the active ingredient can be lost during
application, particularly if applied during less than ideal conditions.
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Siloxanes are less volatile than silanes, and therefore there is less loss of
active ingredient during application. For this reason, siloxanes are usually
used with a lower percentage active ingredient than silanes.
Linseed oil penetrates concrete, but testing has shown that it has very little
waterproofing or chloride screening ability. Linseed oil yellows surfaces,
and deteriorates under exposure to ultra-violet exposure. Linseed oil may
be detrimental to the performance of silane based sealers if present in the
concrete to be sealed, as it coats the surfaces of some pores, preventing the
silane from reacting over the whole surface. Other sealers have been found
to perform better in the presence of linseed oil.
Some epoxies are penetrating sealers, others are coatings. Epoxies are two
component products which must be mixed on site and cure chemically. In
the various laboratory studies performed, epoxies showed the most
variability. Some, particularly pure epoxies, provided excellent
waterproofing, and others, particularly those incorporating polysuphides
provided next to no waterproofing. Epoxies tend to yellow and chalk,
generally leaving a glossy and sometimes splotchy finish which has been
found to reduce skid resistance. The epoxies which form coatings which
lose effectiveness when subject to heavy wear by traffic. In addition, the
coefficient of thermal expansion of epoxy is much higher than concrete,
which may result in cracking of the coating.
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5. Acrylics (Coating)
Acrylic resins are coatings which are ultra-violet and moisture resistant and
which bond well to dry surfaces. As coatings, they should not be used on
surfaces subject to wear. In addition, acrylic coatings have been found to
reduce the skid resistance of the surface.
6. Urethanes (Coating)
Silicates were thought to penetrate concrete and react with free lime
forming insoluble salts which plug the pores in the concrete. However,
testing has shown that the waterproofing and chloride screening abilities
are poor.
8. Silicones (Coating)
9. Alkyds (Coating)
Alkyds generally have poor alkali resistance, and yellow on exposure. They
are generally not suitable for use on concrete.
9.4 APPLICATION
9.4.1 Membranes
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9.4.2 Sealers
C Some researchers recommend that after the sealer has been applied
and been given time to penetrate, the surfaces sealed with silanes
should be misted with water to provide water for the hydrolysis of
the silanes.
C With old concrete, there is a risk that the surface has carbonated,
reducing the pH to a point that the sealers will not react. For old
concrete surfaces, some manufacturers recommend a catalyst,
generally a high pH hydroxide solution be added to the sealer
before application to locally raise the pH and allow the sealer to
react.
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Older slabs that are highly contaminated with road salt generally will have
significant amounts of delamination and ongoing corrosion. If the repair
selected is to repair all the delaminated concrete and actively corroding
steel, it would be prudent to protect this slab with a membrane so as to
prevent salt contamination of old and new concrete.
It has been our experience that sealers can have a drying effect on the slab
resulting in a reduction in the corrosion activity. Where the slabs are
generally actively corroding but little delamination has occurred, the repair
approach could be only to repair the delaminated concrete, apply a sealer
and rout and seal leaking cracks. The effectiveness of the sealer should be
monitored. If it is found that the sealer's drying and salts screening effect is
being lost, reapplication would be required. It is possible for the slab to
dry out sufficiently so as to stop the corrosion process. If this occurs it
would be prudent at this point to protect the slab with a membrane.
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of the deck. Further delaminations will normally take place. Future repair
costs would then be higher since now the membrane must also be repaired.
In some cases the membrane option may be more suitable if routing and
sealing cracks is not practical due to an excessive amount of cracking or
chloride contamination/corrosion activity is borderline.
9.5.1 Membranes
The following guidelines provide the designer with a selection criteria for a
waterproofing membranes. These should be viewed in conjunction with
similar project performance:
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9.5.2 Sealers
C Type of concrete
C Remember that there are good and bad products available of the
same generic type. Records of successful applications and
laboratory testing should be reviewed.
There are many seals available that are used to provide a watertight
expansion joints. These seals vary in cost significantly. Liquid applied
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caulking (hot or cold) generally have the lowest initial cost. Preformed
seals include extruded neoprene gaskets embedded in either metal or
epoxy/polymer nosing. Inexpensive seals generally require regular
maintenance (yearly), while the expensive seals generally require
significantly less maintenance but must also be monitored and repaired in a
timely fashion. Due to the thickness of the seals and traffic toppings, not
all seals are compatible with all waterproofing membranes. A seal must
then be chosen to match the membrane selected. This is particularly true in
restoration projects where nosing for seals must be provided. In new
construction these maybe formed into the slab allowing the systems to be
more compatible. The attached figures 9.6.1 to 9.6.8 are some typical
expansion joint seals with slab protective coatings.
Expansion joints seals must have the same performance criteria as the
selected protective coating. For example, if the system is in an exterior
application the joint seal must be able to withstand snowploughs,
environmental conditions and chemical attack while remaining watertight.
Sizing of the expansion joint seal and the installation procedure are critical
for the successful performance of the expansion joint seal. The installation
temperature and joint size should be monitored at installation and the seal
installed at the appropriate size as to accommodate movement for the full
range of expected temperature.
We recommend that during the installation of the expansion joint seal the
manufacture of the seal visit the site to confirm the joint seal is being
installed to their specifications.
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REFERENCES
9 Pfeifer, D.W. and Scali, M.J., Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge
Structures, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington
D.C., December 1981.
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List of Figures:
Fig. 9.1 Expansion Joint Sealant
9.2 Expansion Joint Compression Seal
9.3 Expansion Joint Preformed Seal
9.4 Expansion Joint Preformed Seal With Monolithic Nosing
9.5 Expansion Joint Preformed Seal With Monolithic Nosing
9.6 Expansion Joint Preformed Seal With Aluminum Nosing
Embedded in Concrete
9.7 Expansion Joint Hot Rubberized Membrane
9.8 Expansion Joint Sheet Membrane