MATHEMATICS

 It is a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying and making sense of patterns.

 Is the science of patterns and relationships. As a theoretical discipline, mathematics explores the possible
relationships among abstractions without concern for whether those abstractions have counterparts in the
real world. The abstractions can be anything from strings of numbers to geometric figures to sets of equation.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE / FIBONACCI SERIES/FIBONACCI NUMBERS

Leonardo Pisano was born late in the twelfth century in Pisa, Italy: Pisano in Italian indicated that he was from Pisa. His
father was a merchant called Guglielmo Bonaccio .When scholars were studying the hand written copies of Liber
Abaci (as it was published before printing was invented), they misinterpreted part of the title – "filius Bonacci" meaning
"son of Bonaccio" – as his surname, and Fibonacci was born.

The Problem with Rabbits

One of the mathematical problems Fibonacci investigated in Liber Abaci was about how fast rabbits could breed in ideal
circumstances. Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field. Rabbits are able to mate
at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits. Suppose
that no rabbits will die and that female rabbit always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from
the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was... How many pairs will there be in one year?

ILLUSTRATION:

So by the end of NOVEMBER (12TH MONTH), there will be 233 pairs of rabbits.

The rule for generating the Fibonacci numbers: add the last two to get the next.

where F0 = 0 and F1 = 1

 “Real rabbits don't breed as Fibonacci hypothesized, but his sequence still appears frequently in nature, as it
seems to capture some aspect of growth. “
 “The sequence is also closely related to a famous number called the golden ratio. “
 “The sequence is infinite.”
 “The Fibonacci sequence is all about growth; This is a very simple way of generating growth quickly and explains
why the Fibonacci numbers appear in nature so often. The sequence is applicable to the growth of all living
things, from a single plant cell to a honey bee's family tree; nature relies on simple operations to build
immensely complex, often beautiful, structures, and the Fibonacci sequence reflects this.”

Some Amazing Examples of the Fibonacci Sequence in Nature

CHICKEN EGG ALOE PLANT, Spiral aloe, with each set of leaves
spiral outside.
Numerous cacti display the Fibonacci spiral.

PETALS OF FLOWERS, HIBISCUS -5 PETALS SUN FLOWER -21 PETALS

PINE APPLE AND PINE CONES HAVE FIBONACCI SPIRALS CONTAINING FIBONACCI NUMBERS
 BRANCHES AND ROOTS OF TREES

PASCAL TRIANGLE A hurricane displays a logarithmic spiral, one that

gets smaller as it goes. Fibonacci Spiral.
GOLDEN RATIO
Fibonacci Resulting Ratio of each number Reverse The golden ratio 1·618034 is also called
Sequence Fibonacci to the one before it ratio
the golden section or the golden mean or just
number (the
sum of the two the golden number. It is often represented by
numbers before a Greek letter Phi . The closely related value
it) which we write as phi with a small "p" is just
1 0 0 the decimal part of Phi, namely 0·618034.
2 1 #DIV/0! 1
3 1 1.000000000000000000 0.5 - is a special number found by dividing a line
4 2 2.000000000000000000 0.666667 into two parts so that the longer part divided
5 3 1.500000000000000000 0.6 by the smaller part is also equal to the whole
6 5 1.666666666666670000 0.625 length divided by the longer part.
7 8 1.600000000000000000 0.615385
8 13 1.625000000000000000 0.619048 It is often symbolized using phi, after the 21st
9 21 1.615384615384620000 0.617647 letter of the Greek alphabet. In an equation
10 34 1.619047619047620000 0.618182 form, it looks like this:
11 55 1.617647058823530000 0.617978
𝑎 𝑎+𝑏
12 89 1.618181818181820000 0.618056 = = 1.61803 = 𝜑
13 144 1.617977528089890000 0.618026 𝑏 𝑎
14 233 1.618055555555560000 0.618037 Ex. ratio of height to the base of great
15 377 1.618025751072960000 0.618033 pyramids, used to achieve balance and beauty
16 610 1.618037135278510000 0.618034
in many Renaissance paintings and sculptures,
17 987 1.618032786885250000 0.618034
proportions of sides of rectangles (length &
18 1597 1.618034447821680000 0.618034
19 2584 1.618033813400130000 0.618034 width), most visually satisfying of all geometric
20 4181 1.618034055727550000 0.618034 forms.
21 6765 1.618033963166710000 0.618034
22 10946 1.618033998521800000 0.618034
23 17711 1.618033985017360000 0.618034
24 28657 1.618033990175600000 0.618034
25 46368 1.618033988205320000 0.618034
26 75025 1.618033988957900000 0.618034
27 121393 1.618033988670440000 0.618034
28 196418 1.618033988780240000 0.618034

THE STORY OF MATHEMATICS (OVERVIEW)

PREHISTORIC MATHEMATICS, (25,000-30,000 YEARS AGO)

NOTCHED BONES

 Our prehistoric ancestors had a general sensibility about amounts, like knowing the difference between, one and
two objects.
 Early man kept track of regular occurrences such as the phases of the moon and the seasons. Some of the very
earliest evidence of mankind thinking about numbers is from notched bones for counting and tallying rather than
mathematics as such.

BABYLONIAN/EGYPTIAN & NATIVE AMERICAN PERIOD (3000 BC-601 BC)

 Sumer (a region of Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq) was the birthplace of writing, the wheel, agriculture, the arch,
the plow, irrigation and many other innovations, and is often referred to as the Cradle of Civilization.
 Sumerian Mathematics was very practical and used in construction, surveying, record keeping, taxation, creation of
lunar calendar.
 Cuneiform is a pictographic writing system first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia using wedge-
shaped characters inscribed on baked clay tablets.
 Sumerian and Babylonian mathematics was based on a sexegesimal, or base 60, numeric system, which could be
counted physically using the twelve knuckles on one hand the five fingers on the other hand.

BABYLONIAN NUMERALS

 It did not have zero symbol, but it did represents fraction, squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots and there
were evidence that they knew quadratic formula and stated algebraic problems verbally. The base 60 system of
Babylonians led to a division of circle into 360 parts, known today as degrees.
 Babylonian Clay tablets from c. 2100 BCE showing a problem concerning the area of an irregular shape

 Early Egyptians settled along the fertile Nile valley as early as about 6000 BCE, and they began to record the patterns
of lunar phases and the seasons, both for agricultural and religious reasons.

 The Pharaoh’s surveyors used measurements based on body parts (a palm was the width of the hand, a cubit the
measurement from elbow to fingertips) to measure land.

 A decimal numeric system was developed based on our ten fingers, (base ten). The oldest mathematical text from
ancient Egypt discovered so far, though, is the Moscow Papyrus, which dates from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom
around 2000 - 1800 BCE. There was no concept of place value.
 Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic numerals

The Rhind Papyrus, dating from around 1650 BCE, is a kind of instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry, and it
gives us explicit demonstrations of how multiplication and division was carried out at that time. It also contains
evidence of other mathematical knowledge, including unit fractions, composite and prime numbers, arithmetic,
geometric and harmonic means, and how to solve first order linear equations as well as arithmetic and geometric
series.

A PORTION OF THE RHIND PAPYRUS, End of the Second Intermediate Period (c.1550 BC)

THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA IN EGYPT

 The pyramids themselves are another indication of the sophistication of Egyptian mathematics, believed to be the
first known structures to observe the golden ratio of 1 : 1.618

 They knew the formula for the volume of a pyramid - 1⁄3 times the height times the length times the width - as well as
of a truncated or clipped pyramid and long and the rule that a triangle with sides 3, 4 and 5 units yields a perfect
right angle.
 GREEK, CHINESE AND ROMAN PERIODS
(600 BC – AD 499)

 The Greek civilization was the most influential in history of mathematics.

 Various hieroglyphic systems were replaced by Phoenician alphabet, and with that they were able to become more
literate and more capable of recording history and ideas.

 The ancient Greek numeral system, known as Attic or Herodianic numerals, was a base 10 system similar to the
earlier Egyptian one (and even more similar to the later Roman system), with symbols for 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500 and
1,000 repeated as many times needed to represent the desired number.

Ancient Greek Herodianic numerals

 Thales' (one of the Seven Sages of Ancient Greece ), Theorem or the

Intercept Theorem, about the ratios of the line segments that are created
if two intersecting lines are intercepted by a pair of parallels (and, by
extension, the ratios of the sides of similar triangles).
 Hippocrates of Chios was one such Greek mathematician. His contribution
to the “squaring the circle” problem is known as the
 Lune of Hippocrates). His influential book “The Elements”, dating
 to around 440 BCE, was the first compilation of the elements of geometry.

 Pythagoras of Samos, called the first "true" mathematician, mainly remembered for his
Pythagorean Theorem.

 Pythagoreans effectively practiced a kind of number -worship or numberology worship,

because of his teachings that “All is number or God is number” and considered each
number to have its own character and meaning. For example, the number one was the
generator of all numbers; two represented opinion; three, harmony; four, justice; five,
marriage; six, creation; seven, the seven planets or “wandering stars”; etc. Odd
numbers were thought of as female and even numbers as male.
 Pythagoras’s student Hippasus was drowned secretly by Pythagoreans for broadcasting
that √2 was not possible to be expressed as a fraction, indicating the potential existence of a whole new world
of numbers, (irrational numbers), because they believed this discovery jeopardized their belief.
 The idea of the divinity of the integers by the richer concept of the continuum, was an essential development in
mathematics. It marked the real birth of Greek geometry, which deals with lines and planes and angles, all of
which are continuous and not discrete.
  Pythagoras some important contributions: the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles
(180°); established the foundations of number theory; credited with the discovery that the intervals between
harmonious musical notes always have whole number ratios.

 Plato, a Philosopher was also one of ancient Greece’s most important patrons of
mathematics. Inspired by Pythagoras, he founded his Academy in Athens in 387 BCE, where
he stressed mathematics as a way of understanding more about reality. In particular, he
was convinced that geometry was the key to unlocking the secrets of the universe. The
sign above the Academy entrance read: “Let no-one ignorant of geometry enter here”.
 His Academy boasted some of the most prominent mathematicians of the ancient world,
including Eudoxus, Theaetetus and Archytas.

 Plato is best known for his identification of 5 regular symmetrical 3-dimensional shapes, which he maintained were
the basis for the whole universe, and which have become known as the Platonic Solids.

Euclid (c.330-275 BCE, fl. c.300 BCE) & his Postulates

 Euclid regarded as the Father of Geometry, and one of the most influential teachers in history. He virtually invented
classical (Euclidean) geometry as we know it, (plane & solid geometry).
 Archimedes spent most of his life in Syracuse, Sicily, but also studied for a while in Alexandria. He is perhaps best
known as an engineer and inventor, now considered of one of the greatest pure mathematicians of all time. He is
most proud of his calculations of surface area and of volume in spheres and cylinders. Titles of his Treatises: On the
Sphere and the Cylinder; On Conoids and Spheroids; On Spirals; The Quadrature of the Parabola; or, closer to one
of his practical discoveries, On Floating Bodies. He formulated the Law of Physics, Archimedes Principle.

Archimedes’ principle, physical law of buoyancy, discovered

by the ancient Greek mathematician and inventor
Archimedes, stating that any body completely or partially
submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) at rest is acted upon by an
upward, or buoyant, force the magnitude of which is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. The volume of
displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully
immersed in a fluid or to that fraction of the volume below
the surface for an object partially submerged in a liquid.

An experiment to demonstrate Archimedes’ Principle

Eratosthenes of Alexandria a mathematician, astronomer and geographer, devised the first system of latitude and
longitude, and calculated the circumference of the earth to a remarkable degree of accuracy. As a mathematician,
his greatest legacy is the “Sieve of Eratosthenes” algorithm for identifying prime numbers.

 Heron (or Hero) was another great Alexandrian inventor, best known in mathematical circles for Heronian triangles
(triangles with integer sides and integer area), Heron’s Formula for finding the area of a triangle and Heron’s
Method for iteratively computing a square root.

 Menelaus of Alexandria, was the first to recognize geodesics on a curved surface as
the natural analogues of straight lines on a flat plane. His book “Sphaerica” dealt with
the geometry of the sphere and its application in astronomical measurements and
calculations, and introduced the concept of spherical triangle (a figure formed of
three great circle arcs, which he named "trilaterals").

 Diophantus of Alexandria was the first to recognize fractions as numbers, applied

himself to some quite complex algebraic problems, known as Diophantine Analysis, writes a treatise called
Arithmetica in about AD 200; he uses a special sign for minus, and adopts the letter s for the unknown quantity.

Diophantine equations Diophantus of Alexandria

 Apollonius of Perga work on geometry (and, in particular, on conics and conic sections) gave the ellipse, the
parabola, and the hyperbola the names by which we know them, and showed how they could be derived from
different sections through a cone.

Conic sections of Apollonius

 Hipparchus, from Hellenistic Anatolia , was perhaps the greatest of all ancient astronomers. He calculated (with
remarkable accuracy for the time) the distance of the moon from the earth by measuring the different parts of the
moon visible at different locations and calculating the distance using the properties of triangles.

ROMAN MATHEMATICS

 No mathematical innovations occurred under the Roman Empire and Republic, and there were no mathematicians
of note, Romans had no use for pure mathematics, only for its practical applications.
 Roman numerals, known today, was decimal (base 10) system but not directly positional, and did not include a zero,
so that, for arithmetic and mathematical purposes, it was a clumsy and inefficient system.

ROMAN NUMERALS

CHINESE MATHEMATICS
 The ancient Chinese numbering system, dates back to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, were simple and
efficient, used small bamboo rods, a decimal place value system, very similar to the one we use today, but there
was no concept or symbol for zero.

Ancient Chinese number system

  “Suanpan”, the first Chinese abacus, about 2nd century BCE.
 “Jiuzhang Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art” (book written over a period of time from
about 200 BCE onwards, probably by a variety of authors) became an important tool in the education of such a
civil service, covering hundreds of problems in practical areas such as trade, taxation, engineering and the
payment of wages.
 Liu Hui, greatest mathematicians of ancient China, known to leave roots unevaluated, giving more exact results
instead of approximations, formulated an algorithm which calculated the value of π as 3.14159 (correct to five
decimal places), as well as developing a very early forms of both integral and differential calculus.
 Chinese Remainder Theorem was used to measure planetary movements by Chinese astronomers in the 6th
Century AD, and even today it has practical uses, such as in Internet cryptography.

HINDU AND PERSIAN PERIOD (500 TO 1199)

 Brahmi symbols were used for numbers 1 to 9 (significant because there was a single symbol for each number)

The evolution of Hindu-Arabic numerals

 Indians refined and perfected the numeration system, particularly the written representation of the numerals,
creating the ancestors of the nine numerals, with decimal place value (thanks to its dissemination by medieval
Arabic mathematicans) the one the we use across the world today, sometimes considered one of the greatest
intellectual innovations of all time.
 Aryabhata, (476–550 CE) was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers, his works includes the place value
system and zero, used the word āsanna (approaching), approximated 𝜋 = 3.1416, discussed the concept of sine ,
provided elegant results for the summation of series of squares and cubes, described a geocentric model of the solar
system, Solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata.
 Brahmagupta explained how to find the cube and cube-root of an integer and gave rules
facilitating the computation of squares and square roots, gave rules for dealing with five
types of combinations of fractions.

 He gave the sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers as n(n + 1)(2n + 1)⁄ 6 and the
sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers as (n(n + 1)⁄2).
 “Brahmasphutasiddhanta” is probably the earliest known text to treat zero as a number
in its own right.
 Brahmagupta’s rules for dealing with zero and negative numbers, is shown in table that BRAHMAGUPTA, Indian

follows Mathematician and

Astronomer, 7TH Century
 Golden Age Indian mathematicians made fundamental advances in the theory of trigonometry, used ideas like the
sine, cosine and tangent functions to survey the land around them, navigate the seas and even chart the heavens.

Indian astronomers used

trigonometry tables to estimate
the relative distance of the
Earth to the Sun and Moon.


 Bhaskara II, 12th Century, was one of the most accomplished of all India’s great mathematicians. He is credited with
explaining the previously misunderstood operation of division by zero, indicating that 1 ÷ 0 = ∞ (the symbol for
infinity).

ISLAMIC MATHEMATICS

 Use of complex geometric patterns to decorate their buildings,

raising mathematics to the form of an art. In fact, over time, Muslim artists
discovered all the different forms of symmetry that can be depicted on a 2-
dimensional surface.

Some examples of the complex symmetries used in Islamic temple

decoration

 Persian mathematician Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi one of the greatest of early Muslim mathematicians. His strong
advocacy of the Hindu numerical system (1 - 9 and 0), as having the power and efficiency needed to revolutionize
Islamic mathematics, was soon adopted by the entire Islamic world, and later by Europe as well.
 The word “algorithm” is derived from the Latinization of his name, and the word "algebra" is derived from the
Latinization of "al-jabr", part of the title of his most famous book, in which he introduced the fundamental algebraic
methods and techniques for solving equations.

Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi
(c.780-850 CE)

TRANSITION PERIOD (1200 TO 1599)

 Dark Ages of Europe, in which science, mathematics and almost all intellectual endeavour stagnated.
 Geometry was used in the developments of religious designs
 Scientists in the Islamic World updated methods of measuring and calculating the movement of heavenly bodies and
continued to develop models of the universe and the movements of planets within it.
 Frenchman Nicole Oresme, (14th century), used a system of rectangular coordinates centuries before his
countryman René Descartes popularized the idea, as well as perhaps the first time-speed-distance graph.
 Leonardo of Pisa, Europe’s first great medieval mathematician, spread the use of Hindu –Arabic Numeration system
(13th century), through his book “Lider Abaci”.
 Fibonacci is best known, though, for his introduction into Europe of a particular number sequence, which has since
become known as Fibonacci Numbers or the Fibonacci Sequence.
 Golden Ratio’s other names called golden section, golden mean, extreme and mean ratio, medial section, divine
proportion, divine section, golden proportion, golden cut and golden number.
 Fibonacci’s “Liber Abaci “include discussions of a number of mathematical problems such as the Chinese Remainder
Theorem, perfect numbers and prime numbers, formulas for arithmetic series and for square pyramidal numbers,
Euclidean geometric proofs, and a study of simultaneous linear equations along the lines of Diophantus and Al-
Karaji. He also described the lattice (or sieve) multiplication method of multiplying large numbers

AGE OF REASON (1600 TO 1699)

 Also called the “Age of Genius”, marks the growth of intellectual endeavors, both technology and knowledge grew
as never seen before in history.
 Galileo Galilei, Italian polymath, known for his work as astronomer, physicist, engineer,
philosopher, and mathematician, has been called the "father of observational astronomy", the "father of modern
physics" the "father of the scientific method" and even the "father of science” .
 Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer, best known for
his laws of planetary motion
 John Napier of Merchiston, Scottish landowner known as a mathematician, physicist,
and astronomer, known for his natural logarithms and Napier's bones (a manually-operated calculating device
created for calculation of products and quotients of numbers).
 Pierre de Fermat was a French lawyer and a mathematician who is given credit for early developments that led
to infinitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality, he is recognized for his discovery of an original
method of finding the greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is analogous to that of differential
calculus, and his research into number theory.
 Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic theologian,known for his Binomial
coefficients called Pascal’s Triangle, collaborated with Pierre de Fermat oon mathematical theory of probabilities.
 Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch physicist mathematician, astronomer and inventor, his most famous invention was
the pendulum clock in 1656, which was a breakthrough in timekeeping and became the most accurate timekeeper
for almost 300 years. He has been called the first theoretical physicist and the founder of mathematical physics.
 Sir Isaac Newton, an English mathematician
astronomer, theologian, author and physicist who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists of all
time. Some of his contributions are: developed the infinitesimal calculus, formulated the laws of
motion and universal gravitation.
 Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz, was a prominent German polymath, his most notable accomplishment was
conceiving the grand ideas of differential and integral calculus independently and simultaneously with Isaac
Newton's similar conceptions, law of continuity and transcendental law of homogeneity , determinants, symbolic
logic notation, inventor of mechanical calculators/computing machines.
 Bernoulli brothers demonstrated through calculus that neither a straight ramp nor a curved ramp with a very steep
initial slope were optimal, but actually a less steep curved ramp known as a brachistochrone curve (a kind of upside-
down cycloid, similar to the path followed by a point on a moving bicycle wheel) is the curve of fastest descent. This
application was an example of the “calculus of variations”, a generalization of infinitesimal calculus and has since
proved useful in fields as diverse as engineering, financial investment, architecture and construction, and even space
travel.
 Jacob Bernoulli also discovered the approximate value of the irrational number e while exploring the compound
interest on loans. He also consolidated and published probability theory, theory on combinations and permutations.
His other works includes some important elements in number theory, Bernoulli principle and Bernoulli Distribution,
first person to develop the technique for solving separable differential equations, invented polar coordinates (a
method of describing the location of points in space using angles and distance, he is well known for his work on fluid
mechanics (especially Bernoulli’s Principle on the inverse relationship between the speed and pressure of a fluid or
gas), as much as for his work on probability and statistics.

EARLY MODERN PERIOD (1700 TO 1799)

 This period marks the dawn of modern mathematics, characterized by experimentation and formalization
of ideas germinated from previous century.
 The mathematics that we studied in school mostly came from the ideas in this period.

 Carl Friedrich Gauss is Johann Friedrich Carl Gauss, sometimes referred to as the
"Prince of Mathematicians" (born April 30, 1777, Brunswick [Germany]—died
February 23, 1855, Göttingen, Hanover), German mathematician, generally
regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time for his contributions to
number theory, geometry, probability theory, geodesy, planetary astronomy, the
theory of functions, and potential theory (including electromagnetism).

 Leonhard Euler, (born April 15, 1707, Basel, Switzerland—died September 18,
1783, St. Petersburg, Russia), Swiss mathematician and physicist, one of the
founders of pure mathematics. He not only made decisive and formative
contributions to the subjects of geometry, calculus, mechanics, and number
theory but also developed methods for solving problems in
observational astronomy and demonstrated useful applications of mathematics in
technology and public affairs.
 Euler's formula, is a mathematical formula in complex analysis that establishes the
fundamental relationship between the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function.
Euler's formula states that for any real number x, 𝐞𝐢𝐱 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 + 𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱.
 Sir Isaac Newton, January 4, 1643 to March 31, 1727, was a physicist and mathematician who developed
the principles of modern physics, including the laws of motion,theory of gravity and is credited as one of
the great minds of the 17th century Scientific Revolution. In 1687, he published his most acclaimed work,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), which has
been called the single most influential book on physics. Along with mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von
Leibniz, Newton is credited for developing essential theories of calculus.
 Newton's first major public scientific achievement was designing and constructing a reflecting telescope in
1668, to study optics and help prove his theory of light and color, he later published A treatise of the
Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light.

NOTE: THE MODERN PERIOD: 1800 TO PRESENT IS LEFT FOR YOU TO RESEARCH.