A Mathematical Analysis of the Icosahedron from a

Geometric Perspective
Kenneth J. MacLean

January 2019

Abstract

The icosahedron is a regular solid with many Phi ratio relationships. Because the solid has triangu-
lar faces the pentagonal nature of this polyhedron is is not apparent until a geometric inspection is
undertaken. This paper explains how the icosahedron is constructed using the mathematics of Phi.

Introduc on

Figure 1: Icosahedron

1
The icosahedron has 12 vertices, 20 faces and 30 sides. It is one of the most interesting and useful
of all polyhedra. Buckminster Fuller based his designs of geodesic domes around the icosahedron.
The icosahedron is built around the pentagon and the golden section. At first glance this claim may
seem absurd, since every face of the icosahedron is an equilateral triangle. It turns out, however, that
the triangular faces of the icosahedron result from its pentagonal nature.
We’ll display three views of this polyhedron:
Figure 2 shows two of the internal pentagons of the icosahedron, LGHJK, and ABCEF.
Figure 3 helps to show that the icosahedron is actually an interlocking series of pentagons. Notice
the exterior pentagons at AJKCD, ABCEF, and EFHIL, and LKBDE.
Figure 4 shows a two dimensional “shadow” of the icosahedron from the top down. You can see that
the outer edges form a perfect decagon, formed by the two pentagons CDFGL and ABKIH.
In fact, every vertex of the icosahedron is the vertex of a pentagon.
Not only that, but all 12 vertices of the icosahedron form 3 Phi rectangles, which are shown in Figure
?? on page ??.
OK, lets go through the usual analysis and then get on to the interesting stuff!

F B
Q

E C

H J

Z
G K

Figure 2: Icosahedron, showing internal pentagons

2
 A

J F
B D

K E
C

Figure 3: Icosahedron showing pentagonal sub-elements

F D

H B

E
J

G C

I K

Figure 4: Icosahedron, 2-D shadow. No ce that this 2D projec on shows a decagon.

3
 A

D
C

H
I

Figure 5: All 12 ver ces of the icosa form 3 interior perpendicular Phi rectangles

J
M
B

D
F

K
I

G
E
N

Figure 6: Icosahedron showing two pyramids O-ABD and O-ELG

4
First, lets calculate the volume of the icosahedron.

Icosahedron Volume

Using the pyramid method we have 20 equilateral triangular faces which

A serve as the base to an inverted pyramid whose bottom point is the cen-
troid of the icosahedron. All 20 faces will be connected to O to form 20
M
pyramids, thus calculating the volume of the icosahedron.
B
1
D
The volume of each pyramid is (area of base) (pyramid height).
3
The area of the base is the area of the equilateral triangle △ADB.

The height of the pyramid is OM .

√
3 2
From The Equilateral Triangle we know this area is s .
4
All vertices of the icosahedron (as with all five of the regular solids) lie
upon the surface of a sphere that encloses it. The radius of the circum-
sphere is O to any vertex, which we will call
O
r = OA = OB = OD.
Figure 7: An internal pyramid of
the icosahedron The height of the pyramid is h = OM . In order to find h we need to
recognize that any of the triangles △OM A, △OM B, △OM D are right.

This is because OM is perpendicular to the plane of triangle △ABD by construction.

AB = BD = AD = side of icosahedron = s.
1
We know, from The Equilateral Triangle, that DM = √ s.
3
In order to find h, we need to find OD = r, in terms of the side s of the icosahedron.

To do that, we have to recognize one of the basic geometric properties of the icosahedron.

Take a look at Figure 2 on page 2. DI, BG, and F K are all diameters of the enclosing sphere around
the icosahedron.

Notice rectangle BFGK and notice that BG, F K are both diagonals of it. Now notice that both F B
and GK are both diagonals of the two pentagonal planes shown in orange in Figure 2.

We know from Composition of the Pentagon that the diagonal of a pentagon is Φ times the side of
the pentagon.

Therefore F B = GK = Φ · side of icosahedron, since each side of the pentagon is a side of the
icosahedron.

F B = Φ · s.

F K is the diameter of the enclosing sphere around the icosahedron. OF = OK is the radius r,
which we are trying to find.

5
 Figure 8: One Phi rectangle BFGK

F G = BK is the side s of the icosahedron.

2 2 2
d2 = F K = F B + BK = Φ2 s2 + s2 = (Φ2 + 1)s2 .
√
d = F K = Φ2 + 1s,
√
d Φ2 + 1
r = and r = s. (0.1)
2 2

Now we can find h, the pyramid height. Going back to Figure ??

and Figure ??, we can write: A

2 2
h2 = OM = r2 − DM
M
(Φ2 + 1) 1 3(Φ2 + 1) − 4 B
= − =
4 3 12 D
3Φ2 − 1 Φ4 2
= = s .
12 12
Φ2
h = √ s is the height of the icosahedron pyramid. (0.2)
2 3

1
Volume of 1 pyramid = (area of base) (height)
3( )(
√ )
1 3 2 Φ2
= s √ s .
3 4 2 3
O
Φ2 3
V 1pyramid = s . (0.3)
24 Figure 9: Figure ?? repeated

There are 20 pyramids, 1 for each face so

5Φ2 3
Volume of icosahedron = s = 2.181694991 s3 . (0.4)
6

6
Surface Area of Icosahedron

The surface area

√ of the icosahedron is just the area of 1 face times 20 faces. The area of each face is,
3 2
from above, s .
4
(√ )
3 2 √
Surface area icosahedron = 20 s = 5 3 s2 = 8.660254038 s2 . (0.5)
4

Radius to Side

We have already noted the relationship between the radius of the enclosing sphere and the side of
the icosahedron:
√
Φ2 + 1 2
r= s, s = √ r. (0.6)
2 2
Φ +1

r = .951056517 s, s = 1.051462224 r. (0.7)

The side or edge of the icosahedron is slightly larger than the radius.

Central Angle of Icosahedron

The central angle of the icosahedron, ̸ DOB, can be seen clearly from Figure ??, and we diagram
it in Figure ??.
√
Φ2 + 1
OD = OB = r = s. DB is the side of the icosahedron,
2
s.
1
XB 1
sin(̸ XOB) = = √ 2 =√ .
OB Φ2 + 1 Φ2 + 1
2
( )
1
̸ XOB = arcsin √ = 31.7174744◦ .
Φ2 + 1
̸ DOB = 2 (̸ XOB) = 63.4349488◦ . (0.8)
Figure 10: Central angle of icosahedron

We recognize triangle △OXB as our old friend the Phi Right Tri-
OX
angle. From this we know that = Φ.
XB
Surface angles = 60◦ (0.9)

7
 D

F P B

Figure 11: Dihedral angle of icosahedron

Dihedral Angle of Icosahedron

The dihedral angle of the icosahedron is the angle formed by the intersection of two planes:

The intersection of the two faces DFA and ABD forms the dihedral angle ̸ F XB. (See Figure ?? as
well).
√
3
We know, from The Equilateral Triangle, that F X = XB = s.
2

F B = a diagonal of one of the pentagons. This can be seen in Figure ?? as the diagonal of pentagon
ABCEF.
Φ
Therefore F B = Φ s and P B = s.
2
Triangles △XP B and △XP F are right by construction, so

1
̸ P XB = ̸ F XB.
2

Φ
PB Φ
sin(̸ P XB) = = √2 = √ .
XB 3 3
2
( )
Φ
̸ P XB = arcsin √ = 69.09484258◦
3
Dihedral angle = ̸ F XB = 2 (̸ P XB) = 138.1896852◦ (0.10)

8
Centroid Distances

Now let’s figure out the distances from the centroid of the icosahedron to any vertex, to any mid-face,
and to any mid-side.

We already have the first two (see Figure ?? below).

√
Φ2 + 1
OD = OA = OB = r = s.
2
Φ2
OM = h = √ s. (0.11)
2 3

Now we need to find, for example, OX.

If we lay a 3D model of the icosahedron on one of its sides, we

A can see that a line through the centroid O is perpendicular to that
X
side. So the triangle △OXB is right.
M 1
B We know AB = s, so BX = s. OB = r. Therefore
2
D
2 2 Φ2 + 1 2 1 2
2
OX = OB − BX = s − s
4 4
Φ +1−1 2
2 2
Φ 2
= s = s .
4 4
Φ
OX = s. (0.12)
2

distance from centroid to mid-face =

Φ2
√ s = 0.755761314 s.
O 2 3
Figure 12: Distances from centroid of distance from centroid to mid-side =
icosahedron Φ
s = 0.809016995 s.
2
distance from centroid to a vertex =
√
Φ2 + 1
s = 0.951056517 s.
2

Now lets get to the interesting stuff!

Analysis of the Pentagonal Cap

Going back to Figure 2, we can see that the icosahedron is composed of interlocking pentagonal
“caps.”

9
 D

B
F Q
q

E C

Figure 13: Pentagonal cap of icosahedron

Look at D-ABCEF and I-GHJKL to see this more clearly. Of course, EVERY vertex of the icosahe-
dron is the top of a pentagonal cap, not just D and I.
Let’s analyze this cap (see Figure ?? below):
Triangle △DQF is right, by construction. D is directly over the point Q in the icosahedron.
How far off the plane of pentagon AFECB is D?
In other words, what is the distance DQ?
First, realize there is a circle around pentagon AFECB, even though I haven’t draw it here. QF is
the radius of that circle. We know from Construction of the Pentagon, Part 2 that this radius
Φ
r = FQ = √ s. Here, s is the side of the icosahedron.
Φ2 + 1
DF is a side of the icosahedron, so DF = s. Therefore we write
2 2 2 Φ2 2 (Φ2 + 1) − Φ2 2 1
DQ = DF − F Q = s2 − s = s = 2 s2 .
Φ2 + 1 Φ2 + 1 Φ +1
1
DQ = √ s. (0.13)
Φ2 + 1

Hmmm, this is looking interesting. Lets compare F Q to DQ.

Φ
√
FQ Φ2 + 1
= = Φ! (0.14)
DQ 1
√
Φ2 + 1
In order to form equilateral triangles with D and the other vertices of the pentagon, D has to be raised
off the pentagonal plane AFECB by the division of the radius of the pentagon (F Q) in Phi ratio.
√
The triangle △DQF is therefore a Phi based triangle, specifically, a 1, Φ, Φ2 + 1 triangle. From
The Phi Right Triangle we know that ̸ DF Q = 31.71747441◦ .
Is this surprising? It was to me! When I first did this calculation, I didn’t expect something that was
composed entirely √
√ of equilateral triangles to have any relationship to Φ. An equilateral triangle is
3 geometry, Φ is 5 geometry.

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 D

F B
Q

E C

H J

Z
G K

Figure 14: Icosahedron with mid-face points Q and Z of pentagonal planes

Distances to Pentagonal Planes

In Figure ?? we have Figure 2 basically, with the mid-face points of the two internal pentagons
marked off as Q and Z.
1
We have already seen that DQ is √ with respect to the side of the icosahedron.
Φ2 + 1
1
That means IZ = √ s as well, because IZ = DQ.
Φ2 +1

What about OQ = OZ? And QZ? How do all of these distances relate to the diameter of the
enclosing sphere, DI?

Remember that the distance DI = F K = BG, etc., is the diagonal of any of the Φ rectangles
of which the icosahedron is composed. One of these Φ rectangles is clearly visible in Figure ?? as
BFGK. We know this is a Φ rectangle because it is the diagonal of the pentagon ABCEF, which sides
are the sides of the icosahedron.

If you recall, all 12 vertices of the icosa are located on three rectangles perpendicular to each other.

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F B = Φ · s.

F K = diameter, OF = radius of enclosing sphere.

We know from above that

F B √
d = F K = DI = Φ2 + 1 s. (0.15)

We have already figured out DQ = ZI.

O
( )
So QZ = DI − 2 DQ .

K √ ( [ ])
G 1
QZ = Φ2 + 1 − 2 √
Figure 15: Icosahedron, diameter and radius of Φ2 + 1
circumsphere
Φ2 + 1 − 2 (Φ2 − 1) Φ
= √ =√ =√ s.
Φ2 + 1 Φ2 + 1 Φ2 + 1
Φ
√
QZ Φ2 + 1
= = Φ! (0.16)
DQ 1
√
Φ2 + 1

DZ is divided in Phi ratio at Q (See Figure ??).

An interesting fact appears here: F Q = QZ. This means that the distance from one pentagonal plane
to the other is precisely the radius of the circle that encloses the pentagon ABCEF.

W OQ, ?

Φ
It looks like OQ is just one-half QZ, or √ s. But is it? Let’s find out.
2 Φ2 + 1
√
Φ2 + 1
We know OD = r = s from above.
2
√
Φ2 + 1 1
OQ = OD − DQ = −√
2 2
Φ +1
Φ2 + 1 − 2 (Φ2 − 1)
= √ = √
2 Φ2 + 1 2 Φ2 + 1
Φ
= √ s. (0.17)
2 Φ2 + 1

Correct! Also note that

Φ
√
OQ 2 Φ2 + 1 Φ
= = s = 0.809016994 s. (0.18)
DQ 1 2
√
Φ2 + 1

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 Table 0.1: Central axis (diameter) distances. Diameter of enclosing sphere = DI graph reads ver cally, by column

D D

Q Q Q

Φ/2 Φ+1= Φ2

O Φ

Φ/2 Φ + 1 = Φ2

Z Z Z

I I

Table of Rela onships

(Let DQ = 1)

See Table ??. DZ is divided in Phi ratio by Q, IQ is divided in Phi ratio by Z.

All of these relationships come from the pentagon!

On the outside of the icosahedron, we see equilateral triangles. But the guts of this polyhedron comes
from pentagonal relationships. The equilateral triangles come about from the lifting of the pentagonal
“cap” off the pentagonal plane.

There is now no question that the basis for the construction of the icosahedron is the pentagon.

Or is there?

Take a look at the view of the icosahedron in Figure ??:

As you can see, the two pentagonal planes in the middle have magically disappeared and become
equilateral triangles. All we have done is to place the icosahedron on one of its faces.

It seems that all of our work is wrong, except:

The sides of the equilateral triangles △EHB and △JGC are all diagonals of pentagons!

BH is a diagonal of pentagon BDFHJ, EB is a diagonal of pentagon ABCEF, and EH is a diagonal

of pentagon FHILE.

Verify this by looking at Figure ??.

Moreover, the internal triangular planes are scalene triangles, not equilateral triangles like the icosa
faces. The internal pentagonal planes are just pentagons whose sides are the same length as the icosa
edges. The fundamental nature of the icosahedron is pentagonal.

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 F D

H B

G C

I K

Figure 16: Showing the internal triangular planes of the icosahedron

D B

F J

E K

G I

Figure 17: The internal triangular planes of the icosa with the two internal triangular planes

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