The Stability of

Underground Opening
Lufi Rachmad
 Review from Last Week

ƒ Insitu Stress (gravitational, tectonic, residual

stresses)
ƒ An underground opening changes the stress
condition Æ Induced Stress

ƒ Induced Stress Æ could triger unstability

ƒ Understanding stresses is an important part

in designing underground opening

2
 Review from Last Week
ƒ Empirical equation to estimate insitu stresses
e.g. Shoerey

1
k = 0.25 + 7 Eh (0.001 + )
z
3
 Review from Last Week

„ Stress distribution around various opening

shapes (circle, horseshoe, square, ellipse)

„ Underground opening design methodology

4
 Case Study A
An orebody XYZ has been defined as a block
caving deposit. What we should design first?

Orebody Surface
A XYZ A’

1.4 km
Orebody
XYZ
7 km

Plan View Section A-A’ 5

 Case Study A

ACCESS
Surface shaft

decline
Orebody
XYZ
adit

6
 Case Study A
ƒThe access for the orebody are decided to be
twin adits, 6.8 m wide and 6.0 m high.

ƒThe opening size considers the following

factors:
ƒ Biggest dimension
ƒ Effective size after
ground support
ƒ Drainage pipe &
trench
ƒ Intake airways
7
 Case Study A
For the design purpose, how far apart should
these two adits be?
Orebody
Surface XYZ

The farther
the more
ineffective
A A’
?

Access
Adits Access Adits Plan View
(A-A’)
8
 Case Study A
Assuming the simplest condition, the
axisymmetric stress distribution could be used.
2.00
ƒ r = 5R, the pre-mining
Tegangan radial stress would not be
Tegangan Induksi/Tegangan Awal

1.50
Tegangan tangensial
significantly different
from the virgin stress
field.
1.00

ƒ r = 17 meter as an
0.50 early indication.

0.00 ƒ Might be further

0 2 4 6 8 10 analyzed using pillar
Jarak dari batas terowongan, r/R
stability calc and
numerical modeling
9
 Insitu Stress

ƒ During preliminary design, the empirical

stress equation can be used to obtain a first
rough estimate of the vertical and average
horizontal stress in the vicinity of the tunnel

ƒ For a depth of 1,400 m, the equation

gives the vertical stress σv = 38 MPa , the
ratio k = 0.5 (for Eh = 25 GPa) and hence
the average horizontal stress σh= 19 MPa

10
Stress Distribution around
“Horse-Shoe” Tunnel
σv
„ σh = σv
„ σθA = 2.2 σv
„ σθB = 1.3 σv
A
„ σh = 0.5 σv
σh
B B „ σθA = 0.6 σv
„ σθB = 1.8 σv
„ σh = 0.33 σv
„ σθA = 0.1 σv
„ σθB = 1.9 σv

11
 Insitu Stress

ƒ Given the rock mass strength is around 70-

80 MPa, a preliminary analysis of the
stresses induced around the proposed
tunnel shows that these induced stresses
are likely to exceed the strength of the rock
and that the question of stress
measurement must be considered in more
detail

12
 Insitu Stress Measurement

ƒ The most common set of procedures is

based on the determination of strains in
the wall of a borehole, induced by
overcoring that part of the hole containing
the measurement device.

Various ways to measure insitu stress

ƒ Overcoring - Triaxial Strain Cell
ƒ Hydraulic Fracturing
ƒ Flatjack Measurement
ƒ Borehole Breakout
ƒ Acoustic Emission
13
 Overcoring (CSIRO Cell)
„ The CSIRO cell, referred to as a hollow inclusion
cell. It consists of a thin epoxy tube, with three
strain gage rosettes, embedded within the
epoxy.
Epoxy

Strain
Gages 14
 Overcoring (CSIRO Cell)
„ Overcoring methods are measuring in situ stress
based on the stress relief around the borehole.
The relief of external forces by overcoring
causes the changes in strain on the borehole
wall.
„ If the elastic properties of the rock are known,
the changes in borehole diameter or strains can
be converted to in situ stress in the rock.
„ The field procedures consist of drilling a
concentric EX-size borehole, installation of the
deformation gage, and overcoring a stress relief
borehole. 15
„ The CSIRO cell is designed to measure diametral
deformations of an EX-size (1.5" in diameter)
borehole during overcoring a concentric
borehole (6" in diameter). The diametral
deformations are measured in three directions
(60 degree apart) in the same diametral plane.

16
 Overcoring (CSIRO Cell)
„ Need Young’s modulus and Poisson’s inputs
„ Limited to within 10-30 meters of existing
opening

„ Overcoring Cost – CSIRO Cells (2 sites)

„ NIRM US$ 61K
„ ES&S US$ 44K approx. 20K per site

„ Price does not include drilling which will be

around US$ 120K / m

17
 Hydraulic Fracturing
„ Typically hydraulic fracturing is conducted in
vertical boreholes. A short segment of the hole
is sealed off using an straddle packer. This is
followed by the pressurization of the fracture-
free segment of the hole by pumping in water.

18
 Hydraulic Fracturing
ƒ The pressure is raised until
the rock surrounding the
hole fails in tension at a
critical pressure.
ƒ Following breakdown, the
shut-in pressure, the
lowest test-interval
pressure at which the
hydrofrac closes
completely under the
action of the stress acting
normal to the
hydrofracture 19
 Hydraulic Fracturing
„ Limited to drill/pump equipment and ground
conditions – Max range 300m – 1000m
„ “Qualitative”
„ Assumptions
„ S1 Maximum Principle Stress is Vertical or

aligned with hole

„ Hydofracing
„ NIRM US$ 87K

„ Golder US$ 188K

20
 Borehole Breakout
„ Extensive field evidence and laboratory
experiments suggest that borehole breakouts,
defined as borehole cross-section elongations
resulting from preferential rock failure, is a
direct consequence of the in situ stress in the
rock.

21
 Borehole Breakout

„ One of the early observations of breakouts was

in the quartzite and conglomerates of the
Witwatersrand gold mine in South Africa
(Leeman, 1964). The spalling was observed to
occur at diametrically opposed points on the
borehole wall perpendicular to the direction of
the maximum principal stress.

22
 Borehole Breakout

„ The most publicized

observation of breakouts
was in the 3 m diameter
drift at 420 m level in the
Underground Research
Laboratory (URL), Canada.
Two diametrically opposed
breakouts were
approximately aligned with
the vertical stress, which is
the overall least principal
stress at URL.

23
 Case Study A
From insitu stress measurement, the bearing
of the major principal stress is around 38-40
degree. What is the preferable panel/undercut
drift orientation?
Panel/Drill Drift

Orebody Orebody
XYZ XYZ

σ1 σ1
Plan View Plan View
24
 Case Study A
Ideally, the panel/undercut drift and the
direction of cave advance are aligned with the
principal horizontal in situ stresses.

If the direction of advance Orebody

is perpendicular, the levels XYZ

of stress in the abutment

ahead of the undercut will Undercut
Advance
be high and will increase Direction
as the undercut advances
σ1 Plan View

25
 Stress Induced in the
Extraction and Undercut Level
ƒ High abutment stresses induced in the
vicinity of an advancing undercut front is
resulted from undercutting activity.

Cave Advance

Abutment
stress

26
 Stress Induced in the
Extraction and Undercut Level

ƒ The magnitude of abutment stresses in the

cave vicinity could reach up 2 to 3 times
the insitu stress magnitude.

ƒ For XYZ Mine, the vertical stress σv = 38

Mpa. The abutment stress = 76 - 114
MPa

ƒ This abutment stress could devastate

development drifts if does not maintain
properly
27
Failure of yielding arch support
El Salvador Mine, Chile

Photo: M. L. Van Sint Jan

28
Rockburst at Extraction Level,
DOZ Mine, Indonesia

29
Collapse of an extraction level drift,
El Teniente Mine, Chile, 1989

1.5 m

CONCRETE
DAMAGE

CONCRETE
DAMAGE

30
 Panel 15, 28 June 2003

Panel 15, 7 August 2003 Panel 15, 23 August 2003

31
 Stress Induced in the
Extraction and Undercut Level
Several factors have the potential to
influence the levels of stress induced in the
extraction level excavation:
ƒ In situ Stress regime
ƒ Undercut direction
ƒ The timing of undercut relative to the
extraction level development
ƒ Undercut face shape
ƒ Cave Hydraulic Radius
ƒ Distance between Undercut and Extraction
32
 Case Study A
ƒ The timing of undercut relative to the
extraction level development relates to the
selected undercutting method.
ƒ In general, there are three main undercutting
strategies:
1.Post Undercutting
2.Pre Undercutting
3.Advanced Undercutting
ƒ For XYZ BC Mine, an undercutting method
should be selected.
33
 Terminology
Drill Drift - Undercut

Fan Drilling

Draw Bell

Minor Apex

Major Apex

Panel Drift -
Extraction

Draw Point
Orepass Draw Bell Drift
34
 Conventional Panel Caving
ƒUndercutting and drilling takes place after
development of the underlying extraction
level has been completed.
ƒDrawbells and DB drifts are prepared ahead
of the undercut and are ready to receive the
ore blasted from the undercut level

35
 Advance Undercut Panel Caving
ƒ Undercutting and drilling takes place above a
partially developed extraction level.
ƒ The partial development on the extraction level
can consist of either extraction drift only or
extraction drift and drawpoint drift

36
 Advance Undercut Panel Caving

ƒ Drawbells are always prepared in the de-

stressed zone behind the undercut,
usually adhering to the 45 degree rule.

37
Comparing Abutment Stress Impact

ƒMeasuring abutment stress changes could

be done indirectly by monitoring its impact.

ƒThe stress impact reflects in displacement /

deformation occurred in the underground
opening.

ƒThere are many different methods for

monitoring displacement. The simplest and
most common among them is a
convergence gage

38
Comparing Abutment Stress Impact
ƒ A convergence gage usually consists of a
tape, wire, rod, or tub in series with a
deformation indicator.
ƒ Precision is typically around 0.005 in (0.13
mm)

39
3-Point Convergence

40
 Case Study A
Near XYZ BC Mine, there is an active BC mine,
called KLM Mine, where the trial between Post
Undercut and Advanced Undercut will take
place.

Orebody
XYZ
4 km

KLM
Plan View Mine

41
Undercut Trial at KLM Mine

Panel 15 Panel 16
Post Advanced
Undercut Undercut
42
 Undercut Trial at KLM Mine

Cave
UC
Lvl
Cave Advance

Abutment
Extr
Lvl

Convergence 18 m Last
Station Blasting
Row 43
 Result of KLM Mine Trial
Advanced Undercut vs Post Undercut
Stable after
Cave Front Cave Advance
Passing
Post Undercut

Anomaly

44
 Result of KLM Mine Trial
Advanced Undercut vs Post Undercut

Stable after
Cave Front Cave Advance
Passing

Anomaly

45
 Anomaly
ƒThe anomaly from KLM Mine Trial could be
explained as the result of remnant undercut
pillar or stump.
ƒStump is created when the undercut
blasting fails to break the rock completely.

Abutment Stress
Cave Remnant
Advance Pillar

Cave

Last Blasting Row 46

Examples of Remnant Pillars / Stump

47
 Case Study A
ƒ The KLM Mine trial shows that the
advanced undercut has the advantage to
reduce the stress induced impact to
undercut and extraction level.
ƒ Considering the KLM Mine trial result, XYZ
BC Mine will implement the advanced
undercutting method.
ƒ A note has been made that XYZ BC should
establish undercut blasting control such
that a remnant pillar will be avoided.

48
 Stress Induced in the
Extraction and Undercut Level
Several factors have the potential to
influence the levels of stress induced in the
extraction level excavation:
ƒ In situ Stress regime
ƒ Undercut direction
ƒ The timing of undercut relative to the
extraction level development
ƒ Undercut face shape
ƒ Cave Hydraulic Radius
ƒ Distance between Undercut and Extraction
49
 Case Study A

ƒ The undercut face shape is controlled by the

undercut opening sequence and the lead and
lag among drill drift cave front

„ Irregularities of cave front could create

unfavorable conditions in term of stress
concentration in the production level

50
Undercutting Sequence

51
 Lead and Lag
Cave
Front
Lead
„ Lead and Lag: the and
Lag
distance between the
caving front on adjacent
panels

52
 Undercutting Sequence
ƒ Since trial with different undercut sequence is
quite impossible, a numerical modeling will be
used to evaluate the most preferable sequence
for XYZ BC Mine.

53
 Undercutting Sequence
When comparing the results of the undercut
sequence models, the main useful criteria to
examine have proven to be:

1.Peak stress levels (in the stronger ground)

induced on the production level elevation.

2. Average and maximum values of strain

(as a measure of the severity of damage
and deformation) induced on the production
level elevation.
54
 Undercutting Sequence

3. Areas of damage on the production level

elevation, measured in terms of areas where
shear strains exceed a set limit of 2 x 10-3 (2
millistrains). This value was chosen because it
includes damage in the stronger ground and
not just the weaker ground areas, which are
known to become extensively damaged,
whatever undercut sequence is chosen.

55
 Undercut Opening Sequence
ƒFrom modeling result, a wedge type sequence
appears preferable. Mining in weak ground
should be over a short front, and bordered by
panels that are mining in stronger ground, which
bears load and limits rock mass deformation in
the weak ground area.

56
 Undercut Opening Sequence

ƒThe undercut wedge apex should advance into

the weaker ground, close to the boundary with
stronger ground, with the apex angle broad
rather than narrow.

57
 Lead and Lag
Cave
Front „ To evaluate the lead
and lag, convergence
information from
KLM mine is used.
„ Convergence data is
presented in velocity
(mm/day) contour
Displacement „ Displc. = Lt-L0
(mm/day)

58
 Increasing of horizontal and vertical
velocity due to lead and lag (60 meter)
No Advanced

070501 140501 070501 140501

0.0 -1.3 -0.2 -1.12

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

vertical
horizontal
 Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity
after reducing lead and lag distance (54 meter)

Advance 6 m
140501 290501 140501 290501

-1.3 -0.74 -1.12 -0.1

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity
after reducing lead and lag distance (45 meter)
Advance 9 m
290501 120601 290501 120601

-0.74 -0.5 -0.1 0.3

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Increasing of horizontal velocity due to no
advanced of lead and lag distance (45 meter)

No Advance
120601 260601 120601 260601

-0.5 -0.65 0.3 -0.2

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity
after reducing lead and lag distance
(30 meter)
Advance 15 m
260601 130701 260601 130701

-0.65 -0.4 -0.2 0.0

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Increasing of horizontal velocity due to no advanced
of lead and lag distance (30 meter)

No Advance
130701 070801 130701 070801

-0.4 -0.8 0.0 -0.1

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity
after reducing lead and lag distance (25 meter)

Advance 5 m
070801 230801 070801 230801

-0.8 -0.1 -0.1 0.0

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Increasing of horizontal and vertical velocity due to
no advanced of lead and lag distance (25 meter)

No Advance
230801 150901 230801 150901

-0.1 -0.75 0.0 -0.4

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity after
reduce lead and lag distance (8 meter)

Advance 17 m
150901 260901 150901 260901

-0.75 -0.4 -0.4 0.1

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity in the
same of lead and lag distance (8 meter)

No Advance
260901 091001 260901 091001

-0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.0

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity below 8
meter of lead and lag distance (5 meter)

Advance 3 m
091001 261001 091001 261001

-0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Constant stable of horizontal and vertical velocity
below 8 meter of lead and lag distance (5 meter)

No Advance
261001 071101 261001 071101

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

mm/day mm/day mm/day mm/day

horizontal vertical
 Lead & Lag Issue
Reading Lead Cave Horizontal Vertical
and Lag Advanced (m) Displacement Displacement
Date Distance (m) Velocity (mm/day) Velocity (mm/day)

07-May-01 Cave not 0 0.0 0.2

started
14-May-01 60 0 1.3 (↑) 1.12 (↑)

29-May-01 54 6 0.74 (↓) 0.1 (↓)

12-Jun-01 45 9 0.5 (↓) -0.3 (↓)

26-Jun-01 45 0 0.65 (↑) 0.2 (↑)

13-Jul-01 30 15 0.4 (↓) 0.0 (↓)

07-Aug-01 30 0 0.8 (↑) 0.1 (↑)

23-Aug-01 25 5 0.1 (↓) 0.0 (↓)

15-Sept-01 25 0 0.75 (↑) 0.4 (↑)

26-Sept-01 8 17 0.4 (↓) -0.1 (↓)

09-Oct-01 8 0 0.1 (↓) 0.0 (↓)

29-Oct-01 5 3 0.0 (↓) 0.0≈

71
 Lead & Lag Issue

„ From the convergence measurement, the ideal

lead and lag is between 5 to 8 meters, cave
front can be stopped without any significant
displacement
„ If the lead and lag is over the 12 m, the cave
face cannot be stopped for more than one week
because excessive damage will occur in the
panels

72
Case Study A

XYZ Mine

Undercut
Sequence and
Extraction Drift Direction
Orientation

Access
Adits Plan View
73